pert
Pa uestarttes
roetelece
REPORT
OF THE
FORTY-THIRD Pre
or tHe \% Yi Ty SS
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
. FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCK ;
HELD AT
BRADFORD IN SEPTEMBER 1873.
“LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1874.
[Office of the Association: 22 Arommance Serger, Loxvon, W.]
PRINTED BY
TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREFT.
CONTENTS,
-Oxsecrs and Rules of the Association ..........60. setararat Par 6
Places of Meeting and Officers from commencement ...........,
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from
EDIMMICHCCMEND 5 iNet b kis Hi arath aw Bislekh cavShe plele\} susleyd) « oletiw cae
MUM MCLEPER AS. ies is ee ecb ss Pee Cede eS as
~ Lectures to the Operative Classes ........ PETS eh er ea
MOR OPOMHG cs, i) casas pirag: pee <9 Seto nade ot ests
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at previous Meetings. .
Officers of Sectional Committees .... 00... eee eee
BmerentL GUNCHe VSP O=Te eee bas pec ue ub cure ne ales ela
Report of the Council to the General Committee.............005
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports
and Researches in Science........0. 02 cece eect eee eens
mee Of Money Grants,.. ii osbibx eee bba ee hoes eens coon
meme of Meeting in 1875.......0 0... cece Saeed dang hb
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
DORE At se Nasa 2s 8S Kas Vautbap dias woes 85,0088 awe gs
Arrangement of the General Meetings ............ 00sec ueeeee
Address by the President, Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S...
REPORTS OF RESEARCHES IN SCIENCE.
xlili
xliv
xlvi
xlvii
xlyili
hii
lx
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytry, F.R.S.,, Pro-
fessor Sroxrs, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Txomson, F.R.S., Professor
H. J. S. Surry, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Guatsnzr, B.A., F.R.A.S.
@neporter), on Mathematical Tables ......0+0ceveccsvacnecens
iv CONTENTS.
Observations on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in
Mines. By Wixttam Firs, of Birley Wood, “Meeds'. = \ccty.s aneercterets
Concluding Report on the Maltese Fossil Elephants. By A. Lerra
Apams, M.B., FLR.S., F.G.8. 2... cece cece eee eee e een e eens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ramsay, Professor
Gerrx1e, Professor J. Youne, Professor Nrcot, Dr. Bryce, Dr. ARTHUR
Mircuett, Professor Hurt, Sir R. Grirvira, Bart., Dr. Kine, Pro-
fessor Harxness, Mr. Presrwicn, Mr. Huaues, Rev. H. W. Crossxry,
Mr. W. Jotty, Mr. D. Mityz-Home, and Mr. Prneety, appointed
for the purpose of ascertaining the existence in different parts of the
United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or Boulders, of indicating on
Maps their position and height above the sea, as also of ascertaining
the nature of the rocks composing these blocks, their size, shape, and
other particulars of interest, and of endeavouring to prevent the
destruction of such blocks as in the opinion of the Committee are
worthy of being preserved. Drawn up by the Rev. H. W. Crossxry,
Secretary ..vs,. 000 te essen es Wer i eee.
Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland,.drawn up by Dr. Bryce,
188
F.G.8. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycn, F.G.8., Sir W. THom- |
son, F.R.S., Guo. Forzes, F.R.S.E., and Mr. J. Brovert
Ninth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent’s Cavern, Deyon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuartes Lyetr, Bart., F.R.5.,
Professor Puiiuirs, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Joun
Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Gore Busx, F.R.S., Wintram
Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam Aysurorp Sanrorp, F.G.S., and
Wu11um Peneetty, F.R.S. (Reporter)
a0 4) ae 00 0 0 0 0 6 rie 6 « ieewunee
The Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay,
Wevoushire, By W..Punariry, FE-S., F.G.8)25 sit. nee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Guapsronn, Dr. C. R. A.
Wricut, and W. Cuanpter Roperts, appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of
Essential Oils, Drawn up by Dr. Wrieur
5.) 6) bls Oyu or © 6 6 oct, 6M was Re
Report of the Committee, consisting of W. Cuanpiter Rosgrrts, Dr,
_ Mrts, Dr. Boycorr, and A. W. Gavrspen, appointed for the purpose
of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and of stating
the Results thereof. Drawn up by W. Cuanvter Rosrrts, Secretary
First Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of
Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Sir W.
Tomson, Professor G. C. Fosrrr, Professor J. C. Maxwett, Mr. G. J.
Sronry, Professor Frermine Jenxin, Dr. Sremens, Mr. F. J. Bram-
WELL, and Professor Evernre (Reporter) ...... +015 +. «> one
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Purriirs, LL.D., F.R.S.,
Professor Harkness, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., James THom-
son, Joun Briac, and L. C. Mratz, on the Labyrinthodouts. of the
Coal-measures. Drawn up by L. C. Mrarr, Secretary to the Com-
mittee
rr |
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues
- of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Waye-numbers, the Com-
194
214.
219
222
CONTENTS. Vv
: shi ; Page
mittee consisting of Dr. Hugerns, J. N. Lockyer, Professor Rrynoups,
Professor Swan, and G. Jounstone Sroney(Reporter) ............ 249
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonn Lunszock, Bart., Pro-
fessor Puriiips, Professor Hueurs, and W. Boyp Dawxrns, Secretary,
appointed for the ptrpose of exploring the Settle Caves. Drawn up
PME PAW DIES ng. ost Sec Cod a Spgleele car awe s dahs eine be 250
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Evrrerr, Sir W.
Txomson, F.R.S., Sir Cuartes Lyrrt, Bart., F-R.S., Prof. J. Crerx
Maxwett, F.R.S., Prof. Paitires, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, F.M.S.,
Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof..A. Gurrxi, F.R.S., James GuaisHer,
F.R.S., Rey. Dr. Granam, Grorcr Maw, F.G.S., W. Peneetty, F.RS.,
8. J. Macuie, F.G.S., Prof. Hur, F.R.S., Prof. Ansrep, F.R.S., and
J. Prestwicn, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various
Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Evererr,
Bee A RCCTELALY oh 5 stds, ope se yeas pink 08 fi edt : Sretvepergetecg ss wehe oy aie 252
Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1872-73, by a
Committee, consisting of C. Brooks, F’R.S. (Chairman), J. GuatsuEr,
F.R.S., Prof. J. Pures, F.R.S., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.RB.S.,
R. W. Mytyz, C.E., F.R.S., T; Hawxstzy, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams,
F.R.S., Prof. J. J. Sytvester, F.R.S., C. Tominson, F.R.S., R. Fiery,
C.E., Dr. Potz, C.E., F.R.S8., Prof. D. T. Ansrep, F.R.S., A. Bucwan,
F.R.S.E., G. J. Symons, Secretary. Drawn up by G. J. Symons .... 257
Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing
Researches in Fossil Crustacea, consisting of Professor P. Marri
Duncan (M.B. Lond.), F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., and Rosrrt
Erurriner, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S....... 304
Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions. By
PEM ay LU SSE T IPH EUS. cies tiiecg cuxt ise: {2 Gysoasaiate, daca toy ep dbaherac! geardin ate 307
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnns, H. E.
Dresser (Secretary), T. Harranp, J. E. Hanrine, T. J. Monx, Pro-
fessor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose
of continuing the investigation on the desirability of establishing a
“Close Time ” for the preservation of indigenous animals.......... 346
Report of the Committee, consisting of Jamms Graisuer, F.R.S., of the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Rozrrr P. Gree, F.G.8., and ALEex-
ANDER 8. Hurscuet, F.R.A.S., on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1872-73; drawn up by Atexanver 8S. Herscuet, F.R.AS......... 349
On the Visibility of the dark side of Venus. By Professor A. ScnaraRix,
OE aa NE C2 cnn Rial diary weap ipeMOciay tes MAGNE sds Reema 404
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Rorrzsron, Dr. Scuater, Dr.
Anton Dourn, Professor Huxtry, Professor WyvitLtE Tomson, and
KE. Ray Lanxesrer, for the foundation of Zoological Stations. in dif-
ferent parts of the Globe. Drawn up by Axroy Donrn, Secretary 408
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness,
Wir11am Jorty, and Dr. Jamzs Brycz, appointed for the purpose of
collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North-western
Scotland, Drawn up by Wirriam Jonxy, Secretary........ eevee 402
vi CONTE NTS.
Page
Fifth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of
Sewage, consisting of Ricarp B. Granrman, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair-
man), F. J. Bramwett, C.E., F.RS., Professor W. H. Corrrerp,
M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), J. Bartuy Devon, C.E., F.G.S., J. H. Grrzerr,
Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Hors, V.C., Professor A. W. W1114Mson,
Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S., and Professor J. T. Waxy «1.0... esse cere . 413
Report of the Committee for superintending the Monthly Reports of the
Progress of Chemistry, consisting of Professor A. W. WIttramson,
F.R.S., Professor Franxuann, F.R.S., and Professor Roscor, F.R.S, 451
On the Bradford Waterworks. By Caarues Gorr, M.Inst.C.E. ....,. 461
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the possibility of
Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry, the
Committee consisting of Professor Syrvesrrr, Professor Carter, Pro-
fessor Hrrst, Rev. Professor BArrnotomnw Pricer, Professor H. J. 8.
Surrn, Dr. Sporriswoopp, Mr. R. B. Haywarp, Dr. Satmon, Rev. R.
Townsunp, Professor Futter, Professor Kutnanp, Mr. J, M. Wiuson,
and Professor Crirrorp (Secretary) ...sseeseeeeeeeucees awicisats 459
Interim Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making
Experiments on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships, &e, 460
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Crum Brown, Mr. J. Dewar,
Dr. Guapstonn, Prof. A. W. Wriiramson, Sir W. THomson, and Prof.
Tarr, appointed for the purpose of Determinating High Temperatures
by means of the Refrangibility of the Light evolved by Fluid or Solid
Substances. Drawn up by Jamus Dewar, Reporter...........-- . 461
On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun-
spot Periodicity. By Cuartms MELDRUM .......ceeeesevereuees 466
Fifth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure of
Carboniferous-Limestone Corals. Drawn up by Jams Tomson,
Secretary. The Committee consists of Professor Harkness, F.R.S.,
James Tomson, F'.G.8., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and Tomas Dayrpson,
PB Ooidd 4h piles Ges Ph il Cee 1 eee SOY ETS Ogee as Olt Oe 479
Report of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz Fox, Dr. Brppor,
Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. E. W. Brazsroox, Sir J. Lus-
zock, Bart., Sir Watrer Exzior, Mr. Crements R. Marxuanm, and Mr.
E. B. Tytor, appointed for the purpose of preparing and publishing
brief forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, and other
Anthropological Observers. Drawn up by Colonel A. H. Lanz Fox . 482
Preliminary Note from the Committee, consisting of Professor Batrour,
Convener, Dr, CrneHorn, Mr, Roperrt Hurcnison, Mr. AtpxANDER
Bucnayn, and Mr. Jonn Saputer, on the Influence of Forests on the
Rainfall 488
Qin Cis es Che Bs ese ince 6 Me SRS Gig Sig 6.0 O16 Be Ole SS 8 wlelece hb Weta a
Report of Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, appointed at the
Brighton Meeting, 1872, consisting of Henry Wirxert, R. A. Gopwrx-
Ausrgn, F.R.S., W. Toptey, F.G.8., T. Davinson, F.R.S., J. Prust-
wich, F.R.S., W. Born Dawxrys, F.R.S., and’ Henry Woopwarp,
F.R.S.. Drawn up by Henry Witiert and W. Torney .......... 490
CONTENTS, Vii
7 , Page
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Fraycrs Ganroy, Mr. W. ,
Frovpe, Mr. C. W. Merrtrrexp, and Professor Ranxryn, appointed
to consider and Report on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the
Roughness of the Sea and Measurement of Waves near shore ...... 495
Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization,—the
Committee consisting of Prof. Roscox, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. W.G.
Apams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour, F.RS., F. J.
Bramwett, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E., Prof. T. Dyrr,
Sir Watrer Etxior, F.L.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S., Prof. G. 0. Foster,
F.RS., Prof. Guixre, F.R.S., Rev. R. Harter, F.B.S., Prof. Hoxtey,
F.R.S., Prof. Freemme Jenni, F.R.S., Dr. Journ, F.R.S., Col. Lane
Fox, F.G.8., Dr. Lanxesrer, F.R.S., J. N. Locxynr, F.R.S., Dr.
O’Cattacuan, LL.D., D.C.L., Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. Barrour
Srewanr, F.R.S., H. T. Sramron, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr, F.R.S.E., J. A.
Tinyé, F.R.G.8., Dr. AnteN Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Wrnrram THomson,
F.R.S., Prof. Wrvitte THomsoy, F.R.S., Prof. Turner, F.R.S.E., Prof.
moe. Wiittmson, F.R.S., and Dr-Youne ,................... 495
Second Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization,
—the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof,
W. G. Avams, F.R.S., Prof. Axpruws, F.R.S., Prof. Banrour, F.RS.,
J. Baxenpert, F.R.AS., F. J. Bramwerr, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crux
Brown, F.R.S.E., Mr. T. Bucnan, Dr. Carpenter; F.R.S., Prof. Corz,
Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S., Prof. T. Dyzr, Sir Water E1107,
F.LS., Prof. M. Fosrer, F.R.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S., Prof. G. C.
Fosrer, F.R.S,, Prof. Grixm, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Guapstonr, F.R.S.,
Mr. Grrevitn, Rev. R. Harry, F.R.S., Dr. Hirsz, F.R.S., Dr.
Hooxrr, F.R.S., Dr, Huecrns, F.R.S., Prof. Huxzey, F.R.S8., Prof.
Fieruine Jenxry, F.R.S., Dr. Jour, F.R.S., Col. A. LANE Fox, F.G.S.,
Dr. Lanxesrer, F.R.S., J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S., Prof. Crrex Maxwer 1,
F.RS., D. Miryz-Homy, F.R.S.E., Dr. O'CartacHay, LL.D., D.C.L.,
Dr. Ovurne, F.R.S., Prof. Rausay, F.R.S., W. Sporrrswoopr, F.R.S.,
Prof. Barrour Srewart, F.R.S., H. T. Srarton, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr,
F.R:S.E., J. A. Trxnt, F.R.G.S., Dr. Arren TxHomwson, F.R.S., Sir
Wiit1am Tomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wryvirte Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof.
Turner, F.R.S.E., Col. Srrancz, F.R.S., Prof. A. W. WILLIAMson, ‘
P0.5.,.G,..V, Veunon, F.R.A.S., and Dr, Young .<f.cssscecenes , 507
Vill CONTENTS.
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
OF
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Pa
Address by Professor H. J. 8. Sut, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section
MATHEMATICS.
Professor CayLEY on the Mercator’s Projection of a Surface of Revolution ..
Professor W. KX. Cirrrorpd on some Curves of the Fifth Class ............
— on a Surface of Zero Curvature and Finite Extent
My. J. W. L. Guatsuer on certain Propositions in the Theory of Numbers
deduced from Elliptic-transcendent Identities........ a> ppeltyelc nana ocean ar
~— on the Negative Minima of the Gamma function ..
-——-—— on the Introduction of the Decimal Point into
AUVII ING A” Abington ODre a OtOn DoD bibooabre mode seae Bod jens 5 ccs
Mr. G. O. Hanton on the Formation of an extended Table of Logarithms ..
The Rey. Roprert Har ey on the Theory of Differential Resolvents ......
on Professor Eyans’s Method of solving Cubic
and other Trinomial Equations..........0..00008 pokes stolons ei. sietite
M. Cu. Hermite sur l’lrrationalité de la Base des Logarithmes Hyperboliques
Professor Henry J. StrPHEN SmirH on Modular Equations .......... oles
Mr. W. SporriswoopEk on Triple Tangent Planes ............005: + Sameer
The Rev. Henry Wace on the Calculation of Logarithms........+s+s000%
MeEcHANICS AND Puystcs.
Dr. Ropert STAWELL Bary on a Geometrical Solution of the following
problem :—A quiescent rigid body possessing three degrees of freedom
receives an impulse; determine the instantaneous screw about which the
body commences to twist .......+.. Sos quene don sisreua leu ots ss, salu iste
—_————. —-—— on the Theory of Screws ...sseccceeseeeees
Professor J. D, EvyERETT on the Kinematics of a Rigid Body ............
‘I
to b> to pr bo
He H He bD bD
27
28
z
a
J
5
CONTENTS.
Professor G. Forbes on certain connexions between the Molecular Properties
of Metals ..........00+- Gobousuat SGeucosouuEoonadaunodKNe HoOUG wee
Professor J. CLerk MAxweE tt on the Final State of a System of pera in
Motion subject to Forces of any kind 1.1... eee eee cece eee eee eee
My. Joun Nevitze on the Axis of least Moments in a Rectangular Beam ..
Professor OsBorNE ReyNoups on certain Phenomena of Impact ..........
Professor Batrour Stewart on Aithereal Friction. ...scccsee sees weeeees
ASTRONOMY.
Mr. W. R. Brrr on the Importance and Necessity of continued Systematic
Observations on the Moon’s Surface... ... 6... cee cece cee eee eee tenes
Dr. Wri1amM Hveers on the Proper Motions of Nebul .......+....0005
M. Janssen on the Application of Photography to show the Passage of Venus
across the Sun’s Disk ....... ec. eee ee seen SO ORO UIC 5h Sd HO oODpaOT
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Results of some recent Solar Investigations
Professor A. Scraranik on the Visibility of the Dark side of the Planet Venus
Lieut.
Mr. Putire Brawam on Light with circularly ruled plates of Glass........
Mr. W. 8S. Davis on some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision ...... Fee
Professor J. D. EvErErTT on a Refraction-Spectrum without a Prism ......
Professor G. Forbus on Irradiation... ... eee recess enero ip wtnchanaveednens
Dr. GrapsTronr on Photographs of Fluorescent Substances.........+++++4+
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Dresser-Rutherford Diffraction-grating. ..
Professor CLERK MaxweEtt on the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other
Branches of Mathematics and Physics.......e cece ceceeen eee ennnens are
Lord RayieiGH on a Natural Limit to the Sharpness of the Spectral Lines. .
Mr. Artuur ScuustTeEr on the Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the
Widening of the Lines in the Spectra of Gases «0.1... +e seer eee eee nee
— — — on a curious Phenomenon observed on the top of
BOWOOU npc cede steers esse ress arte le eslataat oes DOOR O ONS LchaRe bic
Hear.
Professor G. Forsrs on Thermal Conductivity...... THDOOCONGT Ga bic Ote
Professor A. S. HErscuet on the Thermal Conductivities of BE Rocks. .
Professor ZENGER on the Correlation between Specitic Weight and Specific
Heat of Chemical Elements .....:.esceseeeee ee eeenee eens at tebe ou: o
Exrcrricity AND MAGNETISM.
Mr. W. F. Barrett on the Molecular Changes that pecomnang the eee
zation of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt ............ RGEC. Sap Oe nine
—______—— on the Relationship of the Mcavee Metals, Iron, N ickel,
PME WODALG stele cies os 6 viele epiniscam 52 ale «ars. e'e)e Snr tetolaareuererer etal stay ctatens ata) e
Professor Cx. V. ZENGER on Symmetric Conductors, and the construction of
Lightning-conductors ...sssesesereverenereenenreeennnessraranerenes
1X
40
41
4 CONTENTS,
Merroropoey &e.
Page
Dr. Witi1am B. CarpeNTER on the Undercurrents of the Bosphorus and
Dardanelles .....,... Marpelsiersirelehs BCCGT Ann onnnrinorinindaare:crect
Mr. W. S. Davis on the Refraction of Liquid Waves ..ccsscscsseveesesse 48
My. J. Park Harrrson on Lunar Influence on Clouds and Rain .......... 43
M. Asruro pr Marcoartu on the Application of Telegraphy to Navigation
BMG eVEGLEOTOLOLY..isrei0%s 6's inn vein ele wreseae yea ign de aha rays ote Seen a Weyeye fay meee
Mr. C. Mriprvum on a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion
with the Sun-spot Periodicity ...........0ee0e: AOI Oar € sesceceee 43
Mr. 8. B. J. SkrrtcHiy on Experiments on Evaporation and Temperature
saaneiAG WISDORCH *.,. ssc wes aag atte: bance Dhow vevegevens vesee 44
Mr. G. M. Wurppte on the Passage of Squalls across the British Isles,.,... 44
INsTRUMENTS.
Dr. Roserr STAWELL Bax on Dynamometers in Absolute Measure ...... 44
Captain J. I. Davis on an Improvement in the Sextant..... dopant ee oe
Mr. A. E. Donkin on an Instrument for the Composition of two Harmonic
ON CSV ARS aaNr mir jeletaticleyeseie/el« aherelstalalel tana ao: vais etaro¥elefetefeleteyesc: o/ateiei antes D)
Mr. Rogers Frexvp on an Improved Form of Aneroid for determining Heights,
with a means of adjusting the Altitude-scale for various Temperatures..., 46
Mr. G. W. Horr on Eckhold’s Omnimeter, a new Surveying-Instrument.... 47
Mr. G, J. Symons on Negretti and Zambra’s Test-gauge Solar-Radiation
Thermometer ........0ssssi05 5 ,tiss Seas tale ol aigte elotmniee a rantier aeen eed mae
Mr. 8. C. Tistey on a Compound-Pendulum Apparatus .......... Cees <. 40
Professor A. 8. Herscuer on a new form of Pendulum for exhibiting Super-
posed Vibrations....... dn He eae een eh 2 (od slelgbd ide che cee 48
Mr. F, H. Wrnuam on the Influence of Temperature on the Elastic Force of
certain forms of Springs....... sie 4/ip a efesave; SGM) Avot olaiel bbavie. 0 3.8 stals ad std ae 49
Mr. G, M. Wurpptr on a New Form of Rutherford’s Minimum Thermometer,
devised and constructed by Mr. James Hicks............. Seesinla Git tam OO
on a New Electrical Anemograph .........0.00s0005 50
Mr. C. J, Woopwarp on an improved form of Oxyhydrogen Lantern for the
Use Ol AUP CHUROES F Mriek voces mak eer ais boetdattret ante 560005 page oe
CHEMISTRY.
Address by W. J. Russetx, Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the Section........ 52
Mr. Atrrep H, ALLEN on the Detection of Adulteration of Tea ...., devgaa be
Dr. Henry E. Anmstrone on Alpha- and Beta-Naphthylic Sulphide...... 62
——_———————— on the Action of Sulphuric acid on Ethylaniline os
and Dimethylaniline ............ ccloniaemeonee site lafeletslsio/o¥s\a7s\e)nia WOE 62
es on Cresol Derivatives ......... eb eieedue eat 63
Professor Dr. Crum Brown on the Action of Sulphide of Methyl on Brom-
aceHO AGIA “.55 (eFe eee cts F ication at gcaccr te pent Be Bata eves Paine <aeg 268
Dr. J, H. Guapstone on Black Deposits of Metals ........cccesceveueeee 63
Mr. A, Vrrnon Harcourt and F. W. Fison on a Continuous Process for
Purifying Coal-gas and obtaining Sulphur and Ammonium Sulphate .... 64
CONTENTS,
j . . . . P
Mr. Cuartes Horner on the Spectra of certain Boric and Phosphoric Acid
Blowpipe Beads ...ccceseeeeeeeeenesevens PRM ate a eeivtes wee
Mr. J. Norman Lockyer on the Elements in the Sun ..... were ye gietegts .
Mr. W. T. McGown on the Sewage of Manufacturing Towns ........... .
Dr. Pavt and Mr, A. D. Cowntery on the Valuation of Commercial Crude
JJG) 02 CR AR Ripa ORnIDInIROmiGnor BemePlere cre r reverotena tertap ere ea ter enivate: tycsvere
Mr. W. H. Pree on several Homologues of Oxaluric Acid wecccccseeeeeene
Mr. W. CHANDLER RoBErRTs on Horn Silver ......cce eee ee sec etennes
Professor SCHAFARIK on the Constitution of some Silicates .........0eee>
Mr. JoHn SPrLver on Artificial Maonetite.... ccc ccc cee cree eee een enees
Mr. C. J. Woopwanrp on a Form of Gas-generator ..... cece eee ee eee -
Mr. C, R. A, Wrigut on new Derivatives from Codeine and Morphine .,.,
GEOLOGY.
Address by Joun Paruuips, M.A., D.C.L, Oxon., LL.D, Cambridge and Dublin,
HIJESSI TRAC as Sie erine cig onooe RE AE Soe ne RN MRE TOMS Cae Nee
The Rey. J. F. Buake on additional Remains of Pleistocene Mammals in
PEPERENINE: « 5\0-5,o/z w oisieds o.2\ oeecen SPpete RCS Wry o1 5. vi ahh asm olaiain| wis sh aiers aa cheias
Mr. W. T. BLanForD on some Evidence of Glacial Action in Tropical India in
Paleozoic (or the oldest Mesozoic) times....., ‘eabtad § be shou dernier Pais
Mr. Henny B. Brapy on Archediscus Karrert, a New Type of Carboniferous
Foraminifera ......++00. Saholanitn cates teavtratetac a hae Mestetocew shove Gta ane i
Mr. Jonw Briee on such of the Industries of Bradford as relate to its Geolo-
gical Position ....... she sebetaieterslcys: efetete ites eve penerienianncagnec SAMT Cae
Mr. A. CoaMPERNOWNE on the Discovery of a Species of Starfish in Devonian
: Beds of South Devon; with a Note by Hrnry Woopwarp ............
Mr. J. R. Daxyns on the Geology of part of Craven..........0c0eceeeeeas
Mr. W. Boyp Dawxrns on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated
in the Ingleborough Cave ...... Bresstitaretiictaieenaigl el aiekoveteres 4 chug avcuonees teres tanens
Mr. J. W. Exxis on the Stump-Cross Caverns at Greenhow near Pately Bridge
Mr. W. GomERSALL on the Round Boulder Hills of Craven ...........00.
The Rey. J. Gunn on the Probability of finding Coal in the Eastern Counties
Professor HARKNESS on the Occurrence of Faults in the Permian Rocks of the
lower portion of the Vale of the Eden, Cumberland ...............00005
Mr, Henry Hicxrs on the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s ......
Mr. Joun Hopxinson on some Graptolites from the Upper Arenig Rocks of
Pemney Palend, St; MRRN sce c es laces eka see vdgeretyacsberececsdut
— on the Occurrence of numerous Species of Graptolites
mathe: Ludlow Hecker SATOpshire, .. 0.06.5 ccccaacvacssvecdessuguacs
Mr. W. Horne on the Occurrence in the Yoredale Rocks of Wensleydale of
Fish and Amphibian Remains ..:........ Petes ates =: ss sieve oustat eee ierre rete
Mr. J, Logan Losey on the British Paleozoic Arcade...... Madea dewvay
Dr. T. Morrar on a Horn and Bones found in a Cutting in a Street in Maiden-
REEMMEEAOTHAS Seo tints aii ete ala’ cialk's Wa «CRC E RRS eco as ach eabitee we aha ad cove
on Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases ..............
Dr. Joun Pumuirs on the Ammonitic Spiral in reference to the power of
Flotation attributed to the Animal wo sssseescssenesenenarens
85
Xl CONTENTS.
Page
Dr. Joun Purxies on the Ammonitic Septa in relation to Geological Time . 86
Baron von RicuTHoren on the Loess of Northern China, and its Relation
Lomhe;oalt-basins of @entral Agia 4.07 '. 0 ns seisie/sis apne, ssretederste Meals deianeletere 86
Mr. R. Russerx on the Geology of the Country round Bradford, Yorkshire... 88
Mr. J. E. Taytor on the Occurrence of Elephant-remains in the Basement
Bedsior thewed: Crag C7. cas visiis s)ole lee. ci is ee MME tice thine cho ty ake, : 91
Mr. W. Topiey on the Correspondence between some Areas of apparent Up-
heaval and the Thickening of subjacent Beds.......... siaje/s(el nope CeeR tele 91
and Mr, G. A. LeBour on the Whin Sill of Northumberland 92
Mr. W. Wuiraxer on the Occurrence of Thanet Sand and of Crag in the 8. W.
part.of Suffolle (Sudbury) \-eccecerccssccleccsscooens a8 bial o Raney aes 92
Mr. Henry Woopwarp and Mr. Ropert ETHERIDGE, jun., on some Speci-
mens of Dithyrocaris from the Carboniferous Limestone Series, East Kilbride,
and from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire; with Notes on their
COLO CICHMEDSIMOD G60. 6.5. sr 6c vignia tn veins ping ss aeeaphre ces ase 92
—___—_—__——_-———-_ on new Facts bearing on the Inquiry concerning
Forms intermediate between Birds and Reptiles...... aereiare soatatate Seite . 93
BIOLOGY.
Address by Groner J. Atuman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F-R.S.E., M.R.LA.,
Hal Se TesMent OltHhe SECUOM sare el cieslsitrcles pesos 0 ©» sisalaloia stile Jceemes
Botany.
Mr, W: Ancuer on Parasitic Allow... 0. eee ee nes catetn a aaltteats come, LOL
Mr. T. Baryes on a Tree-Aloe from South-East Africa... cesses sees eee 104
Professor THISELTON DyEnr on the Plants collected in Bermuda by Mr. H. N.
MMOs Cle ype ayarohiarete, amieiersianers fete o eTeyniciswleiere see ¢ iui Spee taistelo\s lal isthe eae 104
Professor GULLIVER on the Crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of certain Plants 104
Mr. Cuantes P, Hopxiex on the Mosses of the West Riding of Yorkshire... 104
Dr. J. D. Hooker on the Subalpine Vegetation of Kilimanjaro, E. Africa.... 105
Professor Lawson on Plants collected by the Voyager Dampier............ 105
— on a Course of Practical Instruction in Botany.......... 105
Myr. H. N. Mosrtey on the Vegetation of Bermuda..........cseseeeeeees 105
Mr. Jonn SHAw on some of the Changes going on in the South-African Vege-
tation through the Introduction of the Merino Sheep ........e.eeeeeeee 105
Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON on Fern-stems and Petioles of the Coal-measures 106
Dr, Wixuts on the Flora of the Environs of Bradford .......ceeeeeeeeeees LOG
Zoouoey.
Professor ALLMAN on some Recent Results with the Towing-net on the South
AWopsti Ofsorel am da tariateys tiene ate Botnteh fave), o%e ovata nol footers atelerel ote tefale alienate 106
Mr. W. T. Branronp on the Distribution of the Antelopes in Southern and
BeStorn LA SIA ce cls cpetdiacenth Srenetmbeteretes ele pianelers te gbte Penis tais Save nitetetaiens Pere JUG)
———————— on the Fauna of Persia ........ gUReac ta: ara levc. us Rate 110
Myr. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean ..........,, Lil
CONTENTS. xii
Page
Mr. E. Ray LANKESTER on a Peach-coloured Bacterium ...+seeeeer eens 116
—________-——- on the Genealogy of the Mollusca........++eeeees 116
Mr. T. Lister on Birds observed in the West Riding of Yorkshire in former
fand recent Years 1... cc ccc c eee e ete e neces eee tanerscnseaeseeeee ees
Mr. R. MacLacnan on anew Insect belonging to the Family Ephemerida,
with Notes on the Natural History of that Barnaby « caeacuen ssuee cae GELS
ANATOMY AND PuysIoLoey.
Professor Ruruerrorp’s Address to the Department of Anatomy and Phy-
DEVE shs-ssisiais 5.5 048 pea dteie seta ataten eaters here Sak cdg genie ga cans 119
Mr. Atrrep W. BENNETT on the Movements of the Glands of Drosera .... 123
Dr. Buvz on the Action of Alcohol on Warm-blooded Animals ............ 124
Dr. Lauper Brunton on the Nature of Cholera ...... Se eiae ous S Seeuelp ey Sore
Mr. A. 8. Davis on some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision............ 126
Dr. Dewar and Dr. MacKernpnricx on the Action of Light on the Retina and
BENEEMDISSUES wn tesla li-rdeivsie sce eee cewe neces sensei Nn eedsae eee , 126
Professor P, Martin Duncan on the Motion of Protoplasm in the Fucaceous
BUS at esecle,04sqeseieve ese spss eye aiejeieieatseeieds ye sodadeese Ae sao ODN ey Pte gs 126
Dr. Davip Ferrier on the Localization of Function in the Brain.......... 126
Dr. J. Minner ForuHerGity on the Heart and Brain ......,. ahha) ofa = eect 127
Dr. Tuomas R. Fraser on the Physiological Action of Crystalline Aconitia
BMG MACUGO-ACONIIA .. cess en ces euesecstens Tice OninioePO Gee Pam jon, LS
Sir G. Duncan Grpp on the Vocal Organs in Living Centenarians.......... 128
Dr. J. Goopman on White Corpuscles, their Nature and Origin in the Animal
MOTCAMISM fo ).0jele.ee.0c8.8,0 By o Day iE on 0. PAREN Cem etree ee alee
Dr. GEorGE Haruey on the Mode of Bonen of Renal Calculi.......... 130
Mr. E. Ray Lanxester on the Structure of the Ege, and the early ee
ment of the Cephalopod Zoligo ..........6645 agate
Dr. Joun Ross on Microzymes as partial Bionta ........ Lusuehistais br va cteie crete tetera
Dr. Burpon SanpErson on Huizinga’s Experiments on Abiogenesis........ 1b
—
—_+_——____——— on the Electrical Phenomena which accompany the
Contractions of the Leaf of Dionea muscipula
Professor ©, A. StruTuHERS on the Diverticulum of the Small Intestine in
_ Man, considered as a Rudimentary Structure..........0.eeene linens ee LOS
Mr. C. 8. Tomus on the Development of the Armadillo’s Teeth............ 134
Dr. Morrison Watson on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Indian Ele-
| LLGlin eb noob po og onoopy tom OmOogene 6 nOhc os oombe Sanit eryesc eoranktete 134
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Dr. Joun Beppor’s Address to the Department of Anthropology .......... 134
-—— Note on the Iberians ....... cee e eee ene eens seriieaie nk e0
Mr. A. W. Bucxianp on the Serpent in connexion with Primitive Metallurgy 140
Mr. C. H. E. Carmicuart on Professor Gennarelli’s Paper “On the Exist-
ence of a Race of Red Men in Northern Africa and Southern Europe in
Prehistoric Times ”
teoreetree ree erese eer er eee er reer errr eer rereneerereree 4
xiv CONTENTS.
Page
Mr, Hypr Ciarxe on Prehistoric Names of Weapons,....-..-++eeeeeeees IAL
——_——- on the Comparative Chronology of the Migrations of Man
in America in relation to Comparative Philology ......sssseseeees ovens La
on the Ashantee and Fantee Languages ...,...+0+6.++++ 142
—— on the Report concerning Bushman researches of Dr. W.
Hi. Bleek, Ph.D. TNE PP eis Se Ee a eee Ee aL YP ES a ih) 142
Ma. W. Boyp Dawxins on the Northern Range of the Iberians in Europe ., 142
Mr. RopErt Dunn on Ethnic Psychology ,...scceussreessesstccevesevwe 145
The Rey, W. Wyarr Grit on Coral-Caves with Human Bones in Stalagmite
_ on Mangaia, South Pacific...........05 Soraneenac ayeerreta pocihin cin oir .. 144
Mr. J. Park Harrison on the Passage of Eastern Civilization across the
Pacific evevoeeeveeesreeoeeseseeerveeee & eeeeveeene © 6 2:00 66 8 6 6 '6:9'8 6.06 Sig tee 146
Dr. J. Styciarr HoLpEn on a hitherto undescribed Neolithic Implement ., 146
Mr, J. Karyus on a true Cerebral Theory necessary to Anthropology ,,.... 146
Mr. Jou S. Puen on an Age of Colossi ......... waters Sees ree aVvieiarae . 147
Mr. F. W. Rupier on Stone Implements from British Guiana ..... peas ted
Mr. Epwarp B. Tytor on the Relation of Morality to Religion in the Early
PGE OL. OLVIUZALION o 6004550059544 sad nia 54.999 4495519 1a
GEOGRAPHY.
Address by Sir RurHerrorp Axucock, K.C.B., President of the Section,.,. 150
Dr. Cuartes T, Bexe on the true Position and Physical Characters of Mount
Sinai . Oo ws hfe 854 1500 TORT OG 0G ‘atu ta raTUnb Ie "4 "oe aTH PENIS HETERO
Mr. W. 1. ieiuardlonls on the Be Geography of the Deserts of Persia
Bnd Contra ASG. sires pie te 30s bes ws ed eta vhs Mo see hsb vee
Dr. Wit1raM B, Carpenter on the ec Geography of the Mediterranean,
considered in relation to that of the Black Sea and the Caspian...... éoae 6B
—_—___—_—__—_—_————— on the Physical Geography of the Caspian Sea,
in its relations to Geology ...... aig aeaca tal aca ters ahavate ig a Wieve, siete oleiereanie gietemeeeteim Rae
Signor Guipo Cora on the Equatorial Lakes of Africa ..sseeeeeeeeeeeees 167
Mr, G, H. Darwin on a Portable Globe, and on some Maps of the World ,; 167
Captain J. KE. Davis on the Scientific Voyage of the ‘ Challenger’......,. +6 LOT
Mr, Ney Extas on Trade-routes through Mongolia and Zungaria .....,.... 169
The Rey. W. Wyarr Giut on Three Visits to New Guinea...........005 £9, 169
Colonel Sir FrepERIc GoLpsmip on recent Travel in Persia ..........05 va ME:
Major Brresrorp Loverr on a Visit to Koh-Khodja.........ceeeceee eee 172
Dr. J. M‘Cosx on Assam, and an Overland Communication with China ..,, 172
Mr. CLements R. Marxuam on Recent Arctic Explorations.............. 172
Captain J. Morrssy on Discoveries at the Eastern End of New Guinea .... 172
Mr. E, DrtMar Morean on Russian Accounts of Khiva and Turcomania ,. 172
Mr. E. L, Oxenuam on a Journey from Peking to Han-kow .......... pereeee
Baron voN RIcHTHOFEN on the Distribution of Coalin China ...,..,..... 173
CONTENTS. Xv
Page
Captain Roxrsy on the Survey for a Telegraph-line between Berber and E
ouakim Pr ee ee 173
Major Sr. Jonn on Trade-routes in Persia... sessse eevee e rere ees Vi ende .. 173
Major Evan Surru on the Livingstone East-Coast Aid Expedition ..,...., 173
on the Trade of the East-African Coast sissseeeesevee 178
Mr, J. Tuomson on the Gorges and Rapids of the Upper Yangtsze.....+10+s 173
ECONOMIC SCIENCE anp STATISTICS.
Address by the Right Hon. W. HE, Forster, M.P., President of the Section., 174
~ Major-General Sir Jamzs ALEXANDER on the Use and Abuse of Peat ...... 183
Dr. C. E. Appteron on some of the Economical Aspects of Endowments of
Education and Original Research,......... eee e eee e eee e rece renee . 183
Mr. S. C. T. Bartiey on the Poor-Law and its Effect on Thrift ,..,..,... 189
Mr. J. AnTHuR Bryns on Benefit Building Societies ........, Prasat yo» 185
Mr, Wri11aM Bory on Dwellings for the Industrial Classes .........++4.. 186
Mr. Hypr Crarxz on the Influence of Large Centres of Population on Intel-
lectual Manifestation ......eccseueeeeees Fave r,1 wheats § or ste bekaiy LOG
Mee. tiAcne DANCHEDT on.Poat —s55 50 ndvds 6s ss odd Gina aeds 5p ana E86
: Fi \
Mr. Franx P. Fetiows’s Statistics and Observations on the National Debt
_and our Disbursements from the Revolution in 1688 to the present time,
showing the advisability of ascertaining our Annual Governmental Capital
and Current Expenditure. ..c.ccccceeceeeeeeereeaeeees Hehehe’ ¢ AGO
_ Mr. J. G. Frrcu on the Savings-Bank in the School.........0.00+ sesivvde LOY
Mr. Txomas Hare on the East Morley and Bradford Savings-Bank ........ 188
Mr. T. G. P. Harter on the Income-Tax Question. .......ssseecevevevee 188
Mr, Jamus Hanson on Educational Statistics of Bradford ....5+.ss+0+++++ 189
Mr. W. Hasrines on Postal Reform ........eeeseeeseneeenenes ieee cao eee
‘Mr. B. Haveuron on Railways Amalgamated in Competing Groups......., 191
‘Mr. W. D. Henperson on Commercial Panics ,.......+: Arcee Pees
“Mr. Samurn Jupp on the Shoddy Trade......sseeeceeecseeevenes preenate [2
Mrs. E. M. Kine on Confederated Homes and Cooperative Housekeeping..., 195
Professor Lone Levr on the Effect of the Increase of Prices of certain Neces-
saries of Life on the Cost of Living, and its Relation to the Rates of Wages
ES UNS Ee corr rir nee Core ME eeterT sae Pee 5 gue eee
Mr, J. M. D. MerKirsoun on the Economic Use of Endowments ..,....... 196
Mr. W. Morris on Capital and Labour .......... fiobkentviwn eas teseree
‘Mr. Arcuipatp Netz on the Bradford Building Trades..........ee000008 196
Mr. R. H. Ineris PALGRAVE on the Relation of the Banking Reserve of the
' Bank of England to the Current Rate of Interest ........+;sseeereneves 199
Major-General Mittineton SyncE on Purity and Impwrity in the Use and
nO Of WRT YT ET eae ee eee ees Nee cede et ta eps Fes ee eOO
xvi CONTENTS.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
Address by W. H. Bartow, Esq., C.E., F.R.S., President of the Section.... 200
Mr. W. H. Bartow, Jun., on the Lisbon Steam Tramways, 1873 ......++. . 210
Mr. Danret BatrMan on the Manufacture of Cards for Spinning Purposes ., 210
Mr. C. Bergeron on the Saint-Gotthard Tunnel ...... ccc cee e ee peeeeeces 210
The Rey. E. L. BertHon on the Hydrostatic Log .... cs eseceeeeeeeseeee 210
Mr. F. J. Bramwe tu on Huggett’s System of Manufacturing Horse-nails.... 210
Dr. W. J. Capp on the Nant-y-glo Coal-cutting Machine .........e0eee ee 213
Mr, Hypr Crarxe on the Progress of the Through Railway to India ....., 215
Mr. Samvet Davis on Brain’s System of Mining by means of Boring-machinery,
Dynamite, and Electric Blasting .............s.00 saotiotte SPA AAST . 213
Mr. R. Eaton on further Results on the Working of Locomotives with Heated
Air'and Steam....... Haye ated aaisio gies eile ey etereteraeiare ior yack aaaeters eoovale
Mr. C. Le Neve Foster on the “ Duty” of Arrastres in reducing Gold Ore
in Italy ......00000+ We 6 seule lee e'eeld ens wide eedws onde vay epee ee oer
Mr. P, Lz Neve Foster, Jun., on the Irrigation of the Casale District .... 214
Mr. S. C. Lister on the Mechanical Treatment of Fibrous Substances...... 214
Mr. Jamis R. Naprsr on Napier’s’ Pressure Loo" ..... 0. cess eee sseeees SUA
Mr. AncurBaLp Nrict on Stone-dressing in Bradford............4. Ay ee 214
Mr. W. E. NewTon on the Sand-Blast Process for Cutting and Ornamenting
Stone, Glass, and other Hard Substances......... bi ose, Sra a nug laden orste 25 Pig
Mr, Jonny Poant on.the Burleigh Rock-drill..... ccc vcessccsvecvererce . 216
Prof. Ossorne REYNOLDS on the Resistance of the Screw Propeller as affected
PY LOMWICTSION. 5 orcs cio sci oo aisle eyes Mocha. steno trtcaa gerd See pacts 2.038 - oie SE LO
——-—____—_—__——— on the Friction of Shot as affected by different kinds
Git Lhe amo Oe o peRnoNa cin. 6 Oo OAD oOAUGmo mes en dated Arion ees
Mr. Robert SvuTcuiFFe on the Economical Generation of Steam .......... 216
—_—____________—— on the Economical Utilization of Steam ........ sin DU
Mr. W. Cave Tuomas on the Centre-rail Railway ...,.....seeeees uke 219
Mr. Joun Waveu on the Prevention of Incrustation in Steam-Boilers...... 219
Mr. Tomas WessTer on the Advancement of Science by Industrial Inyen-
LOH Restate ear ae eo eA rae a EEN ts Sete RE ee Se rh ace 219
ee on the Assimilation of the Patent Systems of Great
Britain and of the United States .......+..... Sco okaG didiaic us alert cease 219
Mr. Joun WHITE on a Form of Channel Steamer......csecceeeccecceeees 219
Mr. JosrpH Witicock on the History, Progress, and Description of the
MSO WAU THOM WOLKE atse'sic's't'sarsis’e's's'o'n'e's uv W esse te Ten seenv haa dese SOR Dee
APPENDIX.
Prof. A. S. Herscurn and G. A. Lenour on the Conducting-powers for
Heat of certain Rocks, with Remarks on the Geological Aspects of the
Investigation RC AOR Oe SO Se ee ee ck eM een) euicoa 223
ti Oe” Se
ERRATA IN REPORT FOR 1872.
Omitted from Index I.
~ Gaussian constanta for the year 1829, report on the, or a theory of terrestrial magnetism
founded on all available observations, 1
_ Mascarene Islands, second supplementary report on the extinct birds of the, by A. Newton,
23.
Progress of chemistry, report of the Committee for superintending the monthly reports of
the,
ERRATA IN THE PRESENT VOLUME.
In THE REPORTS.
Page 369, line 22 from bottom, for Duncan read Dunkin.
8, after 11:09 insert per cent.
383, ,, 4, for Biichner read Buchner.
384, ,, 16, for Arnaud read Amand.
390, ,; 23 from bottom, for Persii read Persei.
396, ,, 13 from bottom, after Professor Baden Powell insert a nota,
thust.
399, 20, for intrastellar read interstellar.
In the footnote of the Table of “ Numbers of Meteors seen &c. in August 1872” (facing
p- 895), observation of an aurora at Rothbury, for August 10th vead August 9th.
In THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Page 43, fourth line from bottom, for Asturo read Arturo.
64, tenth line from bottom, for uranium oxide 1 1}, 13, &e. read uranium oxide 13,
13, &e.
70, line 11, for which it accom- read which it has accom-
173, lines 5 and 7, for Major Evan Smith read Major Euan Smith.
List OF PLATES,
PLATES I. IL, II.
Tilustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the
Coal-measures.
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Xvill RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
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the Publication Price. Application to be made at the Office
of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xix
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can only
be issued by direction of the Council.
)
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The place
of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two years in
_ advance; and the Arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of
j
the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
* Crass A. Permanent MemBers.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presidents
of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of Reports in
the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have furthered
the advancement of those subjects which are taken into consideration at the
Sectional Meetings of the Association. Wath a view of submitting new claims
under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Association.
The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Association to
be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Crass B. Temporary Mrempers.
1. The President for the time beifig of any Scientific Society publishing Trans-
actions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him. Claims under this Rule
to be sent to the Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not exceeding
three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of Meeting.
Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries before the
opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and who
are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by the Pre-
sident and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organizing Sectional Committees*.
' The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sections
are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their names are
submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Committees
for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and Reports
likely to be submitted to the Sectionst, and of preparing Reports thereon,
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
t+ Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.— Authors are reminded that, under an arrange-
ment dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be
XX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be read, to be pre-
sented to the Committees of the Sections at their first Meeting.
An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary Meetings as the
President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any circum-
stances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at 11 a.m., to
settle the terms of their Report, after which their functions as an Organizing
Committee shall cease.
Constitution of the Sectional Committees*.
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presidents,
and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the General Com-
mittee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and Vice-Presidents of
the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 p.m., in their Com-
mittee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees by selecting individuals
from among the Members (not Associates) present at the Meeting whose as-
sistance they may particularly desire. The Sectional Committees thus con-
stituted shall have power to add to their number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-Book,
and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged with
publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day, in the Journal of the
Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Commuttees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of last
year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis of
Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and printed
in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to read the
Report of the Organizing Committee t. The List of Communications to be
read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general distribution of
business throughout the week shall be provisionally appointed. At the close
of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall forward to the Printer a List
of the Papers appointed to be read. The Printer is charged with publishing
the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, the
read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees for the several
Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order
to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications,
that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for in-
sertion in the published Transactions of the Association, and that he should send it, toge-
ther with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before .. ....+-....seeeeeeeeesees , addressed
thus—“ General Secretaries, British Association, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For
Section ....... ” Tf it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read
on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a
separate note. +
* Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
+ This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXl
Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers which
have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed to be read
on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early in the day as
possible to the Printers, who are charged with printing the same before 8 a.m.
next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one of the Secretaries of
each Section should call at the Printing Office and revise the proof each
evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily in
the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of the
Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.
The Vice- Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio temporary
Members of the General Committee (vide p. xix), and will receive, on ap-
plication to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling them to
attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the communi-
cations made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of selecting
definite points of research to which individual or combined exertion may be
usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state and progress of
which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Committees for the exe-
eution of such Reports or researches ; and to state whether, and to what de-
gree, these objects may be usefully advanced by the appropriation of the
funds of the Association, by application to Government, Philosophical Insti-
tutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, it is
expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and one of
them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business.
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assistance
they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committces of Sections are to be
registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of each
is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can be
referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the General
Committee.
Notices Regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been entrusted
by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches in Science,
are required to present to each following Meeting of the Association a Report
ofthe progress which has been made ; and the Individual or the Member first
named of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must (pre-
viously to the next meeting of the Association) forward to the General
XX ' RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the sums which haye been expended,
and the balance which remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one meeting of the Association expire
a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the Treasurer
authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of such grants,
unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by the General
Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of the
British Association without special permission from the General Committee
to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in accordance
with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled to
eall on the Treasurer, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., 50 Grosvenor Place, London,
S.W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contemplate
the payment of personal expenses to the members.
Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the continua-
tion of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is deemed
to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain unpaid on
the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Association
are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle Street,
Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scientific inquiries
for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 10 to
11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for no notices,
exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Assocration.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communica-
tions, in the order previously made public, be commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications de-
livered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of the
Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are ap-
pointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the exhibi-
tion of a Member's, Associate’s or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s Ticket
signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the Assistant
General Secretary.
3.—Persons unproyvided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted to
any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
_No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the Asso-
ciation whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXiil
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, during
the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on mes-
sages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, which
shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional Committees,
and report to the General Committee the measures which they would advise
to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Researches,
and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the General Committee
unless previously recommended by the Committee of Recommendations.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association to
assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers those
Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice- Presidents, one or more Secretaries, and a
Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall be ma-
naged by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The Council may
also assemble for the despatch of business during the week of the Meeting.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to reserve
his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
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SEQUGUC I ESC ch yy 5 Ey Say ‘Aqiaq JO [eg oy} “UOH WSK OL
XXX
REPORT—1873.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place.
1832.
. 1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
Presidents.
Secretaries.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Oxford ......
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Liverpool ...
Newcastle...
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cambridge. .
1846. Southampton
1847.
1848.
1849.
Swansea ....
Birmingham
. Edinburgh...
. Ipswich......
Belfast
. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S....
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.............
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S..........
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS
Rey. Dr. Robinson
Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S....
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S.............
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
E.BS.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Forbes, EUR:S© ...c.c.ceass0-
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. .........
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
E.RS.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.T.A. .....
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S..........
The Very Rey. the Dean of Ely .
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
E.RS.
Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A., F.R.S. .
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. .........
William Hopkins, F.R.S8..........
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., Sec.
R.S.B.
Rey. W. Whewell, D.D., F.R.S.,
&
Cc.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.
The Dean of Ely, F.R.S. ........
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
RS.
Rey. Prof. Kelland, M.A., F.R.S.
L. & E.
Rey. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S. ...
Rey.T. R. Robinson,D.D.,F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
AND PHYSICS.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W.S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof,
Stevelly.
Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, Arch.
Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
-|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rey. H. Price, Prof. Steyelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W. J. Macquorn Rankine, Prof.
Smyth, Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G.
Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
.|B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rey. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwocd,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Date and Place. Presidents.
1858, Leeds ......|Rev. W.Whewell, D.D., V.P.RS.
1859. Aberdeen .../The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
1860. Oxford... Hoe Ci Price, M.A., F.R.S.......
1861. Manchester .|G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S8.
1862. Cambridge ../Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., F.R.S.
1863. Reais. Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.
1864. Bath ......... Prof. "Cayley, M.A. F.RBS.,
1865. Birmingham we - Spettiswoode, M.A., E.RBS.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., F.R.S.)
1867. ate. Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
1868. Norwich ney Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S...|
1869. Exeter ......Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
1870. Liverpool ... J. ‘Glee Maxwell, M.A., LL.D.
E.RS.
1871. Edinburgh .|Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ......
1872. Brighton ....\W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1873. Bradford ...|Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S....
1845.
- Oxford
. Cambridge..
. Edinburgh...|
. Dublin
. Bristol
. Newcastle.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXl
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES,
. Liverpool...
. Birmingham
. Glasgow ...
- Plymouth...
2. Manchester.
Secretaries.
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. 8. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J.P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. J.S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Kennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof, He Pass
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
‘Rey. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin,
Prof. Steveliy, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.
Rey. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
\Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
y
..|Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W.L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
..|Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
|Jobn Dalton, D.C.L., ae ——
Jobn Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S..
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
./Rey. Prof. Cumming
Michael Faraday, F.R.S. .........
..|Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. as
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F. R. 8. :
Dr. Daubeny, F-.R.S. ....
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.......
./Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A. .........
.|Prof. T. Graham, FERS. sesedenm
II.— CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
James F. W. Johnston.
../Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
...|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller,
Reynolds.
Prof. Miller, R. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Dr.
..|Golding Bird, M.D., Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
..\J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
.|Dy. R. Playfair, E. Solly,T. H. Barker,
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
XXXll
REPORT—1873.
Date and Place. Presidents.
1846.Southampton|Michael Faraday, D.C.L., F.B.S.
1847. Oxford ...... Rey.W.V.Harcourt, M.A., F.R.S.
1848. Swansea .../Richard Phillips, F.R.S. .......
1849. Birmingham|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S..........
1850, Edinburgh .|Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
1851. Ipswich ...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S....
1852. Belfast ...... Thomas Andrews, M.D., F.R.S..
Shs. Halk :: t os. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool .../Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S. .
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ......!
1857. Dublin ...... Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.BS.,
M.R.I.A.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
1859. Aberdeen .../Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S..
1860. Oxford...... Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ......
1861. Manchester ./Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
1862. Cambridge ./Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., F.R.S.
1865. Newcastle.../Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
1864. Bath......... W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
1865. Birmingham|Prof, W. A. Miller, M.D.,V.P.R.S.
1866. Nottingham/H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. ...
1867. Dundee ...|Prof.T. Anderson,M.D., F.R.S.E.
1868. Norwich .../Prof.E.Frankland, F.R.S., F.C.S8.
1869. Exeter ...... Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., F.R.S.,
E.C.S.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
1872. Brighton ...|Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.......
1873. Bradford ...|Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S.......
1832.
1833
1834
1837
Secretaries.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
...../I. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
..|Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. 8S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr. Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. W.
J. Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., A. E.
Fletcher, Dr. W. J. Russell.
J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T. E.
Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chan-
dler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
GEOLOGICAL (ann, unrm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
. Oxford ....../R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .........
. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F-.R.S. .........
. Edinburgh .|Prof. Jameson ............000..000.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND
. Dublin ...... Lice CE rei tl sare suspense ee ec Ree
. Bristol ...... Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-
' graphy. R.1.Murchison,F.R.S.
. Liverpool ..|Rev.Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy. G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.
John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rey. J. Yates.
GEOGRAPHY,
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury, T. J.
Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
graphy. Captain H. M. Denham,R.N.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
OF THE SECTIONS. XXX11
Tate and Place.
Presidents.
1838. Newcastle...|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.— Geo-
graphy. Lord Prudhope.
1839, Birmingham Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— Geo-
1840.
1841.
graphy. G.B.Greenough, FBS.
Glasgow .../Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G. B, Greenough, F.R.S.
Plymouth . JH. T. De la Beche, F.R.S..........
1842. Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .........
1843. Cork ......... Richard BE. Griffith, F.RS.,
M.R.I.A.
1844. York......... Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
1845. Cambridge }.|Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
Southampton|Leonard Horner, F.R.S.— Geogra-
phy. G&. B. Greenough, F.R.8.
oesade Very Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.
Swansea ...'Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
R
icles Charles Lyell, F.R.S., F.G.S.:
Edinburgh */Sir Roderick I. Murchison,F.B:8.
Secretaries.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography. Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strickland,
Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore,M.D.,
R. Hutton.
E. W. Binney, BR. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. H. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. HE. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rey. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, J. H. Norten, M.D.,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography. Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, Pro-
fessor Nicol.
SHCTION ¢ (continued).—GHOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...{William Hopkins, M.A., F.B.S...
1852. Belfast ...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Pee. Hull ......... Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ...........-
1854. Liverpool . .|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S. ...
1855. Glasgow .../Sir R.I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
1856. Cheltenham |Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. ......
1857. Dublin ...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide ...
1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins, M.A., LL.D.,
E.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen .../Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D., D.C.L.,
mt FE.RBS.
1860. Oxford ...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
| E.R.S., F.G.S8.
1861. Manchester |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S., &e.
1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.B.S.......
1863
. Newcastle .../Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F. E.G.
sey
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam, Prof
M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John-Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hepworth,
Edward Hull, J. Scougall, T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, Ro-
bert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, H.
C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. Ru-
pert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert Jones,
H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C, Sor-
by, Thomas Sopwith.
* At a Meeting of the General Committee heid in 1850, it was resolved “That the
subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, to consti-
tute a separate Section, under the title of the “ Geographical and Ethnological Section,”
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page xxxvi.
1873.
c
XXXIV rerort—1873.
Date and Place. Presidents. f Secretaries.
ae
1864, Bath.........|Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.8.,/W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H, C.
E.G.S8. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1865. Birmingham Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,K.0.B./Rey. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rey. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1866. Nottingham|Prof.A.C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.8.|R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
1867. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.8.|Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward. ’
1868. Norwich .../R. A. GC. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.,|Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
i F.GS. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof, R. Harkness, F.RB.8., F.G.8.)W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, Rev.
H. H. Winwood:
1870. Liverpool.../Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton,/W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S. W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
1871. Edinburgh ..|/Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.8.../R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, J. McKenny
. Hughes, L. C. Miall.
1872, Brighton ...\R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.\L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
; Topley, Henry Woodward.
1873. Bradford ...|Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L., F.R.S.,/L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
E.G.S8. Topley.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITIEE OF SCIENCES, IV.— ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,
1832, Oxford ...... Rey. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ....../Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge*|/Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.LS....|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh |Prof, Graham... ssccesscsssscoees W. Yarrell, Prof, Burnett,
SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin ...... Des PAM Anse a saans sepiees »cesheaoeen ct J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol ...... Rey.-Prof, Henslow .cesecssscesee- J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, §.
Rootsey.
1837. Liverpool ...,W. 8. MacLeay ..........0ss.:00000.|C, C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson,
1838, Newcastle.,../Sir W. Jardine, Bart,.,......00++-/J» 4. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, Dr.
Richardson.
1839. Brimingham|Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ......c0see.ee: E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......... Prof. W. Couper, H. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
1841. Plymouth...|John Richardson, M.D., F.R.8...|J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
1842. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rey. W. Herbert,|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
LL.D., F.L.S8. Turner.
1843. Cork .........)William Thompson, F.L.S, ......\@. J. Allman, Dr, Lankester, R. Pat-
terson.
1844, York...,.....) Very Rev, The Dean of Manches-|Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
; ter. Dr. Lankester.
1845, Cambridge |Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ....../Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
1846. Southampton|Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.
1847, Oxford....,../H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.B.S..../Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melyille, T. Y.
| Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued).—zO00LOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsections
and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xxxvi.]
1848, Swansea .../L, W. Dillwyn, F.R.S. ............|Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
ae . frey, Dr. Lankester.
1849, Birmingham William Spence, FVR.S............- Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
1850. Edinburgh. .|Prof, Goodsir, F.R.8. L. & BE. ...|Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan,
* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, for
Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xxxvi.
- 1857. Dublin
_ 1864, Bath
1865. ea
1869. Exeter
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place.
— -
1851. Ipswich......
1852. Belfast
SET! c..cesves
1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow.
1856. Cheltenham.
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford ......
1861. Manchester..
1862. Cambridge...
1863. Newcastle ...
..|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.8.E.
Presidents.
Rey. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.R.S.
Wir Ogtlby! .sgscts. drain ves atts
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.RB.S.......
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.58....
Prof. W.H. Harvey, M.D., F.R.S8.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F-.R.S8....
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E..
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ......
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S....
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S, .....0ss0-
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S. ......
Dr. John HE. Gray, F.R.S. ......
1866. Nottingham.
1867. Dundee
_ 1868. Norwich ...
1870. Liverpool...
1871, Edinburgh
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
XXXKV
Secretaries.
Prof. Allman, F, W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester,
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
.,.|William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. -
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. H. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy,
W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Aleock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr, HE. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. EH. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rey. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
H. B. Brady, C. EH. Broom, H, T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev,
H. B, Tristram, Dr, HE, P, Wright.
SECTION D (continued ).—BIOLOGY*.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.—
Physiological Dep. Prof. Hum-
phry, M.D., F.R.8.— Anthropo-
logical Dep, Alfred R. Wallace,
E-.R.G.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.—
Dep. of Zool, and Bot. George
Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Rey. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.8.—
Dep. of Physiology. W. H.
Flower, F.R.S8.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.—
Dep. of Bot. and Zool. C. Spence
Bate, F.R.S.—Dep. of Ethno.
E. B. Tylor.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
E.R.S.,F.L.8.—Dep. Anat. and
Physiol. Prof. M. Foster, M.D.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Ethno, J.
Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,F.R.8.
—Dep. of Bot.and Zool, Prof.
Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol. Prof. W.
Turner, M.D.
1872. Brighton ...
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S,
—Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.
Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B,
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rey. H,
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T, S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr,
M. Foster, Prof, Lawson, H. T,
Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
M.D., E. Ray Lankester, Professor
Lawson, H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B,
Tristram.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, EH, Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr, Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof, Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, H. Ray Lan-
—Dep of Anthropol, Col. A.
Lane Fox, F.G.S8.
kester, Dr. Pye Smith.
* At a Meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—“‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;” and “That for the word ‘Subsection,’ in tho
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘ Department’ be substituted.
2
c
xxxvi REPORT—1878.
ee re ee
Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.
3. ford ...{Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of |Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof, Lawson,
oe Sine and Physiol. Prof. Ru-| RB. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An-| Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J.
thropol. Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S. | H. Lamprey.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1853. Cambridge...|Dr. Haviland ........cssssssesseneees Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834, Edinburgh...|Dr. Abercrombie ........seesseeees Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E. (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835, Dublin ...... Dr Writchard > j.csecccwissss sees (Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1836. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. .......00 Senenese (Dr. Symonds.
1837. Liverpool ...|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. «ss... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, Dr.
J. R. W. Vose.
1838. Newcastle .../T. E. Headlam, M.D. ............ T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S. ....../Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D................ Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
1841. Plymouth.../P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec.R.S. ...|\Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr, R. S.
Sargent.
1842. Manchester.|Edward Holme, M.D., F.LS. ...|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1843. Cork......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.......... Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
W544 oY ork fh 504 J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......0.008« I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
SECTION E,—PHYSIOLOGY.
1845. Cambridge (ee J. Haviland, M.D. .........|Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846.Southampton|Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......... C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sargent.
1847. Oxford* ss ae Ogle, M.D., F.R.S...........,Dr. Thomas IK. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...'Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. ...|Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin ...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......... 'Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart..F.R.8.\C. G. Wheelhouse.
1859. Aberdeen ...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. .../Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford ...... Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S. |Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester.|Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L. & E....|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge .|C. BH. Paget, M.D. ............00086+ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle...|Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. .../Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1864, Bath........ Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., F.R.S.|J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
1865. Birminghmf.|Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, Oliver
Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner,
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES,
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C, p. xxxii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846, Southampton oe Pritchard .35)...csassardes sess [Dr. King.
1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. .....: — Buckley.
LSABS Swansea, fh AWeee eer ieee oh ona nee G. Grant Francis.
1849. Bigmineham| .. 5. ef. se ee ees a Dr. R. G. Latham.
* By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were incorporated
under the name of “Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Physiology” (see p. xxxiv).
he Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to Geography,
1 Vide note on preceding page, j
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,
Date and Place.
ne ce ee tl Ler ett a at re ee ae ree ee
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
, Oxford
. Exeter
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast
ee eeee
. Hull
seeeeeeee
. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham
. Dublin ......
. Aberdeen ...
eeeeee
. Manchester .
. Cambridge .
F Newcastle vee
. Birmingham
. Nottingham
. Dundee......
. Norwich ...
seeeee
. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh.
. Brighton ...
. Bradford ... |
. Cambridge .
Edinburgh .
Dublin
Bristol ......
Presidents.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S., Pres.
R.G.S.
Col. Chesney, R.A. D.C.L.,
E.RBS.
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
RS
FE.RBS.
Sir J. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B.
Rey. Dr. J. Henthawn Todd, Pres.
R.I.A.
Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,
E.R.S.
Rear-Admiral Sir James Clerk
Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
E.RS.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........0..
Francis Galton, F.R.S.............
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
Major-General Sir R. Rawlinson,
M.P., K.C.B., F.B.S.
Sir Charles Nicholson,
L
Bart.,
Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.......
\Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N., FBS.
XXXVil
Secretaries.
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr-
Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.
..|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R, Cull, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H. Rum-
sey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Mad-
den, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R.Cull, Francis Galton, P.O’ Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas Wright.
Richard Cull, Professor Geddes, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriere, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Norton
Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt,
R. M. Murchison, 'T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-
ham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY.
\Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.GS.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt., K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. ...
Francis Galton, F.R.S. ............
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B....
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, David Buxton, Albert
J. Mott, Clements R. Markham.
Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, Rev.
J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johr ston, Cle-
ments R. Markham.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—-STATISIICS,
eee ee enenee
Prof. Babbage, F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. .........
J. E. Drinkwater.
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECLION F.—STLATISTICS.
|\Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......++
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
XXXV1il
REPORT—187
3.
Date and Place.
1837. Liverpool...
1838.
1839.
Newcastle...
Birmingham
1820.
1841.
1842,
1843.
1844. York.........
1845. Cambridge .
1846. Southampton
1847. Oxford
Glasgow
Plymouth...
Manchester .
ser teneee
teens
1848. Swansea .
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh ..
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast ......
1853. Hull .........
1854, Liverpool ...
1855, Glasgow .....
\Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ....
Presidents.
Rt. Hon: Lord Sandon
wee neeeeeeee
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ....seseeeee
Henry Hallam, F.RS. ............
...(Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, F.R.S.,
M
ale?
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S. .........
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ......
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S., F.L.S8.
Rt. Hon. The Earl Fitzwilliam...
G: BR: Porter; FURS. isc. .sisaasiess
Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
..|J. H. Vivian, M.P., PRS. is...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton ...,.....
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ......
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S....
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ........000-
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ......
His Grace the Archbishop of)
Secretaries.
W.R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson. ;
Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
. Rawson.
Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Laycock,
J. Fletcher, W. Cooke Tayler, LL.D.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rey. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F, G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, Jun. :
Edward Cheshire, William Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch. A
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continued).—-ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,
1856. Cheltenham |Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. ...
1857. Dublin ......JHis Grace the Archbishop of
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen
1860. Oxford ......
1861, Manchester
1862. Cambridge...
1863. Newcastle ...
USO4 Bathisccass:
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867, Dundee......
1868, Norwich ...
Dublin, M.R.LA.
Edward Baines ...sccsesesessee Wee
=+.|COL Sykes, IPs WSRN. <cssbee0s
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. .........
William Newmarch, F.R.S. ......
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........:...
William Tite, M.P., FVR.S. ......
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. HE. T. Rogers
M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit. Ac-
tuaries,
Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N, Hancock Newmarch, W. M,
Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D, Hutton, W.
Newmarch,
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rey. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
EK. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. HE. T.
Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory,
iT. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
‘E. Macrory, E. 'T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
HE. Macrory.
‘R. Birkin, Jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
'Rey. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
4
4
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS: XX¥1X
eee ee a
Date and Place. Secretaries.
Presidents.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-/Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
1868, Norwich’ ..
1869. Exeter ......
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P Charles T. D. Acland.
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A, ../Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, EH. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
1871. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves............. J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
1872. Brighton .../Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P. ....../J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
1873. Bradford .,.\Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M. P, J.G, Fitch, Swire Smith.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
; SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
1836. Bristol ...... Davies Gilbert, D.O.L., E.R.S..../T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
1837. Liverpool ,../Rev. Dr. Robinson ............50006+ Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1838. Neweastle ...|Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ........./R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T. Webster.
1839, Birmingham Prof. Willis, FR. §., and Robert, W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, Tho-
Stephenson. mas Webster.
1840. Glasgow .../Sir John Robinson....... meee tarneee J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
: C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth...|John Taylor, FBS. ose Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842. Manchester ./Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. . ..jJ. FE, Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
1843. Cork ......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.1.A.......{James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
1844. York ......... John Taylor, F.R.S. . sseeese2.(Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1845. Cambridge ..|George Rennie, F.R. MRT ea Rey. W. 'T. Kingsley.
1846, Southampton Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S. .|William Betts, Jun., Charles Manby.
1847. Oxford ...... Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A., E.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. ok Le Mesurier,
1848. Swansea ..... Rey. Prof. ‘Walker, M.A., F.R.S,.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
1849. Birmingham|Robert Stephenson, M.P., F.R.8.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
1850. Edinburgh.,.|Rev. Dr. Robinson ..........666.- Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
1851. Ipswich...... William Cubitt, F-R.S............. John Head, Charles Manby.
1852. Belfast ace spi John Walker,C.E., LL.D.,F.R.S.\John F. Bateman, O. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
1853. Hull ........., William Fairbairn, C.E., F.R.S../James i J. Thomson, W. Sykes
Ward.
1854, Liverpool ...|John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ....../John Grantham, J, Oldham, J. Thom-
son.
1855. Glasgow .../W. J. Macquorn Rankine, C.H.,|L. Hill, Jun., William Ramsay, J.
ERS. Thomson.
1856. Cheltenham |George Rennie, F.R.S.!......60008 peer B. Jones, Jun., H. M.
effer
1857. Dublin ......\The Right Hon. The Earl of|Prof. Dowdle! Wi T. Doyne, A. Tate,
Rosse, F.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright.
1858. Leeds........./ William Fairbairn, F:R.S. ......|J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
: 1859. ‘Aberdeen , ...(Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., ERS.. R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.’
1860. Oxford ......|Prof. W. J. Macquorn Raukine,|P. Le Neve Foster, Rey. F. Harrison,
LL.D., F.R.S. Henry Wright.
1861. Manchester .|J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
..[P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, H.
Wright.
1862, Cambridge ..| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.|W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
1863. Newcastle ..
1867. Dundee......
.|Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., BE RS; .
Prof. W. J. peer Rankine,
LL.D.,
ERS
je Ea aide C.E., E.R,G.S.
P. Le Neve Foster; P. Westmacott, J.
F. Spencer.
miao4. Bath ......... J. Hawkshaw, F.RS. ............ P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
“1865. Birmingham|Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. P.
; E.R.S. Marshall, Walter May.
"1866. Nottingham |Thomas_ Hawksley, V.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
C.E., F.G.S. A. Tarbottom.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
..1P. Le Neve Foster,
Manby, W,. Smith.
J. F. Iselin, C.
x]
Date and Place,
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
REPORT—1878.
Presidents, Secretaries,
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. ............ P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S....
F, J. Bramwell, C.E.......
eeereeees
1873. Bradford
Date and Place.
1842. Manchester .
1843, Cork
seen eeeee
1844. York
eentenees
1845. Cambridge...
1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea
1849, Birmingham
1850, Edinburgh.
1851. Ipswich......
1852. Belfast
1853, Hull .,,...,,.
...|W. H. Barlow, EVR.S. ove
...| John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S.
| Robert Hunt, F\R.S8,
.|Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S. .|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. P.
Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
....(Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, 8.
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N.
Shoolbred,
List of Evening Lectures.
Lecturer.
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......
Pir VE Web runel: c.csssecadmeas ors
Reale Miumrchisoni cy, sceecesecseenea
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. .
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S. ....
DD) PROVEN es 2. vss wae dessa de ones s
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........0..
Dr. Falconer, FVR.S. ..cccossesee
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. sare
R. I. Murchison, F. R.S.. :
Prof. Owen, M. D., E.R. g.
Subject of Discourse.
...| The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
..| The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
-| Geology of Russia.
.| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Charles Lyell, gush AE ae
W. R. Grove, F.R.8.
Sete eeenenes
Rey. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. ..
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.
ferns
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S.
We en | M. pa E.R.S.
Dr. Faraday, H-RS.....0..00.c00-
Rey. Prof. Willis, MA EBS,
Prof. J. H. Bennett,
E.R.S.E.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owen, MD., ‘ERS.
M.D.,
_.| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
.| Shooting-stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
...| The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
......| Metallurgical operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
..| Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood throvgh the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
.| Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G. B. Airy, F.R.8., Astron. Roy.
Prof. aa Stokes, Dake E.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Total Solar Iclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent discoveries in the propertics
of Light.
Recent, discovery of Rock-salt at Car-
rickfergus, and geological and prac-
tical considerations connected with it.
Pr “a Phillips, LL.D., F.B.S.,/Some peculiar phenomena in the Geo-
logy and Physical Geography of
Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Se —
a a a
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES,
Date and Place.
1854. Liverpool ...
1855. Glasgow......
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin ......
1858. Leeds.........
1859. Aberdeen ...
1860. Oxford ......
1861. Manchester .
1862, Cambridge .
1863. Newcastle-
Lecturer.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.RB.S....
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .........
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
eeeeee
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ,,..........
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. .......00
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.8. .....-
| Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. ...
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S....
| Sir R.I. Murchison, D.C.L. ......
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ......
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. .
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron. Roy. .
Prof, Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof, Odlines WIR.S...cccesessses-
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.
on-Tyne.
James Glaisher, F.R.S. ........-
1864. Bath ......... Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S..........0s008
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. .......
1865. Birmingham| J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.............
ill
1866. Nottingham.
William Huggins, F.R.S..........
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S..........
1867. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..........
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S....
1868. Norwich ....! J. Fergusson, F.R.S. .........06-
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. ......2....
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool ...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ...
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.......
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F-R.S.
Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.
FF. A. Abel, FURS. ..c.cccccousseoes
BE. B. Tylor, FURS. ...ssseeees
.| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford...... a Maetces
Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof Clerk Maxwell F.R.S.,....
Subject of Discourse.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of Cunei-
form research up to the present
time.
..| Correlation of Physical Forces.
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly rare-
fied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
..| Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures beneath
the red rocks of the Midland Coun-
ties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archxology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulz.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connexion
with Naval Architecture.
Some recent investigations and appli-
cations of Explosive Agents.
..| The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tifie Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
xhi REPORT—1878.
Date and Place. Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.
Lectures to the Operative Classes. -
1867. Dundec..,....| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Matter and Force.
1868. Norwich ....| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. ...| A piece of Chalk.
1869, Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ......| Experimental illustrations of the
: modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,
1870. Liverpool ...| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,| Savages.
E.R.S.
1872. Brighton ...) William Spottiswoode, LL.D.,| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
E.R.S.
1875. Bradford ...1C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S...| Fuel.
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xliv REPORT—1873.
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting. Where held. Presidents.
Old Life | New Life
Members. | Members.
MRA MOCPUEZ7 «..| VOLK rove sdravetevanses The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ... sue ts
1932;,dune 19 ...| Oxford ..2. 26. s.sces0 The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. .. aut =e
1833, June 25 ...|Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.. : sine
1834, Sept. 8 ...) Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. ieiibacics D.C.L. . eee a5
Togs AUP, LO. ..-| Dubs Sec cavececees The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LED, ane Ses
1836, Aug..22 ..,| Bristol <.....0..c0ce The Marquis of Lansdowne...... as ‘ad
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.8.. wr on
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne..! The Duke of Northumberland... ee one
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham ......... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt . oes dic
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ............ The Marquis of Breadalbane ... ats oi
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.... 169 65
1842, June 23...) Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton ...... 303 169
MSHS PAULEY, "511 COLL -sccgerctseceesesss The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...... 109 28
NS4Aswepl, 2G. 5.2] MOLK iw.0s sceycsneass oe The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D....... 226 150
1845, June rg ...|Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart... 313 36
1846, Sept. 10 ...|Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 10
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford ..........0000. Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart. . 314 18
1848, Aug. 9...... Swansea .......se00000. The Marquis of Northampton. 149 3
1849, Sept. 12...) Birmingham ,........ The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. 22 12
1850, July 21 ...| Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H. ...... 235 9
1851, July 2 ...... TPS WICH eaimsssesmee ss G. B. Airy, Esq., Astron. Royal . 172 8
TOh2, epi. Lae BEMASE cs. srceseecaess Lieut.-General Sabine, F. B.S. ... 164 10
DOGG eptg ees \gelullle seme ceersecceere William Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S. . 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.RB.S. . 238 23
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. . 194. 33
1856, Aug. 6...... Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M. Ds 182 14
TSG 7, AU. 216) ove | UDI sreceyeeacenenes The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D. D. 236 15
1858; Sept. 22 ..| Weeds <ivacesscscsvsese Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. . 222 42
1859, Sept. 14...) Aberdeen ............ FLR.H. The Prince Consort... 184 27
NS 6O, SUNCII7) eas \OCO eee. s seus ceceees The Lord Wrottesley, M.A....... 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester ......... William Fairbairn, LL.D.,F.R.S. 321 113
1862, Oct. 1 ...... Cambridge ......... The Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A. ... 239 5
1863, Aug. 26 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne ..| Sir William G. Armstrong, O.B. 203 36
T1864, \Nept. 13, s..|Bativen.ce.cscocwcsesens Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A... 287 40
1865, Sept. 6 ...] Birmingham ......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.... 292 44
1866, Aug. 22 ...! Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31
1867, Sept. 4 ...| Dundee ...........005. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25
1868, Aug. 19 ...| Norwich ............ Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . 196 18
NSO; AUP. 1S 3..\sHixehersersereercsees ce Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ...... 204. 21
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314 39
1871, Aug. 2......| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.... 24.6 28
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S_ ... 245 36
1873, Sept.17 ...| Bradford ..........0 Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 212 27
1874, Aug. 19 ...| Belfast .........c000. Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D, F.R.8.
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS, xlv
ut Annual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by Sums paid on
; oe Account of
meceres Grants for
Old New during the} goiontifie
Annual | Annual | Associates.} Ladies. | Foreigners.) Total. Meeting. Pu ses
Members. | Members. a
£ s.d.| £8. d
aes vee ace BS uy te ees ehlee ne Ratan ed
eee sive eee con QOOM) iteeeese-aetd |B deceaedess<e
- aoe aoe Sac E2OS Mar aes acces 20 0 0
as oe oe i Ace dw ily uepeaconds 167 0 0
eas eae ole a TQS levee seat 434 14 0
eee eos eee inc 1840 bs siatde 918 14 6
ees see 1100* rr ZACOVOAlG) cay casas 956 12 2
eee tee te 34 1438 Seton ccf 1595 II 0
eee Bee ae a2 1353 | weeeeeees 1546 16 4
317 wee 60* Bae SO thew Waleesadsens 1235 I0 II
376 33t gane 28 EZtG | sexswanes 1449 17 8
185 ae 160 nae nok Salle Mopac 1565 10 2
190 gt 260 oe een |p artery oe g81 12 8
22 407 172 35 TOTO} Malt) asestane 830 9 9
39 270 196 36 Cy /ee ale sirannocce: 685 16 o
40 495 203 (ip TZOOM owas henetes 208 5 4
25 376 197 15 929 707 00} 275 1 8
33 447 237 22 1071 963 00 159 19 6
42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 oO 345 18 oO
47 244. 141 37 710 62000} 391 9 7
60 510 292 9 1108 10g5 00 | 304 6 7
57 367 236 6 876 903 0°] 205 0 o
121 765 524 bo) 1802 188200] 33019 7
Ior 1094 543 26 2133 231100] 48016 4
48 412 346 9 1115 1098 00} 734 13 9
120 goo 569 26 2022 ZOLG OVO ls07. 15 3
9! 710 509 13 1698 1931 00] 618 18 2
179 1206 821 22 2564. 27820 0| 684 11 1
59 636 463 47 1689 16040 0] 1241 7 O
125 1589 791 15 3139 3944 00] 11I1I § 10
By, 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 O | 1293 16 6
209 1704 1004, 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10
103 III9 1058 3 2802 2965 0 0 | 1289 15 8
149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0| I59I 7 Io
105 960 771 II 2303 2469 00/175013 4
118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 00/1739 4 0O
117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0| 1940 © O
107 678 600 17 1856 1931 00] 1572 0 Oo
195 1103 gio 14 2878 3096 00 | 1472 2 6
127 976 754 21 24.63 2575 00/1285 0 oO
80 937 giz 43 2533 2649 0 0 | 1685 0 o
99 796 6o1 IL 1983 2102 0 0
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
: t Tickets for admission to Sections only. ¢ Including Ladies.
xlvi REPORT—1878.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
BRADFORD MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—Professor Henry J. 8. Smith, M.A., LL.D., F.RS.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.; James Glaisher, F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; Professor . Harley, F.R.S.; Professor Henrici ;
W. Huggins, I'-R.S.; Professor Clerk-Maxwell, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor Balfour
Stewart, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Professor W. K. Clifford, M.A.; Professor Forbes, B.A., F.R.S.E. ;
J. W. L, Giaisher, B.A., F.R.A.S.; Professor A. S. Herschel, B.A., F.R.A.S.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY, INCLUDING THEIR APPLICATIONS TO
AGRICULTURE AND THE ARTS.
President.—Professor W. J. Russell, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. H. Gilbert, F.R.S.; Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S.; A. Vernon
Harcourt, F.R.S.; James Young, F.R.S.; Professor G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S. ;
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Dr. Armstrong, F.C.S.; Dr. Mills, F.C.S.; W. Chandler Roberts,
F.C.8.; Dr. Thorpe, F.R.S.E.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Professor Phillips, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Phillip Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.; Professor T, M‘K, Hughes,
M.A., F.G.S. ; J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S, ; Professor
W. OC. Williamson, F.R.8.
Secretaries.—L, C. Miall, F.G.S.; R. H. Tiddeman, F.G.S.; W. Topley, F.G.8.
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Professor Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.8,
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Balfour, F.R.S.; Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.; Sir Walter
Elliott, K.C.8.L; Dr. Hooker, C.B,, F.R.S.; Professor Rutherford, M.D.; Dr,
Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.; A. R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
Seeretaries,—Professor Thiselton-Dyer, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.S.; Professor Lawson,
M.A., F.L.S, ; R. M‘Lachlan, F.L.S,; Dr. Pye-Smith ; E. Ray Lankester, M.A. ;
F. W. Rudler, F.G.8.; J. H. Lamprey.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
President.—Siy Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.— -
Vice-Presidents—Adimiral Sir Edward Belcher, F.R.S.; F. Galton, F.R.S.; Cap-
tain M. 8. Nolloth, R.N., F.R.G.S.; Admiral E. Ommanney, C.B., F.R.8.,
Major-General Strachey, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—H. W. Bates, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.; A. Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S.;
Clements R, Markham, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Right Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Vice-Presidents—Lord Haughton, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Edward Baines,
M.P.; Sir James Alexander ; Edward Miall, M.P.; F.S. Powell, M.P.; Duncan
McLaren, M.P.; Samuel Brown, F.8.S.; James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S,
Secretaries.—J, G. Fitch ; Swire Smith.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—W. H. Barlow, F.R.S.
Pice-Presidents—¥. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.; Admiral Sir E. Belcher, K.C.B.; P.
le Neve Foster, M.A.; Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.; C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ;
pane R, Napier, F.R.S.; C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.; Thomas Webster, Q.C.,
Secretaries.—Crawford Barlow, B.A.; H. Bauerman, F.G.S, ; E. H. Carbutt, 0.E. ;
John Clarke Hawkshaw, M.A., F.G.S.; ©, W. Siemens, F,G.S.; J. N. Shool-
bred, F.G.8.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1873-74.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Puinip pr M. Grey-EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.8., F.G.8.
Sir Jonny Luszocx, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L8.
PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR A, W. WILLIAMSON, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.8.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. the Fart or RossF, F.R.S.,F.R.A.S. Sir Joon Hawksuaw, F.RBS., F.G.S.4
The Right Hon. Lorp Hoveutoy, D.C.L., F.R.8. J. P. Gassior, Esq., D. C.L., LD. D., F.R.S.
The Right Hon, W. E. Forster, M.P. Professor PHILLIPS, D.C.L., LL.D,, F.R.8.
MarrHzw W. THompsoy, Esq., Mayor of Bradford.
PRESIDENT ELECT,
PROFESSOR J. TYNDALL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S,
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The so eight Hon. the EARL oF ENNISKILLEN, D,C.L., the Bev Dr. HENRY, President of Queen’s College,
elfast.
o™ seh Hon. the EArt oF Rosse, F.R.S.,| Dr. T. ANDREWS, F.R.S., F.C.S.
F.R.A.S. Rey. Dr. RosBinson, BRS., F.R.AS.
Sir RICHARD WALLACE, Bart., M.P. Professor StoxEs, D.C.L., Sec.R.S.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
W. Quartus Ewart, Esq.
Dr. P. REDFERN.
T, Sinciarr, Esq., J.P,
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
WILLIAM J. C, ALLEN, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Brppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. MAXWELL, Professor a CLERK, F.R.S,
BRAMWELL, F, J., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S,
Desus, Dr. H., F.R.S. NoRTHCOTE,Rt.Hon.Sir STAFFORDH. »Bt.,M.P.
DeE La RuE, WARREN, Esq., D.C.L., ¥.R.S, OmMANNEY, Admiral E., C.B., F.R.S,
EVANS, JOHN, Esq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., Tr. R.S.
Firen, J. G., Esq., M.A. PRESTWICH, J., Esq., F.R.S.
FLOWER, Professor ¥ aa F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr. W.J., F.R.S.
Foster, Prof. G. C., ScLaTeER, Dr. P. L., F.R.S.
GALTON, FRANCIs, Ra :. RS. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Hirst, Dr. T, ARCHER, ERS. SMITH, Professor H. J. &., a R.S8.
Hueeins, WILLIAM, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. STRACHEY, ee ae F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S. STRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., P.R.S,
Lockyer, J. N., Esq., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz. :—
The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L,
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | The Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S. | Professor Stokes, D.C.L.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B, Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.8.
_ The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A., LL.D. | Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.
The Duke of Argyll. Professor Phillips, M. AS D.C.L. | Dr, Carpenter, F.R.S.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Sir William R. Grove, F. RS.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. DovGLAs Gatton, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.G.8., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, §.W
Prof, MicHAEL Foster, M. Di, ER. 'S., Trinity College, Cambridge.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow-on-the-hill, Middlesex,
CENERAL TREASURER.
WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., M.A., LL,D., F.R.S., F.R.G.8., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W
AUDITORS,
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Nsq., F.R.S. Professor Phillips, F.R.3. Professor Sylvester, F.R.S,
xl vili REPORT—1873.
Report of the Council for the Year 1872-73 presented to the General
Committee at Bradford, on Wednesday, September 17th, 1878.
During the past year the Council have received Reports from the General
Treasurer ; and his account for the year will be presented to the General
Committee this day.
The Council have had under their consideration the three resolutions which
were referred to them by the General Committee at Brighton. They beg to
report upon the action they have taken upon each case.
First Resolution. — That the Council be requested to take such steps
as they deem desirable to induce the Colonial Office to afford sufficient aid
to the Observatory at Mauritius to enable an investigation of the Cyclones
in the Pacific Ocean to be carried on there”*.
In accordance with this Resolution the following correspondence took
place between Dr. Carpenter, the President of the Association, and the Right
Honourable the Earl of Kimberley, Secretary of State for the Colonies :—
“ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W., December 20, 1872.
“My Lorp,—On behalf of the British Association, I have the honour to
bring under your Lordship’s notice the following statement respecting the
position of the Observatory at the Mauritius :—
“The Mauritius Observatory is for the most part a Meteorological and
Magnetical Observatory. As a Meteorological station, Mauritius is most
important; and the present Director of the Observatory, Mr. Charles Meldrum,
has taken advantage of his position to work out several important Meteoro-
logical problems as far as his means have allowed him.
** He has fostered the growth, if he did not originate, the Metcorological
Society of Mauritius, of which he is the active Secretary, and his researches
have been materially aided by these means,
‘* He has collated the logs of vessels crossing the Indian Ocean, extending
over a period of between twenty and thirty years, and has derived from these
some very important results. In the first place, it has been almost established
by these observations that the behaviour of the barometer at the Mauritius
affords an indication of storms taking place between that island and the
Cape of Good Hope. By a study of these logs of ships he is also able to tell
in what directions such storms travel, and thus he is able to give very
valuable advice to ships’ masters who should happen to be at the Mauritius.
Moreover, Mr. Meldrum’s recent observations tend to show that the cyclones
in the Indian Ocean are periodical, and occur most frequently during those
years when there are most sun-spots.
“In addition to this work, Mr. Meldrum’s duties require him constantly
to attend to the routine work of his observatory, to keep the time, &e. He
is almost unprovided with assistants; and if he happens to be unwell the
current work of the observatory is liable in a measure to be stopped. On
account of overwork, Mr. Meldrum has lately been unwell for two months,
although not so unwell as to put a stop to all his scientific labours.
_ * The resolution was adopted by the Council, with the following modification :—*That
the Council take steps to induce the Colonial Office to afford suificient pecuniary aid to
the Observatory at Mauritius to enable an investigation of Cyclones to be carried on
there,’
: REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlix
“The importance of maintaining the sequence of the observations in the
Mauritius Observatory, of further collating the logs of ships, and of con-
tinuing the inquiry into the periodicity of cyclones, has induced the British
Association to urge upon your Lordship the necessity of affording additional
assistance to Mr. Meldrum, to enable him to pursue these labours and perform
his duties in a satisfactory manner.
“It may be assumed that such assistance, to be efficient, will cost about
£300 a year beyond the present cost of the establishment; and if it is to be
of value for the purpose of the investigation into the periodicity of cyclones,
this additional allowance will have to be continued for a period of about
ten years.
“T trust that the scientific importance of this subject will induce your
Lordship to give this matter your favourable consideration, and to place Mr.
_ Meldrum in a position to complete the inquiries he has commenced with so
much success,
“T have the honour to be,
“ My Lord,
“Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) « Wirmiam B. Carpenter,
President of the British Association.”
“The Right Hon. the Earl of Kimberley,
Secretary of State for Colonies.”
“ Downing Street,
19th December, 1872.
_ €S§tr,—I am directed by the Earl of Kimberley to acknowledge the
receipt of your letter of the 10th instant, urging, on behalf of the British
Association, the necessity of affording additional assistance to Mr. Meldrum in
his labours at the Mauritius Observatory.
The Colonial Government is well aware of the value of the Meteoro-
- logical researches now carried on at their Observatory by Mr. Meldrum ; but
the state of the finances of the Colony is such that no increase can be made
to any of the Government establishments except on urgent grounds.
-. ©The Secretary of State will, however, in deference to the wish ex-
pressed by the British Association, forward a copy of your letter to the
Governor for his consideration and report.
“T am, Sir,
«¢ Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) « R, M. Mrapn.”
"©
.
“ Downing Street,
18th February, 1875.
«Srr,—With reference to my letter of the 19th December last, I now
forward to you, by the Earl of Kimberley’s desire, the copy of a despatch
which has been received from the Governor of Mauritius on the subject
of affording assistance to Mr. Meldrum of the Mauritius Observatory. Lord
Kimberley regrets that he cannot authorize any further charge for this
service on the Colonial Revenue.
“T am, Sir,
“Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) Hi, 2) Horuann.”
1873. 7)
1 REPORT—1873.
Sir A. H, Gordon to the Earl of Kimberley.
* Government House, Mahé, Seychelles,
15th January, 1873.
«My Lorp,—I have had the honour to receive your Lordship’s despatch
(No. 302) of the 20th ultimo on the subject of the assistance to be afforded
to Mr. Meldrum of the Mauritius Observatory.
«2. Some slight increase was made in this year’s estimates to the amount
yoted for this purpose, but not to the extent proposed by the British
Association.
«3. The whole subject is one in respect to which I should be glad to be
informed of your Lordship’s views and wishes.
“4, It is admitted, and indeed the increased grant is urged by the British
Association on this ground, that the benefit of Mr. Meldrum’s investigations
is of general application, and that it is the advancement of science, and not
any special interest of Mauritius itself that is concerned. Under these cir-
cumstances I confess that it seems to me hardly just that the revenue of
Mauritius should bear the whole burden of these investigations, and that
the Imperial Treasury, or, at all events, the Meteorological Society, might
be fairly called upon to defray a part of the expenses incurred,
T have &ce.,
(Signed) « AntHuR Gorpon.”
“ The Right Hon. the Earl of Kimberley, gc. Se.”
In consequence of this communication the Council requested the President
to urge upon the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury the
desirability of affording such pecuniary aid to the Mauritius Observatory as
would enable the Director to continue his observations on the periodicity of
Cyclones; and an intimation has been received from Her Majesty’s Govern-
ment that an inquiry into the condition, size, and cost of the Establishment
of the Mauritius is now being conducted by a Special Commission from
England, pending which inquiry no increase of expenditure upon the
Observatory can be sanctioned; but that when the results of this inquiry
shall be made known the Secretary of State for the Colonies will direct
the attention of the Governor to the subject.
Second Resolution.—* That, in the event of the Council haying reason
to believe that any changes affecting the acknowledged efficiency and
scientific character of the botanical establishment at Kew are contemplated
by the Government, the Council be requested to take such steps as in
their judgment will be conducive to the interests of botanical science in
this country.”
The Council have not deemed it necessary to take any action upon this
Resolution.
Third Resolution — That the Council be requested to take such steps
as they may deem desirable to urge upon the Indian Government the pre-
paration of a Photoheliograph and other instruments for solar observa-
tion, with the view of assisting in the observation of the Transit of Venus
in 1874, and for the continuation of solar observations in India.”
The Council communicated with His Grace the Duke of Argyll, the
Secretary of State for India, upon the subject, with the result explained in
the following correspondence :—
REPORT Of THE COUNCIL. hi
“ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, W., November 27th, 1872.
“My Lorp Duxr,—On behalf of the British Association, I have the honour
to urge upon your Grace’s consideration the importance of making adequate
preparation in India for the observation of the Transit of Venus in 1874, as
well as of making provision for the continuation of solar observations in India,
a matter to which the Council attach special importance.
“The observations ought to comprise both eye and photographie records ;
_ and the following instruments are specially recommended by the Council as
those which it is desirable to procure at once. The photographic records
should be made in the manner determined upon by the Astronomer Royal
and by M. Otto Struve for the Russian Government—namely, by means of a’
Photoheliograph, on the principle of the instrument which has been -werked
at the Kew Observatory during ten years, but improved both in the optical
and mechanical parts.
** For eye-observations it will be desirable to have a Telescope of the greatest
excellence, of 6-inch aperture, mounted equatorially in the best manner, with
a clockwork driver. It is also desirable to have a 4-inch telescope, mounted
-equatorially, and driven by clockwork. “¢
_ “A transit instrument with clock, and one or two chronometers, and also
an Altazimuth Instrument.
_ As the 6-inch equatorial would be available afterwards for Sun Observa-
tions, it would be desirable to fit it with a Spectroscope of sufficient dispersive
power to permit of the prominences being observed efficiently.
The Council would recommend that the Heliograph should be worked
continuously in India, inasmuch as such records are calculated to throw
much light upon the causes of climatic changes, and it is impossible in any
one locality to secure a continuous record of the sun’s activity: observations
of this nature are about to be proceeded with at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich ; but past experience has shown that, on the average, half the
days in the year are unproductive, and it is hoped that if India cooperates
the gaps may be filled up.
The Council of the Association trust that the importance of the subject.
will induce your Grace to give the matter a favourable consideration.
“ haye the honour to be,
« My Lord Duke,
«Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ W. B, Carpenter,
q President of the British Association.”
* His Grace The Duke of Argyll, K.G.,
" Secretary of State for India,”
* India Office,
December 13th, 1872,
_ “S$tr,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to
acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 27th ultimo, expressing the
ire of the Council of the British Association that provision may be made
in India for observation in that country of the Transit of Venus in 1874,
and for a continuation of solar observations in future,
“Tn reply, I am desired by the Duke of Argyll to state that His Grace
has been in correspondence with the Astronomer Royal and the Government
of India with reference to an observation in Northern India of the Transit of
d 2
hi REPORT—1873.
Venus, and that a photoheliograph and other instruments are now in course
of preparation for this object.
‘“‘ With reference to the continuation of future solar observations in India,
Iam to add that there is a Government Astronomer in the Madras Presi-
dency, and a Superintendent of the Colaba Observatory in the Bombay
Presidency, besides Officers employed in the Survey Department in Bengal
and the North-western Provinces, all of whom are engaged from time to time
in recording observations of this nature.
“T am, Sir,
« Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “Herman Merrva.n.”
“ William B. Carpenter, Esq.,
British Association,
22 Albemarle Street, W.”
“ India Office,
February 28th, 1873.
‘¢ Srr,— With reference to my letter of the 13th of December last, relative
to an observation in India of the Transit of the planet Venus in December
1874, Iam directed to state, for the information of the Council of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, that the Secretary of State for
India in Council, haying reconsidered this matter, and looking to the number
of existing burdens on the revenues of India, and to the fact that the selection
of any station in that country was not originally contemplated for ‘ eye-
observations’ of the transit, has determined to sanction only the expendi-
ture (£356 7s. 6d.) necessary for the purchase and packing of a Photo-
heliograph, and any further outlay that may be requisite for the adaptation
of such instruments as may be now in India available for the purpose of the
proposed observation,
“The Duke of Argyll in Council has been led to sanction thus much of
the scheme proposed by Lieut.-Colonel Tennant, in consequence of the recom-
mendation submitted by the Astronomer Royal in favour of the use of pho-
tography for an observation of the transit at some place in Northern India.
“Tam, Sir,
“Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) “ Herman Merrivare.”
“ Wilkam B. Carpenter, Esq.,
British Association.”
The General Committee will recolléct that a Committee was appointed at
Exeter in 1869, on the Laws Regulating the Flow and Action of Water
holding Solid Matter in Suspension, consisting of Mr. J. Hawksley, Professor
Rankine, Mr. R. A. Grantham, Sir A. 8. Waugh, and Mr. T. Login, with
authority to represent to the Government the desirability of undertaking
experiments bearing on the subject. The Committee presented a Memorial
to the Indian Government, who have recently intimated their intention of
advancing a sum of £2000 to enable Mr. Login to carry on experiments.
The Council regret to have to announce the death of their Clerk, Mr.
Askham, who was always most assiduous in his attention to his duties.
They have appointed Mr. H. C. Stewardson in his place.
ee recommend that a gratuity of £50 be given to Mr, Askham’s
idow.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, lili
The Council have added the following list of names of gentlemen present
at the last Meeting of the Association to the list of Corresponding Members :—
_M.C. Bergeron. Lausanne. Mr. J. E. Hilgard. Coast Survey,
Professor E. Croullebois, Paris. Washington.
Professor G. Devalque. Liege. M. Georges Lemoine. Paris.
M.W. de Fonvielle. Paris. Professor Victor von Richter. St.
_ Professor Paul Gervais. Paris. Petersburg.
Professor James Hall, Albany, New | Professor Carl Semper. Wiirtzburg.
York. Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.
The General Committee will remember that Belfast has already been
selected as the place of mecting for next year. The Council have been in-
formed that invitations to hold subsequent Meetings at Bristol and Glasgow
will be presented to the General Committee.
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL ComMITTER AT THE BRADFORD
Meerine rn SerremBer 18738.
[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the Secretary,
except there is a specific nomination. ] ©
Involving Grants of Money.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G. Stokes,
Professor H. J.S. Smith, Professor Sir W. Thomson, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher
_ (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables be reappointed, with a grant of £100 for
the completion of the tabulation of the Elliptic Functions.
That the sum of £100 be granted to the Committee on Mathematical Tables
towards the printing of the tables of the Elliptic Functions that haye been
-¢aleulated by the Committee.
That Mr. Glaisher, Colonel Strange, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Mr. Brooke,
Mr, Walker, M. de Fonvielle, Professor Zenger, and Mr. Mann (Secretary),
be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the efficacy of Lightning-
conductors, giving suggestions for their improvement, and reporting upon any
case in which a building has been injured by lightning, especially where such
building was professedly protected by a lightning-conductor, and that the sum
of £50 granted last year, but not expended, be regranted to the Committee.
__ That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr.
Glaisher, and Mr. Lockyer, and that a grant of £100 be made to them in order
to provide assistance to Mr. Meldrum in conducting meteorological researches -
in Mauritius.
__ That Professor Balfour Stewart and Mr. W. F. Barrett be a Committee for
ie purpose of investigating the magnetization of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt,
nd that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
_ That the Committee for reporting on the Rainfall of the British Isles, con-
sisting of Mr. Charles Brooke, Mr. Glaishcr, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. J. F. Bateman, Mr. T. Hawksley, Mr. C. Tomlinson, and Mr.
Rogers Field, be reappointed ; that Mr. G. J. Symons be the Secretary, and
that a grant of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
__ That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Mr. R. P. Greg,
Mr. Charles Brooke, Professor G, Forbes, and Professor A. S. Herschel, be
liv REPORT—1878.
reappointed, and the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purposo
of showing the radiant-points of shooting-stars on graphical cliarts.
That the Committee on Thermo-Electricity, consisting of Professor Tait,
Professor Tyndall, and Professor Balfour Stewart, be reappointed, and that
the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor A. W. Williamson, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor
Clerk Maxwell, Professor G. C. Foster, Mr. Abel, Professor F. Jenkin, Mr.
Siemens, and Mr. R. Sabine be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of
testing the New Pyrometer of Mr. Siemens, and that the sum of £30 (which
was granted last year and has lapsed) be regranted to the Committee.
_ That Professor Crum Brown, Mr. Dewar, Professor Tait, Professor Sir W.
Thomson, and Dr. Gladstone be a Committee for the purpose of conducting in-
vestigations as to the determination of High Temperatures by various methods ;
that Mr. Dewar be the Secretary, and that the sum of £70 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Williamson, Professor Roscoe, and Professor Frankland be
a Committee for the purpose of superintending the Monthly Records of the
Progress of Chemistry published in the Journal of the Chemical Society, and
that the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Gladstone, Dr. C. R. A. Wright, and Mr. Chandler Roberts be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the chemical con-
stitution and optical properties of essential oils; that Mr. Chandler Roberts
be the Secretary; that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose ; and that the subject of investigation be Isomeric Turpenes and their
Derivatives.
That Dr. H. A. Armstrong and Dr. Thorpe be a Committee for the purpose
of investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives; that Dr. Armstrong
be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Professor A. 8. Herschel and Mr. G. A. Lebour be a Committee for
the purpose of conducting experiments on the conducting-power for Heat of
certain rocks ; that Professor Herschel be the Secretary, and that the sum of
£10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Phillips, Professor Harkness, Mr. Heury Woodward, Mr.
James Thomson, Mr. John Brigg, and Mr. L. C. Miall be a Committee for the
purpose of investigating and reporting upon the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-
measures; that Mr. L. C. Miall be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Bryce and Mr. William Jolly be a Committee for the purpose of
collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in the north-west of Scotland;
that the specimens be deposited as arranged in the Resolution of last year ;
that Mr. William Jolly be the Secretary, and that the sum of £10 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Rey. T. Wiltshire, Mr. J. Thomson, and Professor W. C. Williamson
be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigation of Mountain
Limestone Corals, and the preparation of plates for publication, and that the
Committee be requested to direct their attention to the early publication of
the results hitherto attained; that Mr. James Thomson be the Secretary, and
that the sum of £25 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. H. Willett, Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, W. Topley, Mr. Da-
vidson, Mr. Prestwich, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Henry Woodward
be a Committee for the purpose of’ promoting the “ Sub-Wealden Explora-
tion ;”” that Mr. H. Willett be the Seeretary, and that the sum of £25 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose,
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lv
That Sir C. Lyell, Bart., Professor Phillips, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Mr.
_ J. Evans, Mr. E. Vivian, Mr. W. Pengelly, Mr. G. Busk, Mr. W. B. Dawkins,
Mr. W. A. Sanford, and Mr. J. E. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of
continuing the exploration of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay; that Mr, Pengelly be
the Secretary, and that the sum of £150 be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
. That Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwich, Professor Hughes, Rev. H. W.
Grosskey, Messrs. 0. J. Woodward, W. Boyd Dawkins, George Maw, L. C.
Miall, G. H. Morton, and J. E. Lee be a Committee for the purpose of re-
cording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and
origin of the more important of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales,
reporting other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking mea-
sures for their preservation ; that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary,
and that the sum of £10 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Henry Woodward, Professor W. C. Williamson, Mr. F. W. Rudler,
Mr. L. C. Miall, Mr. W. Topley, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. G. A. Lebour be
a Committee for the purpose of preparing a Record of Geological and Pale-
ontological Literature ; that Mr. Henry Woodward be the Secretary, and that
the sum of £100 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
- That Sir John Lubbock, Bart., Professor Phillips, Professor Hughes,
Messrs. W. Boyd Dawkins, L. C. Miall, and R. H. Tiddeman be a Committee
for the purpose of assisting the exploration of the Victoria Cave, Settle ; that
R. H. Tiddeman be the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their
disposal for the purpose. _
That Mr. Stainton, Sit John Lubbock, and Professor Newton be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Literature ;
that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £100 be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. G. 8. Brady, Mr. Robertson, and Mr. H.
Brady be a Committee for the purpose of dredging off the coasts of Durham
and North Yorkshire; that Mr. H. Brady be the Secretary, and that the sum
of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Balfour, Dr. M¢Kendrick, and Mr. Dewar be a Committee
for the purpose of carrying on investigations into the Physiological Action of
Light; that Dr. McKendrick be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. Pye-Smith, Dr. Brunton, and Mr. West be a Committee for the
_ purpose of making physiological researches on the nature of intestinal secre-
tion ; that Dr. Brunton be the Secretary, and that the sum of £20 be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. M. Foster, Mr. EH. Ray Lankester, Dr. Anton Dohrn, and Mr, A. G.
Dew-Smith be a Committee for determining the best methods of breeding the
embryos of delicate marine organisms; that Dr. Anton Dohrn be the Secre-
tary, and that the sum of £30 be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Colonel Lane Fox, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Galton, Mr.
Edward Brabrook, Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., Sir Walter Elliot, Mr. Clements R.
Markham, and Mr. E. B. Tylor be reappointed a Committee for the purpose
of preparing and publishing brief forms of instruction for travellers, ethnolo-
gists, and other anthropological observers ; that Colonel Lane Fox be the Se-
eretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the purpose,
£25 being the renewal of the unexpended grant of last year.
That Lord Houghton, Professor Thorold Rogers, W. Newmarch, Professor
Faweett, M.P., Jacob Behrens, F. P, Fellows, R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Archi-
lvi REPORT—1873.
bald Hamilton, and 8. Brown be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring
into the economic effect of combinations of labourers or capitalists, and into
the laws of Economic Science bearing on the principles on which they are
founded ; that Professor L. Levi be the Secretary, and that the sum of £25
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on instruments for measuring the speed of ships be
reappointed ; that it consist of the following Members :—Mr. W. Froude, Mr.
F. J. Bramwell, Mr. A. E. Fletcher, Rev. E. L. Berthon, Mr. James R. Napier,
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. H. M. Brunel, Mr. W. Smith,
Sir William Thomson, and Mr. J. N. Shoolbred; that Mr. J. N. Shoolbred be
the Secretary, and that the sum of £50 be placed at their disposal for the
uurpose.
; That the sum of £50 be granted to Mr. Askham’s widow (recommended
by the Council),
Applications for Reports and Researches not involving Grants of Money.
That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, Professor Hirst, Rey. Professor
Bartholomew Price, Professor H. J, 8. Smith, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr. R. B.
Hayward, Dr. Salmon, Rey. R. Townsend, Professor Fuller, Professor Kel-
land, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and Professor Clifford be reappointed a Committee
(with power to add to their number) for the purpose of considering the pos-
sibility of improving the methods of instruction in elementary geometry ; and
that Professor Clifford be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Professor Sir W. Thomson,
Professor Tait, Professor Balfour Stewart, and Professor J. Clerk Maxwell,
be reappointed to effect the determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat.
That the Committee, consisting of the following Members, with power to
add to their number,—Professor Roscoe, Professor W. G. Adams, Professor
Andrews, Professor Balfour, Mr. Baxendell, Mr. Bramwell, Professor A. Crum
Brown, Mr. Buchan, Dr. Carpenter, Professor Core, Dr. De La Rue, Professor
Thiselton Dyer, Sir Walter Elliot, Professor Flower, Professor G. C. Foster,
Professor M. Foster, Colonel Lane Fox, Professor Geikie, Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
Mr. Griffith, Rev. R. Harley, Dr. Hirst, Dr. Hooker, Dr. Huggins, Professor
Huxley, Professor Fleeming Jenkin, Dr. Joule, Dr. Lankester, Mr. J. N.
Lockyer, Professor Clerk Maxwell, Mr. D. Milne-Home, Dr. O’Callaghan,
Professor Odling, Professor Ramsay, Dr. Spottiswoode, Mr, Stainton, Professor
Balfour Stewart, Colonel Strange, Professor Tait, Mr. J. A. Tinné, Professor
Allen Thomson, Professor Sir William Thomson, Professor Wyville Thomson,
Professor Turner, Mr. G. V. Vernon, Professor A. W. Williamson, Professor
Young, Professor Roscoe being the Secretary,—be reappointed —
1°, to consider and report on the best means of advancing science by
Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the
Council, in the course of the present year, if judged desirable.
2°, to consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render
scientific organization more complete and effectual.
That the Eclipse Committee, consisting of the President and General Officers
(with power to add to their number), be reappointed.
That the Committee on Tides, consisting of Professor Sir W. Thomson,
Professor J. C. Adams, Mr. J. Oldham, Rear-Admiral Richards, General
Strachey, Mr. W. Parkes, Mr. Webster, and Colonel Walker, be reappointed.
That the Committee on Underground Temperature, consisting of Professor
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lvii
Everett (Secretary), Professor Sir W. Thomson, Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., Pro-
fessor J. Clerk Maxwell, Professor Phillips, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor
Ramsay, Professor Geikie, Mr. Glaisher, Rey. Dr. Graham, Mr. George Maw,
Mr. Pengelly, Mr. S. J. Mackie, Professor Edward Hull, and Professor Ansted,
be reappointed, with the addition of Dr. Clement Le Neve Foster.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Huggins, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Dr.
Reynolds, and Mr. Stoney, on Inverse Wave-lengths, be reappointed, and that
Mr. Spottiswoode, Dr. De La Rue, and Dr. W. M. Watts be added to the
Committee.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. W. Pole, Mr. Merrifield, Professor Fuller, Mr. H. M. Brunel, and Pro-
fessor W. K. Clifford, be reappointed to estimate the cost of constructing Mr.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine, and to consider the advisability of printing
tables by its means.
That Mr. W. H. L. Russell be requested to continue his Report on recent
progress in the Theory of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions,
That Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Clifford, Professor W. G. Adams,
Professor Balfour Stewart, Mr. J.G. Fitch, Mr. George Griffith, Mr. Marshall
Watts, Professor Everett, Professor G. Carey Foster, and Mr. W. F. Barrett
be a Committee (with power to add to their number) to consider and report
on the extent and method of teaching Physics in Schools, and that Professor
G. Carey Foster be the Secretary.
That Professor Sir W. Thomson, Professor Everett, Professor G. C. Foster,
Professor J. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. G. J. Stoney, Professor Fleeming Jenkin,
Dr. Siemens, Mr. Bramwell, Professor W. G. Adams, and Professor Balfour
Stewart be a Committee for reporting on the Nomenclature of Dynamical and
Electrical Units, and that Professor Everett be the Secretary.
That Professor Tait be requested to prepare a Report on Quaternions.
That Mr. Roberts, Dr. Mills, J. 8. Sellon, Dr. Boycott, and Mr, Gadesden
be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into the method of making gold
assays, and stating the results thereof; that Mr. W. C. Roberts be the Se-
cretary.
That Dr. Bryce, Professor Sir W. Thomson, Mr. J. Brough, Mr. G. Forbes,
Mr. D. Milne-Holme, and Mr. J. Thomson be a Committee for the purpose
of continuing the Observations and Records of Karthquakes in Scotland, and
that Dr. Bryce be the Seeretary.
That the Rev. H. IF. Barnes, Mr. Dresser, Mr. Harland, Mr. Harting,
Professor Newton, and the Rey. Canon Tristram be reappointed a Committee
for the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing “a close time”
for the protection of indigenous animals, and that Mr. Dresser be the Se-
cretary.
That Professor Balfour, Dr. Cleghorn, Mr. Hutchinson, Mr. Buchan, and
Mr. Sadler be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of taking observations
on the effect of the denudation of timber on the rainfall of North Britain;
that Mr. Hutchinson be the Secretary.
That Dr. Carpenter, Professor Allman, Professor Newton, and Mr. H. B,
Brady be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting upon
the possibility of increasing the scientific usefulness of the Aquaria at Brighton
and Sydenham ; that Dr. Carpenter be the Secretary.
That the Metric Committee be reappointed, such Committee to consist of
The Right Hon. Sir Stafford H. Northcote, Bart., C.B., M.P., The Right Hon.
C. B. Adderley, M.P., Sir W. Armstrong, Mr. Samuel Brown, Dr. Farr, A.
Hamilton, Professor Frankland, Professor Hennessy, Professor Leone Levi,
lviii REPORT—1873.
Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor A. W. Williamson, Major-Gen. Strachey, and
Dr. Roberts; that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary.
That the Committee for the purpose of continuing the investigations on the
Treatment and Utilization of Sewage be renewed, and that such Committee
consist of Mr. R. B. Grantham, Professor Corfield, Mr. Bramwell, Dr. J. H.
Gilbert, Mr. W. Hope, and Professor Williamson.
That Mr. J. R. Napier, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Sir John
Hawkshaw, Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., and Professor Osborne Reynolds be a
Committee for the purpose of considering and reporting on British Measures
in use for mechanical and other purposes, and that Mr. C. W. Merrifield be
the Secretary.
That Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Mr. W. Froude, and Pro-
fessor Osborne Reynolds be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining a record
of the varying amount of sea disturbance, and the measurement of waves
near shore.
That Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Mr. Hawksley, Mr. Edward Easton, Sir William
Armstrong, and Mr. W. Hope be a Committee to investigate and report upon
the utilization and transmission of wind and water power ; that Mr. W. Hope
be the Secretary.
That Mr. H.Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Dr. Lyon Playfair, Dr. C. W.
Siemens, and Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., be a Committee for the purpose of con-
_ sidering and reporting on the contributions to science due to inventors and
invention in the industrial arts, and that Mr. T. Webster, Q.C., be the Se-
eretary.
That Mr. W. H. Barlow, Mr. H. Bessemer, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Captain
Douglas Galton, Sir John Hawkshaw, Mr. C. W. Siemens, Professor Abel, and
Mr. E. H. Carbutt be a Committee for the purpose of considering what steps
can be taken in furtherance of the objects of the Address of the President of
this Section [Mechanical] as to the use of steel for structural purposes, and that
Mr. E. H. Carbutt be the Secretary.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if it seem
desirable.
That the Council be requested to take steps to bring the importance of the
meteorological researches at Mauritius before the Government, in order that,
when they become convinced of the value of these researches by the action of
the Association, they may be induced to increase the assistance.
That the Council be requested to take such steps as they may consider
desirable for the purpose of representing to Her Majesty’s Government the
importance of the scientific results to be obtained from Arctic Exploration.
That the Council be requested to consider the possibility and expediency
of making arrangements for the constitution of an Annual Museum for the
exhibition of specimens and apparatus on a similar footing to that of the
le and similarly provided with officers to superintend the arrange-
ments.
‘That the Council of the British Association be requested to communicate
with the authorities in charge of the St, Gothard Tunnel, with the view of
obtaining permission for the Committee on Underground Temperature to take
observations on temperature during the progress of the works.
Se Le ee ee
RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, lix
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.
That Professor A. Schafarik’s paper “ On the visibility of the dark side of
Venus” be printed in eatenso among the Reports.
That Mr. Meldrum’s paper “On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in
connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity” be printed in ewienso among the
Reports.
That the Tables (extending to 3 or 4 pages) appended to Mr. Gwyn
Jeffreys’s paper “‘ On Mediterranean Mollusca ” be printed in the Report.
That Mr. Pengelly’s paper, “The Flint and Chert Implements found in
Kent’s Cavern; Torquay, Devonshire,’ read in the department of Anthro-
pology, be printed in evtenso in the Annual Report.
That Mr. Firth’s paper “On the Coal-cutting Machine” and Mr. Gott’s
paper (with the diagrams, on the understanding that the blocks be supplied)
“On the Bradford Waterworks” be printed in ewtenso in the Annual Volume.
Resolution referred to the Parliamentary Committee.
That the Memorial from the Council of tho Leeds Philosophical and
Literary Society to the General Committee of the British Association be
referred to the Parliamentary Committee.
[Copy. ]
Memorial from the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society to
the General Committee of the British Association.
The Council of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society desrie to
direct the attention of the General Committee of the British Association to a
question of legislation capable of affecting prejudicially a number of Societies
engaged in the promotion of science,
Since the British Association recognizes as one of its functions the vigilant
observation through its Parliamentary Committee of current legislation affect=
ing the interests of science, your memorialists have much confidence in bring-
ing the subject before it.
The Rating Bill introduced by Government during the last Session of Par-
lament, proposed to withdraw from Scientific and Literary Societies the ex-
emption from rating specially conferred upon them by an Act passed about
thirty years ago.
The Institution which your memorialists represent, like many others,
would have suffered seriously in its capability of maintaining a large Public
Museum had this Bill become law.
After the discussion of the question in Parliament, your memorialists are
convinced that no sufficient reason exists for thus abstracting from the funds
of Scientific and Literary Societies a sum of money which is important to
their efficiency, but too small to affect appreciably the question of the distri-
bution of taxation. So many exemptions of religious and educational insti-
tutions were admitted by the amended Bill, that it could lay no claim to
uniformity in its treatment of the subject of Rating.
Your memorialists respectfully invite the attention of the General Com-
mittee of the British Association to this subject, with the view of maintain-
ing the present exemption, should further legislation be undertaken.
Signed,
By order of the Council of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society,
THomas WILson, Hone Secreta
Ricwarp Reynoxps, f 72% Mecrevarces.
,
Sept. 9th, 1873.
Ix REPORT—1873.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Bradford Meeting in September 18738.
The names of the Members who would be entitled to call on the
General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
*Cayley, Professor.—Mathematical Tables ...........0000 NO "Oo
Cayley, Professor.—Printing Mathematical Tables ........ 100 0 0
Glaisher, Mr. J.— Efficacy of Lightning Conductors (renewed) 50 0 O
Balfour Stewart, Professor.—Mauritius Observatory........ 100 0 0
Balfour Stewart, Professor.—Magnetization of Iron........ 20° "O40
brooke, Mr.——british Rainfall: |... 0s «ene sees ee antes 100 0 O
*Glaisher, Mr. J.—Luminous Meteors ...........csececees 30 0 0
*Tait, Professor—Thermo-Electricity (renewed) .......... 50 0 0
*Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Testing Siemens’s New Pyrometer
PERO WOU) corm ete scatter ai pis «cee potato son Sms nieipoe ORE 30 0 0
Chemistry.
*Brown, Professor Crum.—High Temperature of Bodies (partly
EHO WEL), <a‘as sis +» » armies Re ecius ekenabae ee cep keT eae eens 70 0 0
*Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Records of the Progress of Chemistry
(eG wenewyed):’. . ».«5' a6.» sigmatel eee ete 100 0 0
*Gladstone, Dr.—Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
Do scentiall Oales ian Geena ieee oie ieee» ae See eee 1033-30
Armstrong, Dr.—Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives .... 20 0 0
Geology.
Herschel, Professor.—Thermal Conducting-power of Rocks... 10 0 0
Phillips, Professor.—Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures.. 10 0 0
*Bryce, Dr.—Collection of Fossils in the North-west of Scotland 10 0 0
* Wiltshire, Rey. T.—Investigation of Fossil Corals ........ 25 0 0
* Willett, Mr. H—The Sub-Wealden Exploration .......... 25 0 0
*Lyell, Sir C., Bart.—Kent’s Cavern Exploration ........., 150 0 0
*Harkness, Professor.—Mapping Positions of Erratic Blocks and
Boulders. 2.F jclstat ska eee vices fata wee oot eek eee 10° 30-10
Woodward, Mr. H.—Record of Geological and Paleontological
dateratare})). 27. sae esas saa. 2, eee ee 100 0 0
*Lubbock, Sir J—Exploration of Victoria Cave............ 50 0 0
Catried forward: <asms..6 es WOES oe ce ee ae £1170 D0
* Reappointed.
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.
Biology.
GUST SOF WATOL sis a atnallee ere Pav cede es eee £1170
*Lane Fox, Col. A——Forms of Instruction for Travellers (£25
, ee han eieenarihie ad Gal cssuip/w iva) std Cesay Ayeane a » 50
*Stainton, Mr.—Record of the Progress of Zoology.......... 100
Jeffreys, Mr. Gwyn.—Dredging off the Coasts of Yorkshire... 30
Balfour, Professor.—Physiological Action of Light ........ 20
Pye-Smith, Dr.—The Nature of Intestinal Secretion........ 20
Foster, Dr. Mi—Methods of Breeding the Embryos of Delicate
_ Marine Organisms ..... a aOele Pee etna ds a aedinsats 30
Statistics and Economic Science.
Houghton, Lord.—Economic Effects of Trades Unions ...... 28
Mechanics.
*Froude, Mr. W.—lInstruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships and Currents (renewed)... .0e sees scence cree eee
1495
Askham’s Widow, Mr............. Be AD ee at <g dm, eR
Total.,..£1545
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1874.
o
(— VE Jal Ba Tt)
SSS EO
(== pt Tire a)
Ness fs ein =)
The Meeting at Belfast will commence on Wednesday, August 19, 1874.
Place of Meeting in 1875.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1875 will be held at Bristol.
Ixii
REPORT—1873.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes.
aa iar
1834.
Bide Discussions ,...cccscorseccee 20 0. 0
1835,
Hifde DiscUssiONS *.2.ccessecscceseee 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ,..... 105 0 0
Eelog 0) 10,
1836.
Tide Discussions .......s0+8 Soesuion 0. 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ..... . 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations, &c. 50 0 0O
Experiments on long-continued
RGA. ..csees Rtasissssiecrcrcate ees ET 45 bros
NPAINSGAUCES osecedsess:sepacecesds ve Gods 20
Refraction Experiments. v.00. 15 0 0
PNOULONLALION ces essec0edccsepsace 60 0 0
Thermometers .......+0+ a enueeeenas 15 6 O
£434 14 0
1837.
Tide Discussions ...scc.csccoseseee 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ....ee.see wee 24 “13° “O
Lunar Nutation..... sereeeechessa ay Ue)
Observations on Waves........00+ - 100 12 0
Wides at. Bristol .sveescodesssesenve . 150.0. 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
TEMpPeratune',..ccecessovecscvesese 89 5 0
Vitrification Experiments......... 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ........ssesees § 4 6
Barometric Observations ......... 30 0 0
SAKOMICLETS censssscceessvne naseneee 1118 6
£918 14 6
1838,
Tide Discussions ........seeeee sore ee fy
British Fossil Fishes ............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations and
Anemometer (construction)... 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ......... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Substances
(Preservation Of) ......seeseeees Aor gi ke ath)
Railway Constants .........6 coon 41 12 10
Bristol Tides/.0;.cavevasecevescssesen 100) (OmI0
Growth of Plants ...cccccossesstece ES UO
WT OG) Ceca neercreceriarerce aah. (he (6
Education Committee .......00. 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ......... oy ee ob,
Land and Sea Level.........s0008. 267 8 7
Subterranean Temperature ....,. 8 6 0
Dteamevessels...:.s6c.cecececusones peLOO! 00
Meteorological Committee ...... 31 9 5
iMWermometers cor. veceseoeesceerers 16 4 0
£956 12 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology........ sacdacssas, LO) 0) a0
Meteorological Observations at
Bla MTethh) asseecstevesteemiewens ss 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ............ 144 2 0
Bristol Tides SOOO eee eeee tenet ensetees 85 18 6
£38. ad.
Meteorology. and Subterranean
Temperature .ccacascrcqecceenense 21 1150
Vitrification Experiments...... seo SR eee en
Cast-Iron Experiments.......,.... 100 0 0
Railway Constants ...ccscceyseuee 29 € 2
Land and Sea Level .........ee+0. Be dle a
Steam-vessels’ Engines......+++.. - 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ..... we. ddl 18 6
Stars in Lacaille .....scesssee cease SPO
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue......... 6 16 6
Animal Secretions....... oozcssescue Osta TO
Steam-engines in Cornwall ..... 250) 05 40
Atmospheric Air ........s000¢ oogae ALG al gene
Cast and Wrought Iron...... versus 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 3 0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum ......+++ 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorclogical Observa-
tions, Inverness and Kingussie 49 7 &
Fossil Reptiles .......ccseeeee ivoses IS 72-8
Mining Statistics ....sesseceessseer 50 0 0
£1595 11 0
1840.
Bristol Tides...... MEPS éaines LOOROE 0
Subterranean Temperatiire ...... 138 18 6
Heart Experiments .cseos.ss.ce0s + LOaEo™ 10
Lungs Experiments ......+0+...+ oo ©638 ES? -0
Tide Discussions ....... sevens coses, OUPTO SG
Land and Sea Level ...........0 oo erm een
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ......... 242 10 0
Stars\(Lacallle)tcsvensecvescenecsees 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) ........... eerened 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .......... auseese oy ah = 30
Water on Iron ....... enseccenseooce KO* 26310
Heat on Organic Bodies ......... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations...... 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs ...,.. 112 1 6
Working Population............... 100 0 0
School Statistics....... csescecscsesee OO O 0)
Forms of Vessels ....scescssaposse . 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical Pheno-
mena ...... sebleadswas Sevceecesscese 40 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth sivesc.sccocescsscsesss0 OUMED OO
Magnetical Observations ..........185 138 9
£1546 16 4
a
1841,
Observations on Waves.......00... 380 0 0
Meteorology and Subterranean
Temperature:,. sacissussuasesesceg) (8
Actinometers............ Brccccsbise’s 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ......... =o NW fe CY
Acrid'POISONS..svesecseess Pee a eh
Veins and Absorbents .....2...0+. 3.0 0
Mud (in RuiverSigccessssscrcsse cece. Oe ODO,
Marine Zoology......sssccescscesees 15 12 0
Skeleton Maps) .vecs-vsesssesscevse . 20S Ss
Mountain Barometers ............ 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste).......00 185 0 0
——
:
:
|
GENERAL STATEMENT.
& 8. a.
Stars (Lacaille) ...cecseeyeegeregvene 79 5 O
Stars (Nomenclature of) ......... 17.19 6
Stars (Catalogue Of) .scsscssseree 40 0 0
Water on Tron cisecorsccscccceseree 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations at
MGRELBESS | ccsvecscssacarsqaressan, 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations (re-
GuUCtion Of) crersecccsseccessserre 25 0 O
Bossi Reptiles sc.casscsssessseaeey. 00 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ,.....s00sesee00e, 62 0 0
Railway BECHONS: sescunecceucsaesass. co L G
Forms of Vessels ...sssecceseeseeee 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth .....cccsccscoscereerne SD O O
Magnetical Observations a eas 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone 100 0 0
Mides at Heitth) so. ayseresacesaceeyy 20.0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh ...... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ,....... 9 6 &
REET OUMGH “caceqccoscsvseseqgesur 2 0. 6
Radiate Animals ..........000.. 2 0 0
£1235 10 11
1842,
Dynamometric Instruments.,.... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannia ..,.......... 52 12 0
PPides at Bristoljcssugscessansseeeese 09 8
Gases on Light ..y...cccecccgecereee 90 14 7
Chronometers ..,...ccsecccsesccgee 26 17 6
Marine Zoology.......cccocccsorree 1 5 0
British Fossil Mammalia ....,.... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education ...,........ 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ Engines... 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste)............ 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ...... 110 0 0
Railway Sections .,.,,.,..se...,. 161 10 0
British Belemnites....... ~apeysneses GOP Gs
Fossil Reptiles (publication of
Report) ....... Ba cgeeagen sacs SAEES EAU 0)
Forms of Vessels .+..,,.ssseseee0. 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments at
Plymouth ............ Sancccesee te 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dynamo-
_ metric Instruments ...... seems oO On. 0
Force of Wind ,........... Sacesessan, LO ONG
Light on Growth of Seeds ...... 8 0 O
Vital Statistics ....... Sesauecees we 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds arc 0 Gk
Questions on Human Race...... 7 9 0
‘£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature of
RAHENE doc veasedassaestacineseasse aries 0
Reduction of Stars, British Asso-
ciation Catalogue ............ wet goo 0) .0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of Forth 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Observa-
tionsat KingussieandInverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations at
Plymouth .,....... cosgsanesaqasng OO; O 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
- Mometer at Plymouth ,,....... 10 0 0
lxiii
£ 2. d.
Meteorological Observations, Os-
ler’s Anemometerat Plymouth 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological Ob-
SEYVAtIONS ....esccsegcssceccerseee 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments and
GYAtUIETES® acsssanesses=ssas wnvece ae GQ
Construction of Anemometer at
MNIVEXITCSS) vs. ccsang cesegracqaseaga GO ke as
Magnetic Cooperation ....... suse LOS 10
Meteorological Recorder for Kew
Observatory,” <aesccocececacagacsan’ (GU) aCe
Action of Gases on Light. secnycagr (AG) hand
Establishment at Kew Observa-
tory, Wages, Repairs, Furni-
ture and Sundries ..........65. . 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Balloons 81 8 0
Oxidation ofthe Rails of Railways 20 0 0
Publication of Report on Fossil
Hepilesicacestececesasnecs ssceees « 200 Oh 0
Coloured Drawings of Railway
Sections .cccasnsceteustesesstsreves 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks: fy cseccscsvscseaer ceegahe GeO mnG
Report on Zoological ‘Nomencla-
EUTETD seaeces << sednseceecevscseguese. 20 OO
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ......... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea Fane of ) 10 0 0
Marine Zoology... sessscssseeseeee 10 0 0
Marine Zoology.........+0. «. 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on British
Fossil Mammalia .........00.06 - 100 0
Physiological Operations of Me-
Gicinal Agents ......ecccce000 20 0 0
Vital Statistics Rasaee gsdaniueacseuns 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ...cecssececeee 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels ..scsssees vee 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on the
Forms of Vessels .....scecseeeee 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Constant
Eridicaton -/sisser:.scesescenadss +. 69 14 10
Experiments on the "Strength of
Materials* ;..cssscsecseccerade-c-- 60° 0 0
“E1565 10 2
1844,
Meteorological Observations at
Kingussie and Inverness ...,... 12 0 0
Completing Observations at Ply-
TAPUMN ssn cggdnnacs cscesaces ace 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Co-
GPETatiON sererenasenassyanss saan" 25 8 4
Publication of ‘the British Ago
ciation Catalogue of Stars...... 85 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East ceast of Scotland ...,,.... 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature of
SERES. coca cas aeveneceee voveee 1842 2 9 G
M aintaining the Establishmentin
Kew Observatory sescorgeceseese 117 17 8
Instruments for Kew Observatory 56 7 3
Ixiv REPORT—1878.
Be UE cnet. we
Influence of Light on Plants...... 10 © © | Computation of the Gaussian
Subterraneous Temperature in Constants for 1829 .......0000 50 0 0
JREEEG orechoncocthottsaabsennnoe 5 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment at
Coloured Drawings of Railway Kew Observatory ...ccceeeeeeeee 146 16 7
MECH Olinlessassvesre.scevsessasece 15 17 Strength of Materials ............ 60 0 0
Investigation of Fossil Fishes ae Researches in Asphyxia ........ 616 2
the Lower Tertiary Strata ... 100 0 0 | Examination of Fossil Shells...... 10 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Earth- Vitality of Seeds .,,+00......1844 2 15 10
QuaKes 2... .ccossececees +.001842 23 11 10] Vitality of Seeds ............ 1845 712 3
Structure of Fossil Shells ......... 20 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the Marine Zoology of Britain ...... 10 0 0
fEgean and Red Seas.,....1842 100 0 0 Exotic Anoplura ,........... 1844 25 0 0
Geographical Distributions of Expenses attending Anemometers 11 7 6
Marine Zoology .........1842 10 0 0 | Anemometers’ Repairs .........0. 2 3 6
Marine Zoology of Devon and Atmospheric Waves ....sc0cceeee 8 38 8
Cornwall ..csccccsseseeesesevesee 10 © 0 | Captive Balloons ...........1844 819 3
Marine Zoology of Corfu ......... 10 0 0 | Varieties of the Human Race
Experiments on the Vitality of 1844 7 6 38
SeedS ..cccocecseresccsvccrcvcecess 9 0 38| Statistics of Sickness and Mor-
Experiments on the Roar er tality.in YOrK ccsssccasssessneaomenel-nmnet
Scedsicesesceevecsvassiveesln4e Sf 3 £685 16 0
Exotic Anoplura ...... ABODE odd 05-0 —$—<—<—
Strength of Materials ...... eeansoet OU unOl 0 1847.
Completing Experiments on the Computation of the Gaussian
Forms of Ships ..+..sseoeveseees . 100 0 0 Constants for 1829 <cccoocoocee 50 O O
Inquiries into Asphyxia «++... 10 0 0) Habits of Marine Animals ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal Physiological Actionof Medicines 20 0 0
Constitution of Metals ........- 50 0 0} Marine Zoology of Cornwall...... 10 0 0
Constant Indicator and Morin’s Atmospheric Waves seesseereee 6 9 8
Instrument ...sersseeeeeeel842 10 3 6) Vitality of Seeds ......... sdveetect, ete (faa
£981 12 8 | Maintaining the Establishment at
——S= Kew Observatory ....e-.0000.. 107 8 6
1845. £208 5 4
Publication of the British Associa- SS
tion Catalogue of Stars ....... . 301 14 6 1848.
Meteorological Observations at Maintaining the Establishment at
IMVEFTIESS .oecccceccsceccsecs saade NOUGLS TLL Kew Observatory ...ccccoscee.ce 171 15 11
Magnetic and Meteorological Co- Atmospheric Waves ...ccccsssseees 310 9
OPeration seseseseeeee Repeicalienn we§ 16,716) Sa Vitality of Seeds”... ..scvecessenes Sate oD aU
Meteorological Instruments at Completion of Cataloguesof Stars 70 0 0
Edinburgh edseennsecedensesea ands - 18 11 9} On Colouring Matters ......... Pre a vingal td!)
Reduction of Anemometrical Ob- On Growth of Plants.......6000+. 15 02 0
servations at Plymouth ......... 25 0 0 £275 1 8
Electrical Experiments at Kew a
Observatory ..eccceseceseves ctaes Ohno 1849.
Maintaining the Establishment in Electrical Observations at Kew
Kew Observatory ssssesecresseee 149 15 0} Observatory ..ceeecesecececeees «» 50 0 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph...... 25 0 0 Maintaining Establishment at
Gases from Iron Furnaces «..... 50 0 0 IELO Gee's ncasecencnapedasceaeased $05, HO eo. 6o
The Actinograph .....sc.ceccsseee - 15 0 0} Vitality of Seeds .........+ ge pe Ra
Microscopic Structure of Shells 20 0 0) On Growth of Plants.........04. oo
Exotic Anoplura ....essoeee. 1843 10 0 0) Registration of Periodical Fhe-
Vitality of Seeds ............ 1843° 2 0 7 MOMIEN Ateg erescecaeees seer eee tenes 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..s....eeees 1844 7 0 C | Bill on account of Anemometrical
Marine Zoology of Cornwall ... 10 0 0 ODSeLVatiONsSs-cescacesnass-ere «se lomeoO
Physiological Action of Medicines 20 0 0 Pano ne
Statistics of Sickness and Mor- Ped
talitvoin YOrk Wiecrevessucstecsess 20°10." 0 1850.
Earthquake Shocks ..,......1843 15 14 8 | Maintaining the Establishment at
£830 9 9 Kew Observatory ......- sessssoe DOD 18 <0
= Transit of Earthquake Waves... 50 0 0
_ _ 1846. Periodical Phenomena ........... 15 0 0
British Association Catalogue of Meteorological Instruments,
Stars sseceserssseeeeeveveeeeel844 211 15 0 AZOXES seeeseetosgsseresesrtevecee 29 OO
Fossil Fishes of the London Clay 100 0 0 $345 18 0
GENERAL STATEMENT, lxv
£5 et
1851.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (includes part
of grantin 1849) .......c00 309 2 2
Theory of Heat...........eseeeeeeee 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Animals
SERUMECIHUES ce scacsetccacascssccese de St AY)
Vitality of Seeds .....0.......0+6 SS ines nee:
Influence of Solar Radiation...... 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries ............ 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida .,....... 10 0 0
£391 9 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of grant for 1850) ... 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduction
HEIPIRCAL utters caviovecocvecovosseust 52) 9
Influence of Solar Radiations ... 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ...... 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-
lida....... Sesnabeubadtceseskiewee ds . 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ..... seacttees ces 1 OnaGen2
Strength of Boiler Plates ....,.... 10 0 0
£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .......ssseeees 165 0 0
Experiments on tne Influence of
Solar Radiation............+0. «- 15 0 0
Researches on the British Anne-
ads asasenconssicx-ssssnencas 10 0 0
Dredging on the Last Coast of
SCOtland.....ccorseccccsescecccsees o 0 0
Ethnological Queries Spaveeases 0 0
“05 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory (including
balance of former grant) ...... 830 15 4
Investigations on Flax............ 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron .........ee000000 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Phe-
‘nomena ...... Lesswese enepensenne + 10 0 0
British Annelida .........css00 «. 10,0 0
Vitality of Seeds ........ Capesass ha Dl Pa, kG
Conduction of Heat .............. 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ...... csoveesee 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ....... . 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon....... 11 8 5
_ Vitality of Seeds .......5.... secoee 10 7 11
Map of the World......:.......... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries..... ... 2.6 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast ............ 4 0 0
£480 16 4
Oe
1856.
| Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory :-—
1854......6 75 0 0 75
pate. veene£500 0 of ats
Strickland’s Ornithological Syno-
NYS veceseceecccccscsssccscsersces 100 O O
Dredging and Dredging Forms... 913 9
Chemical Action of Light......... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates............ 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical Pheno-
IEMA scccccsccccerccccecssescssnece 10 0 O
Propagation of Salmon ............ 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory eeececssseseene 300 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments... 40 0 0
0 0
Dredging near Belfast ....... sone 10
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotlands. .<.sscnenccscsngeneoae » 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mollusca
of California ........ cresedaccceaa / LOMROMAO
Experiments on Flax ......0.. 5 0 0
Natural History of Madagascar.. 20 0 0
Researches on British Annelida 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products im-
ported into Liverpool ......... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Salmon 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines .......... fe SIRO AO
Thermometers for Subterranean
Observations .eccccsccsseesecesne 8 FT 4
Life-Boats ..cescvecoscvesssscessseeees 59 0 0
5 4
£507 1
1858.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory .....sssee0e -. 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experiments.. 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast of
Scotland ........006 rovsescesese * 10 .0)'.0
Dredging near Dublin ............ 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...........00. eo) yg Of O
Dredging near Belfast ....... eC. pe lstes yee
Report on the British Annelida... 25 0 0
Experiments on the production
of Heat by Motion in Fluids... 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Products
imported into Scotland......... 10 0 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establishment at
Kew Observatory ........000.. 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin ............ 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds.........se00004. - 50 0 0
Trish; Tumicata, 0.25. <svsccs.ve eee 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... wet 207 0. 0
British Meduside .......... eocsccee FF O OD
Dredging Committee......... scores oe OO
Steam-vessels’ Performance...... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and West
of Ireland ......... anwdesaus sonvsr 910M OL 0
Photographic Chemistry ......... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ........ abbas 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.,.........ss0e000e-- 09 11 0
£684 ll 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory..........005 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast............. 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay........... 15 0 0
é
Ixvi REPORT—1873.
~~
£ s.d. eae, er 7
Inquiry into the Performance of Steamships’ Performance ......... 150 0 0
Steam -vessels.....se-ecevee - 124 0 O | Thermo-Electric Currents ...... 5 0 0
Explorations in the Y ellow Sand- £1293 16 6
stone of Dura Den............... 20 0 0 —
Chemico-mechanical Analysis of 1863.
Rocks and Minerals....... veces 25 0 O | Maintaining the Establishment
Researches on the Growth of of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
Bl antivce.tsascsecotnaseeseepenss] 10 0 0 | Balloon Committee deficiency... 70 0 O
Researches on the Solubility oF Balloon Ascents (other expenses) 25 0 0
al tSeavad; sencsaneaese peteeens. 930) 0) 0) |) ENtOZO8) osc... cccess+- sane 25 0 0
Researches on the Constituents Coal Fossils °\5..;...ccssssseaven sper UO aD
Of Manures .......0..sereeee eeeetee 250) © O) ' Herrinps cc... «cen neces eee ..* 20 0) 0
Balance of Captive Balloon Ac- Granites of Donegal............. coon O
COUN us sohecaccecegererscuscese io M1186 || Prison Diet......:>..ssesssseresnosse COMO EO
£1241 7 0 | Vertical AtmosphericMovements 13 0 0
- | Dredging Shetland ............... 50 0 0
chap Shar ee Dredging North-east coast of
Maintaining the Establishment Scotland s..2sssiviasassachaecomee 25 0 0
of Kew Observatory asanasae sens 500 0 0 Dredging Northumberland and
Earthquake Experiments......... 25 0 0 Durham: ..<..-scieueseeses eheeeee 17 310
Dredging North and East Coasts Dredging Committee superin-
of Scotland.......+++++. sevsreeeeee 23 0 0 LEndeNCEss.se50.-s0smenveoreecevane 10 0 0
Dredging Committee :— Steamship Performance «.......- 100 0 0
1860 ...... £50 0 0 72 0 © | Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0
1861 ...... £22 0 0 Carbon under pressure..... .....- 10 0 0
Excavations at Dura Den......... 20 0 0 | Volcanic Temperature ..........- 100 0 0
Solubility Of SaltS/cocssestencsewecne 20 0 0 Bromide of Ammonium ......... 8 00
Steam-vessel Performance ...... 150 0 0 | Rectrical Standards............0. 100 0 0
Fossils of Lesmahago sites Senerey lO. I0 Construction and distribu-
Explorations at Uriconium ...... 20 0 0 (10) | PRR RC OSE arena acter or: 40 0 0
Chemical Alloys ...++++..sesssee0s 20 0 0 | Luminous Meteors ....... s+ 17 0 0
Classified Index to the Transac- Kew Additional Buildings for
tions coetecesseecasccecesccocerece 100 0 0 Photoheliograph GS a 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and Dee = =5 0 0 | Thermo-Electricity ...... soins 15 0 0
Dip Circle teseeerseeeteneeeenes seeeeee 30 0 0 Analysis of Rocks’ 2.3. foe 8 00
phe tsheligpraphic(Observations 2°s0 se al biydrbitial oxy, 10 0 0
Prison Diet ..... scaswessacupcconste 20 0 0 ; £16083 10
Gauging of Water.......... cebionate: 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents ...... Sedessndsesescst OMEOMEEL 1864.
Constituents of Manures ......... 25 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment
£1111 5 10 of Kew Observatory........... - 600 0 0
Coal Fossils .. .......-cecccsceses ~ 20°°0, 0
Be nC, 1862. Vertical Se Move-
Maintaining the Establishment tls) ( baobeacnarbadoscricaciioc: were 20 0 0
of Kew Observatory sesseceeeeee 500 0 0 Dredging Shetland ............ Eee a)
Patent Waws) sen cnscseosseness ose 21 6 0 Dredging Northumberland ... 2 0 0
Mollusca of N.-W. America... 10 0 © | Balloon Committee .......0+.0000 / 200 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile Carbon under pressure............ 10 0 0
Marine AGUDS rteeeeeeeeneeeeees conc 5 0 0 | Standards of Electric Resistance 100 0 0
Tidal Observations ...........06 eae) Or 10 Analysis of ROCKS...........000+000 10 0 0
Elotohebometer at Kew), /-sr-, » 40 0 0 | Pydroida .......sss-cece0e coke ee EO
Photographic Pictures of the Sun 150 0 0 | Aciham’s Gift ....c0cccceeeecee Mi, 50 0 0
Rocks of Donegal ............+00+ 25 0 0 | Nitrite of Kinyle: ¢c8 tee 10 0 0
Dredging Durham and North- Nomenclature Committee ...... 5 0 O
umberland spon bo Sescoohbaocteds 25 0 0 Rain-Gauges .....-...010+ cesses 2 SEO STS! 8
Connexion Of Storms.....:s.:0es+-- 20 0 0 Cast-Iron Investigation ......... 20 0 0
vet ARE ES Doe gt Soc Tidal Observations inthe Humber 50 0 0
Scotland......... eeececcesencecs eee 6 9 6 Spectral RAYS: cusissesse ceo 45 0 0
Besse 8 Gh De ted ee sesveeee 3 11 0 | Tuminous Meteors .........0 20 0 0
Standards of Electrical Resistance 50 0 0 Gnas
Railway Accidents .............66 10 0 0 £1289 15 8
Balloon Committee ............... 200 0 0 1865.
Dredging Dublin Bay ............ 10 0 0 | Maintaining the Establishment
Dredging tht Mersey ............ 5 0 0 of Kew Observatory............ 600 0 0
rigguy Det « is. sascsestacneceat «asakcc 20 0 0 | Balloon Committee ............+- 100 0 9
Gauging of Water.................. 12-10, 30) |, Hydroida’ .....c.wex.crensttex seen 13 0 0
Rain-Gauges ..... cscssseeseereeees
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Tidal Observationsinthe Humber 6
Hexylic Compounds..............+ 20
Amy! Compounds............0.+06 20
MIND EIOUA "“iscssssessesccccecescnee 25
American Mollusca .......+..-.++- 3
Organic Acids ...........:0seeseee 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 10
Eurypterus .........+ssse0s cements 50
Electrical Standards............... 100
Malta Caves Researches ......... 30
Oyster Breeding ..............-+-+ 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches...... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations........- 100
Moon’s Surface Observations ... 35
Marine Fauna ..........2.cseeeee 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ......... 25
Dredging Channel Islands . 50
Zoological Nomenclature......... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
i) eccoocoocooocoooocooocooowoseonos
coo cooocoososeeecooooco®
MMGEL Seatseccsdcasacerecsessceses 100
Bath Waters Analysis ............ 8 10
Luminous Meteors .............-. 40 0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory............ 6600 0 0
Lunar Committee............+.00+. 6413 4
Balloon Committee ............0+ 50 0 0
Metrical Committee..........0.++. 50 0 0
British Rainfall................+..+- 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ............ 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............... 50 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ...... 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution of Cast
MRONW I. ..cccessszsissaiesssccsscess 50 0 0
Amy] Compounds...............++ 25 0 0
Electrical Standards............... 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration......... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ......... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon and
Cornwall .....0...ccesssseeseevee 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast... 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast......... 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ............ 5 6 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies in
\Etier: SipeePhideae eeesepeno avert. 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic. Radi-
AIRAD SA wc vaccwnccacovdesctecssceve 20 0 0
Rigor Mortis..............seeeeeeeee 10 0 0
Trish Annelida ............se0seeee 15 0 0
Catalogue of Crania..............- 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene Islands 50 0 0
Typical Crania Researches ...... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund...... 100 0 0
£1750 13 4
1867.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Gbservatory.........+++ 600 0 0
Meteorological Instruments, Pa-
PEM E lace ieneccnssitasccscsaswss: ¢ 50 0 0
Lunar Committee............+ . 120 0 0
£
Metrical Committee............ w. 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...,.. 100
Palestine Explorations...... coosee 90
Insect Fauna, Palestine 30
British Rainfall.............. eee 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ....... ausae 28
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ...... 25
Luminous Meteors .............++ 50
Bournemouth, &c. Leaf-Beds... 30
Dredging Shetland ............++ 75
Steamship Reports Condensation 100
Electrical Standards............... 100
Ethyle and Methyle series ...... 25
’ Fossil Crustacea .......0-eeeseeees 25
Sound under Water .............65 24
North Greenland Fauna ......... 75
Do. Plant Beds ... 100
Iron and Steel Manufacture
Patent Laws
25
xvii
mpilocoonoocoooooosooscoo”
cloceocooooooscooooocooS
1868.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory...........- 600
Lunar Committee.................. 120
Metrical Committee.............-- 50
Zoological Record ............++5 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150
Steamship Performances......... 100
British Rainfall ..........c.02.00 50
Luminous Meteors .........00008 - 50
Organic ACIS ........-.sseseeeeeee 60
Fossil Crustacea ...... speaduamesna 25
Methyliseries, -...2..5.ese-cwowse 25
Mercury and Bile................++ 25
Organic remains in Limestone
IROCKSN “v/aceoanscunasonsns ee eeegoas 25
Scottish Earthquakes ............ 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall ... 30
British Fossil Corals............--- 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ..........00006 50
Greenland Explorations .........
Fossil Flora
Tidal Observations ..........0000. 100
Underground Temperature ...... 90
Spectroscopic investigations of
Animal Substances ...........- 5
Secondary Reptiles, &c. ......... 30
British Marine Invertebrate
PAQUNA Te spesecssadeseccuancctcas re: 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establishment
of Kew Observatory...........- 600
Lunar Committee...... easceracsace 50
Metrical Committee............... 25
Zoological Record...........-...++ 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water «.... ssstpausessaen 25
British Rainfall.................0008 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
(ER aera Rom mtcacacr Merely ae 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150
Steamship Performances......... 30
i — en —— en — i — i — i — i — er —
ooo oo o°oo°o
— i) oo cocoocosooo cooocecoeococece
ooo coco o°o°°
Ixviii
cose
Chemical Constitution of Cast
THOM VS, otessecessveeceaevessde et O80 > OVO
Tron and Steel Manufacture ... 100 0 0
Methyl Series .........005 e-eeeees 30 0 0
Organic remains in Limestone
RO CKBE:. ..citecewenste-= cv ecrereees 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland......... 19 0 0
British Fossil Corals ........... . 50 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ....+..s00+0+0 30 0 0
Fossil Flora .ss..ssssessssseceeerere 29 0 0
Tidal Observations .......se0...+++ 100 0 0
Underground Temperature ...... 30 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations of
Animal Substances ...... steve oe (0250
Organic ACidS .....sseeereeeeee Lon 12 ONO
Kiltorcan Fossils ......0.....02++00 20 0 0
Chemical Constitution and Phy-
siological Action Relations ... 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils ...... 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ............ 10 0 O
Products of Digestion ............ 10 0 0
£1622 0 0
i 1870.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory .....+++. Hert 600
Metrical Committee........ss0000. 25
Zoological Record «..+++..++. .-e 100
Committee on Marine Fauna... 20
Ears in Fishes .......+-0+0+-++ UA ae
Chemical nature of Cast Iron. .. 80
Luminous Meteors .......e00008 30
Heat in the Blood ........000- 15
British Rainfall...... eEEENaetewneead
Thermal Conductivity of Tron &e.
British Fossil Corals.......... aeeee
Kent’s Hole Explorations
Scottish Earthquakes .......0. 4
Bagshot Leaf-Beds .....0...000-. 15
Fossil Flora ....... Scantenecteseeit 25
Tidal Observations .,...-....++... 100
Underground Temperature...... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ...... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils ... 25
Utilization of Sewage ......... «. §=50
Organic Chemical Compounds... 30
Onny River Sediment ............ 3
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 50
£1572
1871.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory ...........000s 600 0 0
Monthly Reports of Poeane in
Chemistry .... catssasspeecen OO 2010
Metrical Committee. S-pacd SS Aas 25 0 0
Zoological Record...... Seep ane 100 0 0
Thermal Equivalents of the
Qxides of Chlorine ............ 10 0 0
Tidal Observations ......... an ae 100 0 0
OMPLULIOLA sores scsvoasteceocss.c ee ie A)
eoljoceceooococeoceocoececeocoeocoe
oloocooooooooococecoeocooecoe
REPORT—1873.
£ 8. d.
Luminous Meteors .....:e0:00 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals......c0000... 20 9 O
Heat in the Blood ............ 4 2 6
British Rainfall...... Saneaene socnses, Oe Oe
Kent’s Hole Explorations ...... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ...se0.ss008 20 0 0
Methyl Compounds ............... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects .......... ore Alain)
Fossil Corals Sections, for Pho-
tographing..........ceeeees na88b spayed ini
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........... srbaiyy 20e4 OueO
Moab Explorations ......... «- 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........+.-0 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establishment of
Kew Observatory ...... papas 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............+++ 75 0 0
Zoological Record..........0.+++++- 100 0 0
Tidal Committee .................. 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab ............ 100 0 0
Terato-Embryological Inquiries 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration...... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............4.+ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood ...........-.«. 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .......se0ssseee0e 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta ...... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ..........ssceseseeee 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-Lengths ...........- 20 0 0
British Rainfall..................06 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Antago-
MISHAPS. .-t...:-00-seapnea eyes coesss 10)..0.. 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Consti-
tition s KC... .ce.cecsascccsacesuaee 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ............ 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Metals 25 0 0
£1285 0 0
1873.
Zoological Record..........s000... 100 0 0
Chemistry Record,.......s++se00. 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ...... secssecsesen 400) 100
Sewage Committee ........... -.. 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration ...... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ............ 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants .................. 25 0 0
Wave-Lengths ....ccccrccecocseeeee 150 O O
British Rainfall...... cecaceuesiee co 100 0 0
Essential Oils .o.sessecerseseerers 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... -» 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .......... ocsse LO EOMHO
Sub-Wealden Explorations ...... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature ..... - 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ......... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland.............0+ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rainfall 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............-- 30 0 0
£1685 0 0
a
_ GENERAL MEETINGS. lxix
General Meetings.
On Wednesday Evening, September 17, at 8 p.m., in St. George’s Hall,
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, LL.D., F.R.S., President, resigned the office of President
to Professor Alexander W. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., who took the Chair,
and delivered an Address, for which see page Ixx.
On Thursday Evening, September 18, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in
St. George’s Hall.
On Friday Evening, September 19, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall,
Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “Coal and
Coal Plants.”
On Saturday Evening, at 8 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Dr. C. W. Siemens,
F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “Fuel” to the Operative Classes of Bradford.
On Monday Evening, September 22, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall,
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on “ Molecules.”
On Tuesday Evening, September 23, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in
the Mechanic’s Institute.
On Wednesday, September 24, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General Meeting
took place, when the Proceedings of the General Committee, and the Grants
of Money for Scientific purposes, were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Belfast *.
* The Meeting is appointed to take place on Wednesday, August 19, 1874.
1873. | f
ADD RE SS
OF
ALEXANDER W. WILLIAMSON, Pu.D., F.BS.,
PRESIDENT.
LapIEs AND GENTLEMEN,—
Instead of rising to address you on this occasion I had hoped to sit quietly
amongst you, and to enjoy the intellectual treat of listening to the words of
aman of whom England may well be proud—a man whose life has been
spent in reading the great book of nature, for the purpose of enriching his
fellow men with a knowledge of its truths—a man whose name is known
and honoured in every corner of this planet to which a knowledge of science
has penetrated—and, let me add, a man whose name will live in the grateful
memory of mankind as long as the records of such noble work are preserved.
At the last Meeting of the Association I had the pleasure of proposing that
Dr. Joule be elected President for the Bradford Meeting, and our Council
succeeded in overcoming his reluctance and in persuading him to accept that
office.
Nobly would Joule have discharged the duties of President had his bodily
health been equal to the task; but it became apparent after a while that he
could not rely upon sufficient strength to justify him in performing the duties
of the Chair, and, in obedience to the orders of his physician, he placed his
resignation in the hands of the Council about two months ago. When, under
these circumstances, the Council did me the great honour of asking me to
accept their nomination to the Presidentship, I felt that their request ought
to have with me the weight of a command.
For a good many years past Chemistry has been growing at a more and more
rapid rate, growing in the number and variety of facts which are added to its
domain, and not less remarkably in the clearness and consistency of the ideas
by which these facts are explained and systematized. The current literature
of chemical research extends each year to the dimensions of a small library ;
and mere brief abstracts of the original papers published annually by the
Chemical Society, partly aided by a grant from this Association, take up
the chief part of a very stout volume. I could not, if I would, give you
to-night even an outline of the chief newly discovered compounds and of the
various changes which they undergo, describing each of them by its own
name (often a very long one) and recording the specific properties which give
to each substance its highest scientific interest. But I am sure that you
ADDRESS. xxi
would not wish me to do so if I could; for we do not meet here to study
chemistry ; I conceive that we meet here for the purpose of considering what
this wondrous activity in our science means, what is the use of it, and, true
to our object as embodied in the name of this Association, to consider what
we can do to promote the Advancement of Science. I propose to lay before
you some facts bearing on each of these questions, and to submit to you some
considerations respecting them.
In order to ascertain the meaning of the work which has been going on in
chemistry, it will, I think, be desirable for us to consider the leading ideas
which have been in the minds of chemists, and which guided their operations.
Now, since the father of modern chemistry, the great Dalton, gave to che-
mists a firm hold of the idea of Atoms, their labours have been continually
guided by that fundamental idea, and have confirmed it by a knowledge of
more and more facts, while at the same time steadily adding to our know-
ledge of the properties of atoms. Every chemist who is investigating a new
compound takes for granted that it must consist of a great number of atom-
clusters (called by him molecules), all of them alike, and each molecule con-
sisting of a certain number of atoms of at least. two kinds. One of his first
endeavours is to ascertain how many atoms of each kind there are in each
molecule of the compound. I must not attempt to describe to you the various
kinds of experiment which he performs for the purpose of getting this infor-
mation, how each experiment is carried out with the aid of delicate instru-
ments and ingenious contrivances found by long experience to enable him to
obtain the most trustworthy and accurate results; but I want to draw your
attention to the reasoning by which he judges of the value of such experi-
ments when they agree among themselves, and to the meaning which he at-
taches to their result.
If the result of his experiments does not nearly agree with any atomic for-
mula (that is, if no conceivable cluster of atoms of the kinds known to be in
the compound would on analysis give such results as those obtained), the
chemist feels sure that his experiments must have been faulty: either the
sample of substance which he worked upon contained foreign matter, or his
analyses were not made with due care. He sets to work again, and goes on
till he arrives at a result which is consistent with his knowledge of the com-
bining-properties of atoms. It is hardly necessary to say that even the best
experiment is liable to error, and that even a result obtained with the utmost
care cannot be expected to afford more than an approximation to the truth.
Every good analysis of a pure compound leads to results which approximate
to those required by the Atomic Theory; and chemists trust so thoroughly
to the truth of that guide, that they correct the results of such analysis by the
aid of it.
The chemical idea of atoms serves for two purposes :—
1. It gives a clear and consistent explanation of an immense number of facts
discovered by experiment, and enables us to compare them with one another
and to classify them.
2. It leads to the anticipation of new facts, by suggesting new compounds
which may be made; at the same time it teaches us that no compounds
_¢an exist with their constituents in any other than atomic proportions,
and that experiments which imply the existence of any such compounds are
; faulty.
We have the testimony of the great Berzelius to the flood of light which the
_ idea of atoms at once threw on the facts respecting combining proportions
which had been accumulated before it was made known ; and from that time
‘ha
Ixxil REPORT—1873.
forward its value has rapidly increased as each succeeding year augmented
the number of facts which it explained.
Allow me at this point of my narrative to pause for a moment in order to
pay a tribute of respect and gratitude to the memory of one who has recently
passed from among us, and who in the time of his full activity was a leader
of the discoveries of new facts in the most difficult part of our science.
Liebig has been generally known in this country through his writings on
agricultural chemistry, through his justly popular letters on chemistry, and other
writings, by means of which his brilliant intellect and ardent imagination
stimulated men to think and to work. Among chemists he was famed for
his numerous discoveries of new organic compounds, and their investigation
by the aid of improved methods ; but I believe that the greatest service which
his genius rendered to science was the establishment of the chemical school
of Giessen, the prototype of the numerous chemical schools for which Germany
is now so justly celebrated. I think it is not too much to say that the
Giessen laboratory, as it existed some thirty years ago, was the most efficient
organization for the promotion of chemistry which had ever existed.
Picture to yourselves a little community of which each member was fired
with enthusiasm for learning by the genius of the great master, and of which
the best energies were concentrated on the one object of experimental inyes-
tigation.
The students were for the most part men who had gone through a full
curriculum of ordinary studies at some other University, and who were
attracted from various parts of the world by the fame of this school of
research.
Most of the leading workers of the next generation were pupils of Liebig;
and many of them have established similar schools of research.
We must not, however, overlook the fact that Liebig’s genius and enthusiasm
would have been powerless in doing this admirable work, had not the rulers of
his Grand-Duchy been enlightened enough to know that it was their duty to
supply him with the material aids requisite for its successful accomplishment.
Numberless new compounds have been discovered under the guidance of
the idea of atoms; and in proportion as our knowledge of substances and of
their properties became more extensive, and our view of their characteristics
more accurate and general, were we able to perceive the outlines of their natural
arrangement, and to recognize the distinctive characteristics of various classes
of substances. I wish I could have the pleasure of describing to you the origin
and nature of some of these admirable discoveries, such as homologous series,
types, radicals, &c. ; but itis more to our purpose to consider the effect which
they have had upon the idea of atoms, an idea which, still in its infancy, was
plunged into the intellectual turmoil arising from a variety of novel and original
theories suggested respectively by independent workers as best suited for the
explanation of the particular phenomena to which their attention was mainly
directed.
Each of these workers was inclined to attach quite sufficient importance to
his own new idea, and to sacrifice for its sake any other one capable of inter-
fering with its due development.
The father of the atomic theory was no more; and the little infant had no
chance of life, unless from its own sterling merits it were found useful in the
work still going on.
What then was the result? Did it perish like an ephemeral creation of
human fancy? or did it survive and gain strength by the inquiries of those
who questioned Nature and knew how to read her answers?
ADDRESS. Ixxill
Although anticipating my answer to these questions, you will probably be
surprised to hear the actual result which I have to record, a result so won-
derful that the more I think of it the more I marvel at it. Not only did
these various theories contain nothing at variance with the atomic theory ;
they were found tu be natural and necessary developments of it, and to serve for
its application to a variety of phenomena which were unknown to its founder.
Among the improvements of our knowledge of atoms which have taken
place, I ought to mention the better evaluations of the relative weight
of atoms of different kinds, which have been made since Dalton’s time.
More accurate experiments than those which were then on record have
shown us that certain atoms are a little heavier or lighter than was then
believed, and the work of perfecting our observations is constantly going
on with the aid of better instruments and methods of operation. But,
apart from these special corrections, a more sweeping change has taken place,
not in consequence of more accurate experiments interpreted in the usual
way, but in consequence of a more comprehensive view of the best experi-
mental results which had been obtained, and a more consistent interpreta-
tion of them. Thus the atomic weight of carbon had been fixed at 6 by
Dumas’s admirable experiments; and it was quite conceivable that a still
more perfect determination might slightly increase or diminish this number.
But those who introduced the more sweeping change asserted in substance
that two of these supposed atoms, whatever may be the precise weight of
each, always are together and never separate from ‘one another; and they
accordingly applied the term atom to that indivisible mass of carbon weighing
twice as much as a carbon atom had been supposed to weigh. So also with
regard to other elements, it has been shown that many atoms are really
twice as heavy as had been supposed, according to the original interpretation
of the best experiments. This change was brought about by what I may be
permitted to call the operation of stock-taking. Dalton first took stock of
our quantitative facts in a business-like manner; but the amount and variety
of our chemical stock increased so enormously after his time, that the second
stock-taking absorbed the labours of several men for a good many years.
They were men of different countries and very various turns of mind; but,
as I mentioned just now, they found no other fundamental idea to work
with than Dalton’s; and the result of their labours has been to confirm the
truth of that idea and to extend greatly its application.
One of the results of our endeavours to classify substances according to their
natural resemblances has been the discovery of distinct family relationships
among atoms, each family being distinguished by definite characteristics.
Now, among the properties which thus characterize particular families of
atoms, there is one of which the knowledge gradually worked out by the
labours of an immense number of investigators must be admitted to consti-
tute one of the most important additions ever made to our knowledge of these
little masses.
I will endeavour to explain it to you by a simple example. An atom of
chlorine is able to combine with one atom of hydrogen or one atom of potas-
sium; but it cannot combine with two atoms. An atom of oxygen, on the
other hand, can combine with two atoms of hydrogen or with two atoms of
potassium, or with one atom of hydrogen and one of potassium; but we
cannot get it in combination with one atom of hydrogen or of potassium
solely.
Again, an atom of nitrogen is known in combination with three atoms of
hydrogen ; while an atom of carbon combines with four of hydrogen. Other
lxxiv REPORT—1873.
atoms are classified, from their resemblance to these respectively, as Monads,
Dyads, Triads, Tetrads, &e.
The combining value which we thus recognize in the atoms of these several
classes has led us naturally to a consideration of the order in which atoms
are arranged in a molecule. Thus, in the compound of oxygen with hydro-
gen and potassium, each of these latter atoms is directly combined with the
oxygen, and the atom of oxygen serves as a connecting link between them.
Hydrogen and potassium have never been found capable of uniting directly
with one another; but when both combined with one atom of oxygen they
are in what may be called indirect combination with one another through
the medium of that oxygen.
One of the great difficulties of chemistry some few years ago was to ex-
plain the constitution of isomeric compounds, those compounds whose mole-
cules contain atoms of like kinds and in equal numbers, but which differ
from one another in their properties. Thus a molecule of common ether
contains four atoms of carbon, ten atoms of hydrogen, and one of oxygen.
Butylic aleohol, a very different substance, has precisely the same composition.
We now know that in the former the atom of oxygen is in the middle of a
chain of carbon atoms, whereas in the latter it is at one end of that chain.
You might fancy it impossible to decide upon any thing like consistent evi-
dence such questions as this; but I can assure you that the atomic theory,
as now used by chemists, leads frequently to conclusions of this kind, which
are confirmed by independent observers, and command general assent. That
these conclusions are, as far as they go, true descriptions of natural phe-
nomena is shown by the fact that each of them serves in its turn as a step-
ping-stone to further discoveries.
One other extension of our knowledge of atoms I must briefly mention,
one which has as yet received but little attention, yet which will, I venture
to think, be found serviceable in the study of the forces which bring about
chemical change.
The original view of the constitution of molecules was statical; and che-
mists only took cognizance of those changes of place among their atoms which
result in the disappearance of the molecules employed, and the appearance of
new molecules formed by their reaction on one another. Thus, when a
solution of common salt (sodie chloride) is mixed with a solution of silver
nitrate, it is well known that the metallic atoms in these respective com-
pounds change places with one another, forming silver chloride and sodic
nitrate ; for the silver chloride soon settles to the bottom of the solution in
the form of an insoluble powder, while the other product remains dissolved
in the liquid. But as Jong as the solution of salt remained undecomposed,
each little molecule in it was supposed to be chemically at rest. A parti-
cular atom of sodium which was combined with an atom of chlorine was sup-
posed to remain steadily fixed to it. When this inactive solution was mixed
with the similarly inactive solution of silver nitrate, the interchange of atoms
known to take place between their respective molecules was nominally ex-
plained by the force of predisposing affinity. It was, in fact, supposed that
the properties of the new compounds existed and produced effects before the
compounds themselves had been formed.
I had oceasion to point out a good many years ago that molecules which
appear to be chemically at rest are reacting on one another when in suitable
conditions, in the same kind of way as those which are manifestly in a state
of chemical change—that, for instance, the molecules of liquid sodic chloride
exchange sodium atoms with one another, forming new molecules of the same
—_— 2
ADDRESS. lxxv
compound undistinguishable from the first, so that, in an aggregate of like
molecules, the apparent atomic rest is the result of the interchange of like
atoms between contiguous molecules.
Such exchanges of atoms take place not only between molecules of iden-
tical composition, but also between contiguous molecules containing different
elements. For instance, in a mixture of sodic chloride and potassic iodide
an interchange of metallic atoms takes place, forming potassic chloride and
sodic iodide. The result of the exchange in such a case is to form a couple
of new molecules different from the original couple. But these products are
subject to the same general law of atomic exchanges, and their action on one
another reproduces a couple of molecules of the materials.
Thus a liquid mixture formed from two compounds, contains molecules of
four kinds, which we may describe as the two materials and the two products.
The materials are reacting on one another, forming the products; and these
products are, in their iat reacting on one ‘atiother, reproducing the materials.
If one of the products of atomic exchange between two molecules is a solid
while the other remains liquid (as when sodic chloride is mixed with silver
nitrate), or if one is gaseous while the other remains liquid, so that the
molecules of the one kind cannot react on those of the other kind and re-
produce the materials, then the continued reaction of the materials on one
another leads to their complete mutual decomposition. Such complete mu-
tual decomposition of two salts takes place whenever they react on one
another under such conditions that the products cannot react on one another
and reproduce the materials; whereas partial decomposition takes place
whenever the materials form a homogeneous mixture with the products.
Now, if in any such homogeneous mixture more exchanges of atoms take
place between the materials than between the products, the number of mole-
cules of the products is increased, because more of them are being made than
unmade ; and reciprocally, if more exchanges of atoms take place between
the products than between the materials, the number of molecules of the
materials is increased. The mixture remains of constant composition when
there are in the unit of time as many decomposing changes as reproducing
changes.
Suppose that we were to determine by experiment the proportion between
the number of molecules of the materials, and the number of molecules of
the products, in a mixture the composition of which remains constant, and
that we found, for instance, twice as many of materials as of products ; what
would this mean? Why, if every two couples of materials only effect in the
unit of time as many exchanges as every one couple of products, every couple
of materials is only exchanging half as fast as every couple of products.
In fact you perceive that a determination of the proportion in which the
substances are present in such a mixture will give us a measure of the rela-
tive velocities of those particular atomic motions; and we may thus express
our result :—The force of chemical combination is inversely proportional to
the number of atomic interchanges.
I cannot quit this part of our subject without alluding to the fact that
some few chemists of such eminence as to be entitled to the most respectful
attention, have of late years expressed an opinion that the idea of atoms is
not necessary for the explanation of the changes in the chemical constitution
of matter, and have sought as far as possible to exclude from their language
any allusion to atoms.
It would be out of place on this occasion to enter into any discussion of
the questions thus raised; but I think it right to point out :—
lxxvi REPORT—18738.
I. That these objectors have not shown us any inconsistency in the atomic
theory, nor in the conclusions to which it leads.
II. That neither these nor any other philosophers have been able to ex-
plain the facts of chemistry on the assumption that there are no atoms, but
that matter is infinitely divisible.
III. That when they interpret their analyses, these chemists allow them-
selves neither more nor less latitude than the Atomic Theory allows; in fact
they are unconsciously guided by it.
These facts need no comment from me.
Our science grows by the acquisition of new facts which have an intel-
ligible place among our ideas of the order of nature; but in proportion as
more and more facts are arranged before us in their natural order, in pro-
portion as our view of the order of nature becomes clearer and broader, we
are able to observe and describe that order more fully and more aecurately—
in fact, to improve our ideas of the order of nature. These more extensive
and more accurate ideas suggest new observations, and lead to the discovery
of truths which would have found no place in the narrower and less accurate
system. Take away from Chemistry the ideas which connect and explain
the multifarious facts observed, and it is no longer a science; it is nothing
more than a confused and useless heap of materials.
The answer to our question respecting the meaning of the earnest work
which is going on in our science must, I think, now be plain to you.
Chemists are examining the combining-properties of atoms, and getting clear
ideas of the constitution of matter.
Admitting, then, for the present, that such is the meaning of chemical
work, we have to consider the more important question of its use; and I
think you will agree with me that, in order to judge soundly whether and in
what manner such a pursuit is useful, we have to consider its effect upon
Man. What habits of mind does it engender? What powers does it de-
velope? Does it develope good and noble qualities and aspirations, and tend
to make men more able and more anxious to do good to their fellow men?
Or is it a mere idle amusement, bearing no permanent fruits of improvement ?
You will, I think, answer these questions yourselves if I can succeed in
describing to you some of the chief qualities which experience has shown to
be requisite for the suecessful pursuit of Chemistry, and which are neces-
sarily cultivated by those who qualify themselves for such a career.
One of the first requirements on the part of an investigator is accuracy in
observing the phenomena with which he deals. He must not only see the
precise particulars of a process as they present themselves to his observation ;
he must also observe the order in which these particular appearances present
themselves under the conditions of each experiment. No less essential is
accuracy of memory. An experimental inquirer must remember accurately
a number of facts; and he needs to remember their mutual relations, so that
one of them when present to his mind may recall those others which ought
to be considered with it. In fact he cultivates the habit of remembering
facts mainly by their place in nature. Accuracy in manual operations is
required in all experimental inquiries; and many of them afford scope for
very considerable skill and dexterity.
These elementary qualities are well known to be requisite for success in
experimental science, and to be developed by careful practice of its methods ;
but some higher qualities are quite as necessary as these in all but the most
rudimentary manipulations, and are developed in a remarkable degree by the
higher work of science.
ADDRESS. Ixxvil
Thus it is of importance to notice that a singularly good training in the
accurate use of words is afforded by experimental Chemistry. Every one
who is about to enter on an inquiry, whether he be a first-year’s student
who wants to find the constituents of a common salt, or whether he be the
most skilled and experienced of Chemists, seeks beforehand to get such in-
formation from the records of previous observations as may be most useful
for his purpose. This information he obtains through the medium of words ;
and any failure on his part to understand the precise meaning of the words
conveying the information requisite for his guidance is liable to lead him
astray. Those elementary exercises in analytical chemistry, in which brief
directions to the students alternate with their experiments and their reports
of experiments made and conclusions drawn, afford a singularly effective
training in the habit of attending accurately to the meaning of words used
by others, and of selecting words capable of conveying without ambiguity
the precise meaning intended. Any inaccuracy in the student’s apprehension
of the directions given, or in the selection of words to describe his obser-
vations and conclusions, is at once detected, when the result to which he
ought to have arrived is known beforehand to the teacher.
Accuracy of reasoning is no less effectively promoted by the work of ex-
perimental chemistry. It is no small facility to us that the meaning of the
words which we use to denote properties of matter and operations can be
learnt by actual observation. Moreover each proposition comprised in che-
mical reasonings conveys some distinct statement susceptible of verification
by similar means; and the validity of each conclusion can be tested, not only
by examining whether or not it follows of necessity from true premisses,
but also by subjecting it to the independent test of special experiment.
Chemists have frequent occasion to employ arguments which indicate a
probability of some truth; and the anticipations based upon them serve as
guides to experimental inquiry by suggesting crucial tests. But they distin-
guish most carefully such hypotheses from demonstrated facts.
Thus a pale green solution, stated to contain a pure metallic salt, is found
to possess some properties which belong to Salts of Iron. Nothing else pos-
sesses these properties except Salts of Nickel; and they manifest a slight dif-
ference from Iron Salts in one of the properties observed.
The analyst could not see any appearance of that peculiarity which distin-
guishes Nickel Salts; so he concludes that he has probably got Iron in his
solution, brt almost certainly either Iron or Nickel. He then makes an ex-
periment which will, he knows, give an entirely different result with Iron
Salts and Nickel Salts; and he gets very distinctly the result which indicates
Tron.
Having found in the green liquid properties which the presence of Iron
could alone impart, he considers it highly probable that Iron is present. But
he does not stop there; for, although the facts before him seem to admit of no
other interpretation, he knows that, from insufficient knowledge or attention,
mistakes are sometimes made in very simple matters. The analyst therefore
tries as many other experiments as are known to distinguish Iron Salts from
all others; and if any one of these leads distinctly to a result at variance
with his provisional conclusion, he goes over the whole inquiry again, in
order to find where his mistake was. Such inquiries are practised largely by
students of chemistry, in order to fix in their minds, by frequent use, a know-
ledge of the fundamental properties of the common elements, in order to
learn by practice the art of making experiments, and, above all, in order to
acquire the habit of judging accurately of evidence in natural phenomena,
1873. g
Ixxvili REPORT—1873.
Such a student is often surprised at being told that it is not enough for him to
conduct his experiments to such a point that every conclusion except one is
contrary to the evidence before him—that he must then try every confirma-
tory test which he can of the substance believed to be present, and ascertain
that the sample in his hands agrees, as far as he can see, in all properties
with the known substance of which he believes it to be a specimen.
Those who tread the path of original inquiry, and add to human know-
ledge by their experiments, are bound to practise this habit with the most
scrupulous fidelity and care, or many and grave would be the mistakes they
would make.
Thus a Chemist thinks it probable that he might prepare some well-known
organic body of the aromatic family by a new process. He sets to work and
obtains a substance agreeing in appearance, in empirical composition, in
molecular weight, and in many other properties with the compound which
he had in view. He is, however, not satisfied that his product is a sample
of that compound until he has examined carefully whether it possesses all
the properties which are known to belong to the substance in question. And
many a time is his caution rewarded by the discovery of some distinct dif-
ference of melting-point, or of crystalline form, &c., which proves that he
has made a new compound isomeric with the one which he expected to make.
It seemed probable, from the agreement of the two substances in many
particulars, that they might be found to agree in all, and might be considered
to be the same compound; but complete proof of that conclusion consists in
showing that the new substance agrees with all that we know of the old one.
In the most various ways chemists seek to extend their knowledge of the
uniformity of nature; and their reasonings by analogy from particulars to
particulars suggest the working hypotheses which lead to new observations.
Before, however, proceeding to test the truth of his hypothesis by experi-
ment, the chemist passes in review, as well as he can, all the general know-
ledge which has any bearing on it, in order to find agreement or disagree-
ment between his hypothesis and the ideas established by past experience.
Sometimes he sees that his hypothesis is at variance with some general law
in which he has full confidence, and he throws it aside as disproved by that
law. On other occasions he finds that it follows of necessity from some
known law ; and he then proceeds to verify it by experiment, with a confident
anticipation of the result. In many cases the hypothesis does not present
sufficiently distinct agreement or disagreement with the ideas established by
previous investigations to justify either the rejection of it or a confident
belief in its truth; for it often happens that the results of experience of
similar phenomena are not embodied in a sufficiently definite or trustworthy
statement to have any other effect than that of giving probability or the
contrary to the hypothesis.
Another habit of mind which is indispensable for success in experimental
chemistry, and which is taught by the practice of its various operations, is
that of truthfulness.
The very object of all our endeavours is to get true ideas of the natural
processes of chemical action ; for in proportion as our ideas are true do they
give us the power of directing these processes. In fact our ideas are useful
only so far as they are true; and he must indeed be blind to interest and to
duty who could wish to swerve from the path of truth. But if any one were
weak enough to make the attempt, he would find his way barred by innu-
merable obstacles.
Eyery addition to our science is a matter of immediate interest and im-
ADDRESS. lxxix
portatice to those who are working in the same direction. They verify in
various ways the statements of the first discoverer, and seldom fail to notice
further particulars, and to correct any little errors of detail into which he
may have fallen. They soon make it a stepping-stone to further disco-
yeries, Any thing like wilful misrepresentation is inevitably detected and
made known.
It must not, however, be supposed that the investigator drifts uncon-
sciously into the habit of truthfulness for want of temptation to be un-
truthful, or even that error presents itself to his mind in a grotesque and
repulsive garb, so as to enlist from the first his feelings against it; for I
can assure you that the precise contrary of these things happens. Error
comes before him usually in the very garb of truth; and his utmost skill
and attention are needed to decide whether or not it is entitled to retain that
garb.
You will easily see how this happens if you reflect that each working
hypothesis employed by an investigator is an unproven proposition, which
_ bears such resemblance to truth as to give rise to hopes that it may really be
true. The investigator trusts it provisionally to the extent of trying one or
more experiments, of which it claims to predict the specific result. Even
though it guide him correctly for a while, he considers it still on trial until
it has been tested by every process which ingenuity can suggest for the pur-
pose of detecting a fault.
_ Most errors which an experimentalist has to do with are really imperfect
_ truths, which have done good service in their time by guiding the course of
discovery. The great object of scientific work is to replace these imper-
fect truths by more exact and comprehensive statements of the order of
~ nature.
Whoever has once got knowledge from nature herself by truthful reason-
_ ing and experiment, must be dull indeed if he does not feel that he has ac-
quired a new and noble power, and if he does not long to exercise it further,
and make new conquests from the realm of darkness by the aid of known
truths.
The habit of systematically searching for truth by the aid of known truths,
and of testing the validity of each step by constant reference to nature, has
: now been practised for a sufficiently long time to enable us to judge of some
_ of its results.
Every true idea of the order of nature is an instrument of thought. It
can only be obtained by truthful investigation; and it can only be used effec-
tively in obedience to the same laws. But the first idea which is formed of
any thing occurring in nature affords only a partial representation of the
actual reality, by recording what is seen of it from a particular point of view.
By examining a thing from different points of view we get different ideas of
it; and when we compare these ideas accurately with one another, recollect-
: ing how each one was obtained, we find that they really supplement each
_ other.
4 _ We try to form in our minds a distinct image of a thing capable of pro-
~ ducing these various appearances ; and when we have succeeded in doing so,
~ We look at it from the different points of view from which the natural object
had been examined, and find that the ideas so obtained meet at the central
_image.. It usually happens that an accurate examination of the mutual
bearings of these ideas on the central image suggests additions to them, and
correction of some particulars in them.
Thus it is that true ideas of a natural phenomenon confirm and strengthen
g 2
———— _——-
es, *
—
PA
m
a
lxxx REPORT—1873.
one another; and he who aids directly the development of oneo them is sure
to promote indirectly the consolidation of others.
Each onward step in the search for truth has made us stronger for the
work ; and when we look back upon what has been done by the efforts of so
many workers simply but steadily directed by truth towards further truth,
we see that they have achieved, for the benefit of the human race, the con-
quest of a systematic body of truths which encourages men to similar efforts
while affording them the most effectual aid and guidance.
This lesson of the inherent vitality of truth, which is taught us so clearly
by the history of our science, is well worthy of the consideration of those who,
seeing that iniquity and falsehood so frequently triumph for a while in the
struggle for existence, are inclined to take a desponding view of human affairs,
and almost to despair of the ultimate predominance of truth and goodness.
I believe it would be impossible at the present time to form an adequate
idea of the vast consequences which will follow from the national adop-
tion of systematic measures for allowing our knowledge of truth to develope
itself freely, through the labours of those who are willing and able to devote
themselves to its service, so as to strengthen more and more the belief and
trust of mankind in its guidance, in small matters as well as in the highest
and most important considerations.
T am desirous of describing briefly the more important of those measures ;
but first let me mention another habit of mind which naturally follows from
the effective pursuit of truth,—a habit which might be described in general
terms as the application to other matters of the truthfulness imparted by
science.
The words which the great German poet put into the mouth of Mephisto-
pheles when describing himself to Faust, afford perhaps the most concise and
forcible statement of what we may call the anti-scientific spirit :—
,, Ich bin der Geist der stets verneint,
Dem alles, was entsteht, zuwider ist.’
The true spirit of science is certainly affirmative, not negative ; for, as I men-
tioned just now, its history teaches us that the development of our knowledge
usually takes place through two or more simultaneous ideas of the same phe-
nomenon, quite different from one another, both of which ultimately prove to
be parts of some more general truth ; so that a confident belief in one of those
ideas does not involve or justify a denial of the others.
I could give you many remarkable illustrations of this law from among
ideas familiar to Chemists. But I want you to consider with me its bearing
on the habit of mind called toleration, of which the development in modern
times is perhaps one of the most hopeful indications of moral improvement
in man.
In working at our science we simply try to find out what is true; for
although no usefulness is to be found at first in most of our results, we know
well that every extension of our knowledge of truth is sure to prove useful in
manifold ways. So regular an attendant is usefulness upon truth in our
work, that we get accustomed to expect them always to go together, and to
believe that there must be some amount of truth wherever there is manifest
usefulness. hie
The history of human ideas, so far as it is written in the records of the
progress of science, abounds with instances of men contributing powerfully to
the development of important general ideas, by their accurate and conscien-
tous experiments, while at the same time professing an actual disbelief in
j
ADDRESS. lxxxi
those ideas. Those records must indeed have been a dead letter to any one
who could stand carping at the intellectual crotchets of a good and honest
worker, instead of giving him all brotherly help in furtherance of his work.
To one who knows the particulars of our science thoroughly, and who knows
also what a variety of ideas have been resorted to in working out the whole
body of truths of which the science is composed, there are few more impressive
and elevating subjects of contemplation than the unity in the clear and bold
outline of that noble structure.
I hope that you will not suppose, from my references to Chemistry as pro-
moting the development of these habits and powers of mind, that I wish to
claim for that particular branch of science any exclusive merit of the kind ;
for I can assure you that nothing can be further from my intention.
I conceived that you would wish me to speak of that department of science
which I have had occasion to study more particularly ; but much that I have
said of it might be said with equal truth of other studies, while some of its
merits may be claimed in a higher degree by other branches of science. On
the other hand, those highest lessons which I have illustrated by chemistry
are best learnt by those whose intellectual horizon includes other provinces of
knowledge.
Chemistry presents peculiar advantages for educational purposes in the
combination of breadth and accuracy in the training which it affords ; and I
am inclined to think that in this respect it is at present unequalled. There is
reason to believe that it will play an important part in general education, and
render valuable services to it in conjunction with other scientific and with
literary studies.
I trust that the facts which I have submitted to your consideration may
suffice to show you how fallacious is that materialistic idea of Physical Science
which represents it as leading away from the study of man’s noblest faculties,
and from a sympathy with his most elevated aspirations, towards mere inani-
mate matter. ‘The material work of science is directed by ideas towards the
attainment of further ideas. ach step in science is an addition to our ideas,
or an improvement of them. A science is but a body of ideas respecting the
order of nature.
Each idea which forms part of Physical Science has been derived from ob-
servation of nature, and has been tested again and again in the most various
ways by reference to nature; but this very soundness of our materials
enables us to raise upon the rock of truth a loftier structure of ideas
than could be erected on any other foundation by the aid of uncertain ma-
terials.
The study of science is the study of man’s most accurate and perfect intel-
— lectual labours; and he who would know the powers of the human mind
must go to science for his materials.
Like other powers of the mind, the imagination is powerfully exercised,
and at the same time disciplined, by scientific work. Every investigator has
frequent occasion to call forth in his mind a distinct image of something in
nature which could produce the appearances which he witnesses, or to frame
& proposition embodying some observed relation; and in each case the image
or the proposition is required to be true to the materials from which it is
formed. There is perhaps no more perfect elementary illustration of the ac-
curate and useful employment of the imagination than the process of forming
in the language of symbols, from concrete data, one of thcse admirable
general propositions called equations ; on the other hand, the contemplation
of the order and harmony of nature as disclosed to us by science supplies the
Ixxxii REPORT—1873.
imagination with materials of surpassing grandeur and brilliancy, while at
the same time affording the widest scope for its efforts.
The foregoing considerations respecting the meaning and use of scientific
work will, I trust, afford us aid in considering what measures ought to be
taken in order to promote its advancement, and what we can do to further
the adoption of such measures.
Like any other natural phenomenon, the growth of knowledge in the
human mind is favoured and promoted by certain circumstances, impeded or
arrested by others ; and it is for us to ascertain from experience what those
circumstances respectively are, and how the favourable ones can be best com-
bined to the exclusion of the others.
The best and noblest things in this world are the result of gradual growth,
by the free action of natural forces ; and the proper function of legislation is
to systematize the conditions most favourable to the free action which is
desired.
I shall consider the words “‘ Advancement of Science” as referring to the
development and extension of our systematic knowledge of natural phenomena
by investigation and research.
The first thing wanted for the work of advancing science is a supply of
well-qualified workers. The second thing is to place and keep them under
the conditions most favourable to their efficient activity. The mest suitable
men must be found while still young, and trained to the work. Now I know
only one really effectual way of finding the youths who are best endowed by
nature for the purpose; and that is to systematize and develope the natural
conditions which accidentally concur in particular cases, and enable youths to
rise from the crowd.
The first of these is that a young man gets a desire for knowledge by seeing
the value and beauty of some which he has acquired. When he has got this
desire, he exerts himself to increase his store ; and every difficulty surmounted
increases his love of the pursuit, and strengthens his determination to go on.
His exertions are seen by some more experienced man, who helps him to
place himself under circumstances favourable to further progress. He then
has opportunities of seeing original inquiries conducted, perhaps even of aid-
ing in them ; and he longs to prove that he also can work out new truths, and
make some permanent addition to human knowledge. If his circumstances
enable him to prosecute such work, and he succeeds in making some new ob-
servations worthy of publication, he is at once known by them to the com-
munity of scientific men, and employed among them.
We want, then, a system which shall give to the young favourable oppor-
tunities of acquiring a clear and, as far as it goes, a thorough knowledge of
some few truths of nature such as they can understand and enjoy—which shall
afford opportunity of further and further instruction to those who have best
profited by that which has been given to them, and are anxious to obtain
more—which shall enable the best students to see what original investigation
is, and, if possible, to assist in carrying out some research—and, finally,
which shall supply to each student who has the power and the will to
conduct researches, all material conditions which are requisite for the
purpose.
But investigators, once found, ought to be placed in the circumstances most
favourable to their efficient activity.
The first and most fundamental condition for this is, that their desire for
the acquisition of knowledge be kept alive and fostered. They must not
merely retain the hold which they have acquired on the general body of their
ADDRESS, Ixxxili
science ; they ought to strengthen and extend that hold, by acquiring a more
complete and accurate knowledge of its doctrines and methods ; in a word,
they ought to be more thorough students than during their state of preli-
minary training.
They must be able to live by their work, without diverting any of their
energies to other pursuits ; and they must feel security against want, in the
event of illness or in their old age.
They must be supplied with intelligent and trained assistants to aid in
the conduct of their researches, and whatever buildings, apparatus, and ma-
terials may be required for conducting those researches effectively.
The desired system must therefore provide arrangements favourable to the
maintenance and development of the true student-spirit in investigators,
while proyiding them with permanent means of subsistence, sufficient to
enable them to feel secure and tranquil in working at science alone, yet not
sufficient to neutralize their motives for exertion ; and at the same time it
must give them all external aids, in proportion to their wants and powers of
making good use of them. '
Now I propose to describe the outline of such a system, framed for the
sole purpose of promoting research, and then to consider what other results
would follow from its working.
If it should appear possible to establish a system for the efficient advance-
ment of science, which would be productive of direct good to the community
in other important ways, I think you will agree with me that we ought to do
all that we can to promote its adoption.
Let the most intelligent and studious children from every primary school
be sent, free of expense, to the most accessible secondary school for one year ;
let the best of these be selected and allowed to continue for a second year,
and so on, until the élite of them have learnt all that is to be there learnt to
advantage. Let the best pupils from the secondary schools be sent to a col-
lege of their own selection, and there subjected toa similar process of annual
weeding ; and, finally, let those who get satisfactorily to the end of a college
curriculum be supplied with an allowance sufficient for their maintenance for
a year, on condition of their devoting their undivided energies to research,
under the inspection of competent college authorities, while allowed such aids
and facilities as the college can supply, with the addition of money-grants for
special purposes. Let all who do well during this first year be allowed similar
advantages for a second, and even a third year.
Each young investigator thus trained must exert himself to obtain some
appointment, which may enable him to do the most useful and creditable work
of which he is capable, while combining the conditions most favourable to his
own improvement.
Let there be in every college as many Professorships and Assistantships in
each branch of science as are needed for the efficient conduct of the work
there going on, and let every Professor and Assistant have such salary and
such funds for apparatus &c. as may enable him to deyote all his powers to
the duties of his post, under conditions favourable to the success of those
duties ; but let each Professor receive also a proportion of the fees paid by his
pupils, so that it may be his direct interest to do his work with the utmost
attainable efficiency, and attract more pupils.
Let every college and school be governed by an independent body of men,
striving to increase its usefulness and reputation, by sympathy with the
labours of the working staff, by material aid to them when needed, and by
getting the very best man they can, from their own or any other college, to
supply each vacancy as it arises.
Ixxxiv REPORT—-1878.
In addition to colleges, which are and always have been the chief institu-
tions for the advancement of learning, establishments for the observation of
special phenomena are frequently needed, and will doubtless be found de-
sirable in aid of a general system for the advancement of science.
Now, if a system fulfilling the conditions which I have thus briefly sketched
out were once properly established on a sufficient scale, it ought to develop
and improve itself by the very process of its working; and it behoves us, in
judging of the system, to consider how such development and improvement
would come about.
The thing most needed at the present time for the advancement of science
is a supply of teachers devoted to that object—men so earnestly striving for
more knowledge and better knowledge as to be model students, stimulating
and encouraging those around them by their example as much as by their
teaching. Young men do not prepare themselves in any numbers for such a
career :—
I. Because the chief influences which surround them at school and at
college are not calculated to awaken in them a desire to obtain excellence of
such kind.
II. Because they could not expect by means of such qualities to reach a
position which would afford a competent subsistence.
Let these conditions be reversed, to the extent that existing teachers have
powerful inducements to make their students love the study of science for
its own sake, with just confidence that they will be able to earn a livelihood
if they succeed in qualifying themselves to advance science, and the whole
thing is changed. The first batch of young investigators will be dispersed
among schools and colleges according to their powers and acquirements, and
will at once improve their influence upon the pupils, and enable them to
send up a second batch better trained than the first. This improvement will
go on increasing, if the natural forces which promote it are allowed free play ;
and the youth of each successive generation will have better and more fre-
quent opportunities of awakening to a love of learning, better help and
guidance in their efforts to acquire and use the glorious inheritance of know-
ledge which had been left them, better and more numerous living examples
of men devoting their whole lives to the extension of the domain of truth,
and seeking their highest reward in the consciousness that their exertions
have benefited their fellow men, and are appreciated by them.
A young man who is. duly qualified for the work of teaching the investi-
gation of some particular branch of science, and who wishes to devote him-
self to it, will become a member of an association of men selected for their
known devotion to learning, and for their ability to teach the methods of
investigation in their respective subjects. Around this central group is
arranged a frequently changing body of youths, who trust to them for en-
couragement and guidance in their respective studies.
Our young investigator finds it necessary to study again more carefully
many parts of his subject, and to examine accurately the evidence of various
conclusions which he had formerly adopted, in order that he may be able to
lead the minds of his pupils by easy and natural yet secure steps to the dis-
covery of the general truths which are within their reach. He goes over his
branch of science again and again from the foundation upwards, striving
cach time to present its essential particulars more clearly and more forcibly,
arranging them in the order best calculated to stimulate an inquiring mind
to reflect upon their meaning, and to direct its efforts effectively to the dis-
covery of the general ideas which are to be derived from them, He is en-
ADDRESS. Ixxxv
couraged in these efforts by the sympathy of his colleagues, and often aided
by suggestions derived from their experience in teaching other branches of
science, or by information respecting doctrines or methods which throw a
light upon those of his own subject.
No known conditions are so well calculated to give a young investigator
the closest and strongest grasp of his subject of which he is capable as those
in which he is placed while thus earnestly teaching it in a college; and in-
asmuch as a thorough mastery of known truths is needed by every one who
would work to advantage at the discovery of new truths of that kind, it will,
in most cases, be an object of ambition to the ablest young investigators to
get an opportunity of going through the work of teaching in a college, in
order to improve themselves to the utmost for the work of original research,
There is, however, another advantage to them in having such work to do;
for the best way to ascertain at any one time what additions may be made
to a science, is to examine the facts which have been discovered last, and to
consider how far they confirm and extend the established ideas of the science,
how far they militate against those ideas. An investigating teacher is con-
stantly weaving new facts into the body of his science, and forming antici-
pations of new truths by considering the relation of these new facts to the
old ones.
When our investigator has thus got a thorough mastery of his science and
new ideas for its extension, he ought to have the opportunity of turning his
improved powers to account by devoting more of his time to original research ;
in fact he ought to teach research by example more than hitherto, and less by
elementary exercises upon known facts. If he has discharged the duties of
his first post with manifest efficiency, he will be promoted, either in his own
or some other college, to a chair affording more leisure and facility for
original research by his own hands and by those of his assistants and pupils.
Some investigators may find it desirable to give up after a while all teaching
of previously published truths, and confine themselves to guiding the original
researches of adyanced pupils, while stimulating them by the example of
their own discoveries. But most of them will probably prefer to do elemen-
tary teaching work from time to time, for the sake of the opportunity of
going over the groundwork of their science, with a knowledge of the new
facts and enlarged ideas recently established.
Now it must be observed that such a system as the above, once developed
to its proper proportions, so as to send annually to secondary schools many
thousands of poor children who would otherwise never enjoy such advantages,
and so as to train to original investigation a corresponding proportion of
them, would not only provide more young investigators than would be needed
for systematic teaching functions, but would also give a partial training of the
same kind to many whose abilities proved to be insufficient, or whose tastes
were not congenial to such pursuit. Some would be tempted by an advan-
tageous opening in an industrial pursuit or in the public service to break off
their studies before completion, and others would find, after completing their
training, a position of that kind more desirable or more attainable than a
purely scientific appointment. Not only would much good of other kinds be
accomplished by this circumstance, but we may say with confidence that
the system could not work with full advantage for its own special purpose of
promoting the advancement of science if it did not diffuse a knowledge of
the truths and methods of science beyond the circle of teachers.
There is an urgent need of accurate scientific knowledge for the direction
of manufacturing processes, and there could not be a greater mistake than to
Ixxxvi REPORT—1873.
suppose that such knowledge need not go beyond the elementary truths of
science. In every branch of manufacture improvements are made from time
to time, by the introduction of new or modified processes which had been
discovered by means of investigations as arduous as those conducted for
purely scientific purposes, and involving as great powers and accomplish-
ments on the part of those who conducted them.
Any manufacturer of the present day who does not make efficient arrange-
ments for gradually perfecting and improving his processes ought to make
at once enough money to retire; for so many are moving onwards in this
and other countries, that he would soon be left behind.
It would be well worth while to establish such a system of scientific educa-
tion for the sake of training men to the habits of mind which are required
for the improvement of the manufacturing arts; and I haye no doubt that
the expense of working the system would be repaid a hundred times over by
the increase of wealth of the community; but I only mention this as a
secondary advantage of national education.
A system of the kind could not expand to due dimensions, nor could it,
once fully established, maintain itself in full activity, without intelligent
sympathy from the community; and accordingly its more actiye-minded
members must be taught some good examples of the processes and results of
scientific inquiry, before they can be expected to take much interest in the
results achieved by inquirers, and to do their share of the work requisite for the
success of the system. I need hardly remind you that there are plenty of other
strong reasons why some such knowledge of the truths of nature, and of the
means by which they are found out, should be diffused as widely as possible
throughout the community.
You perceive that in such educational system each teacher must trust to
his own exertions for success and adyancement; and he will do so if he is
sure that his results will be known and compared impartially with those
attained by others. Each governing body must duly maintain the efficiency
of their school or college, if its support depend in some degree on the evi-
dences of that efficiency ; and they will try to improve their school if they
know that every improvement will be seen and duly appreciated.
The keystone of the whole structure is the action of the State in distri-
buting funds carefully among schools and colleges proportionally to the eyi-
dence of their doing good work, which could not be continued without
such aid.
I am inclined to think that the State ought, as far as possible, to confine
its educational grants to the purpose of maintaining and continuing good
work which is actually being done, and rarely if ever to initiate educational
experiments: first, because it is desirable to encourage private exertions
and donations for the establishment of schools and colleges upon new
systems, or in new localities, by giving the public full assurance that if any
new institution establishes its right to existence, by doing good work for a
while, it will not be allowed to die off for want of support; and, secondly,
because the judicial impartiality required in the administration of public
funds, on the basis of results of work, is hardly compatible with an advocacy
of any particular means of attaining such results.
On the other hand, experience has shown that special endowments, which tie
up funds in perpetuity for a definite purpose, commonly fail to attain their
object under the altered circumstances which spring up in later generations,
and not unfrequently detract from the efficiency of the institutions to which
they are attached, by being used for objects other than those which it is their
proper function to promote,
ADDRESS. Ixxxvil
When there is felt to be a real want of any new institution for the promo-
tion of learning, men are usually willing enough to devote time and money
to the purpose of establishing it and giving it a fair trial. It is desirable
that they should leave the State to judge of their experiment by its results,
and to maintain it or not, according to the evidences of its usefulness. No
institution ought, for its own sake, to have such permanent endowments as
might deprive its members of motives for exertion.
The State could not, however, discharge these judicial functions without
accurate and trustworthy evidence of the educational work done at the various
schools and of its success. For this purpose a record must be kept by or
under the direction of every teacher of the weekly progress of each pupil,
showing what he has done and howhe has done it. Official inspectors would
have to see to these records being kept upon a uniform scale, so that their
results might be comparable. The habit of keeping such records conduces
powerfully to the efficiency of teachers; and, for the sake of the due develop-
ment of the teaching system, it ought to prevail generally. Having such full
and accurate means of knowing what opportunities of improvement pupils
haye enjoyed and what use they have made of those opportunities, Govern-
ment ought to stimulate their exertions and test their progress by periodical
examinations. It is of the utmost importance to allow any new and improved
system of instruction to develope itself freely, by the exertions of those who
are willing to undertake the labour and risk of trying it on a practical scale ;
and the pupils who acquire upon such new system a command of any branch
of science, ought to have a fair opportunity of showing what they have
achieved and how they have achieved it. An able and impartial examiner,
knowing the new systems in use, will encourage each candidate to work out,
his results in the manner in which he has been taught to work out results
of the kind,
Examinations thus impartially conducted with a view of testing the suc-
cess of teachers in the work which they are endeavouring to do, have a far
higher value, and consequent authority, than those which are conducted in
ignorance or disregard of the process of training to which the candidates have
been subjected; and we may safely say that the examination system will not
attain its full usefulness until it is thus worked in intimate connexion witha
system of teaching,
In order to give every one employed in the educational system the utmost
interest in maintaining and increasing his efficiency, it is essential that a
due measure of publicity be given to the chief results of their respective
labours. Schools and colleges ought, toa considerable extent, to be supported
by the fees paid by pupils for the instruction received; and every Professor
being in part dependent upon the fees of his pupils will have a direct interest
in attracting more pupils to his classes or laboratories. The fame of important
original investigations of his own or his pupils, published in the scientific
journals, is one of the natural means by which a distinguished Professor
attracts disciples, and the success of his pupils in after life is another. His
prospects of promotion will depend mainly on the opinion formed of his
powers from such materials as these by the governing bodies of colleges and
by the public; forif each college is dependent for success upon the efficiency
of its teaching staff, its governing body must do their best to fill up every
vacancy as it arises by the appointment of the ablest and most successful
Professor whom they can get; and any college which does not succeed in
obtaining the services of able men will soon lose reputation, and fall off in
numbers,
Ixxxyvili REPORT—1873.
There are, however, further advantages to the working of the system to
be derived from full publicity of all its more important proceedings. It will
supply materials for the formation of a sound public opinion respecting the
proceedings of the authorities in their various spheres of action. A claim for
money might be made upon Government by the rulers of some college upon
inadequate grounds ; or a just and proper claim of the kind might be disre-
garded by Government. Neither of these things will be likely to happen
very often if the applications, together with the evidence bearing on them,
are open to public scrutiny and criticism ; and when they do occasionally
happen, there will be a natural remedy for them.
If I have succeeded in making clear to you the leading principles of the
plan to be adopted for the advancement of science, including, as it necessa-
rily must do, national education generally, you will, I think, agree with me
that, from the very magnitude and variety of the interests involved in its
action, such system must of necessity be under the supreme control of
Government. Science will never take its proper place among the chief ele-
ments of national greatness and advancement until it is acknowledged as such
by that embodiment of the national will which we call the Government. Nor
can the various institutions for its advancement develope duly their useful-
ness until the chaos in which they are now plunged gives place to such order
as it is the proper function of Government to establish and maintain.
But Government has already taken, and is continuing to take, action in
various matters affecting elementary popular education and higher scientific
education, and it would be difficult to arrest such action, even if it were
thought desirable to do so. The only practical question to be considered is
how the action of Government can be systematized so as to give free play to
the natural forces which have to do the work.
By establishing official examinations for appointments and for degrees,
Government exerts a powerful influence on the teaching in schools and
colleges, without taking cognizance, except in some few cases, of the systems of
teaching which preyail in them. Again, they give grants of public money from
time to time in aid of colleges or universities, or for the establishment of a
high school under their own auspices. Sometimes they endow a Professor-
ship. In taking each measure of the kind they are doubtless influenced by
evidence that it is in itself a good thing, caleulated to promote the advance-
ment of learning. Buta thing which is good in itself may produce evil effects
in relation to others, or good effects incommensurate with its cost. Thus
examinations afford most valuable aid to educational work when carried on
in conjunction with earnest teachers; yet when established in the absence of
a good system of education, they are liable to give rise to a one-sided train-
ing contrived with a special view of getting young men through the exami-
nations. If no properly educated young men were found for a particular de-
partment of the public service, and an examination of all candidates for such
appointments were to be established for the purpose of improving the system
of training, candidates would consider their power of answering such ques-
tions as appeared likely to be set as the condition of their obtaining the ap-
pointments, and they would look out for men able and willing to train them
to that particular work in as direct and effective a manner as possible. The
demand for such instruction would soon be supplied. Some teachers would
undertake to give instruction for the mere purpose of enabling candidates to
get through the examination; and by the continued habit of such work would
gradually come to look upon the examiners as malignant beings who keep
youths out of office, and whose vigilance ought to be evaded by such means
ADDRESS. lxxxix
as experience might show to be most effective for the purpose. Once this
kind of direct examination-teaching has taken root, and is known to produce
the desired effect of getting young men through the examinations, its exist-
ence encourages the tendency on the part of the candidates to look merely to
the examination as the end and aim of their study ; and a class of teachers
is developed whose exertions are essentially antagonistic to those of the
examiners.
There are, no doubt, teachers with a sufficiently clear apprehension of their
duty, and sufficient authority, to convince some of the candidates that the
proper object of their study should be to increase their power of usefulness
in the career for which they are preparing themselves, by thoroughly master-
ing up to a prescribed point certain branches of knowledge ; and that until
they had honestly taken the means to do this and believed they had done it
effectually, they ought not to go up for examination nor to wish to commence
their career.
But it is desirable that all teachers be placed under such circumstances
that it may become their interest as well as their duty to cooperate to the
utmost of their powers in the object for which the examiners are working.
For this purpose their records of the work done under their guidance by each
pupil ought to be carefully inspected by the examiners before framing their
questions, and ought to be accepted as affording the chief evidence of the
respective merits of the pupils.
This is not the place for considering how the general funds for an
effective system of national education can best be raised, nor how existing
educational endowments can best be used in aid of those funds. It is well
known that some colleges, of Oxford and Cambridge are possessed of rich
endowments, and that many distinguished members of those universities are
desirous that the annual proceeds of those endowments should be distributed
upon some system better calculated to promote the advancement of learning
than that which generally prevails. Indeed we may confidently hope that,
true to their glorious traditions, those colleges will be led, by the high-
minded and enlightened counsels of their members, to rely upon improving
usefulness in the advancement of learning as the only secure and worthy
basis of their action in the use of their funds, so that they may take a
leading part in such system of national education as may be moulded out
of the present chaos.
But the foundations of a national system of education ought to be laid
independently of the present arrangements at Oxford and Cambridge,
for we may be sure that the more progress the system makes the more
easy will become the necessary~reforms in the older universities and
colleges. ‘
It is clearly undesirable that Government should longer delay obtaining
such full and accurate knowledge of the existing national resources for
educational purposes, and of the manner in which they are respectively
utilized, as may enable them to judge of the comparative prospects of use-
fulness presented by the various modes of distributing educational grants.
They ought to know what has been done and what is doing in the various
public educational establishments before they can judge which of them would
be likely to make the best use of a grant of public money.
We have official authority for expecting such impartial administration of
educational grants; and it cannot be doubted that before long due means
will be taken to supply the preliminary conditions.
You are no doubt aware that a Royal Commission was appointed some
xe rEerort—1878.
time ago in consequence of representations made to Government by the
British Association on this subject, and it is understood that their instruc-
tions are so framed as to direct their particular attention to the manner in
which Government may best distribute educational grants. The Commission
is moreover composed of most distinguished men, and we have every reason
to anticipate from their labours a result worthy of the nation and of the
momentous occasion.
In speaking of public educational establishments, I refer to those which
by their constitution are devoted to the advancement of learning without
pecuniary profit to their respective governing bodies. ‘The annual expen-
diture requisite for keeping up a national system of popular education will
necessarily be considerable from the first, and will become greater from year
to year; but once Englishmen are fully alive to the paramount importance
of the object, and see that its attainment is within their reach, we may be
sure that its expense will be no impediment. England would not deserve
to reap the glorious fruits of the harvest of knowledge if she grudged the
necessary outlay for seed and tillage, were it even ten times greater than it
will be. It is no use attempting to establish a national system on any other
than a truly national basis. Private and corporate funds inevitably get
diverted from popular use, after a few generations, to the use of the influ-
ential and rich. A national system must steadily keep in view the improve-
ment of the poor, and distribute public funds each year in the manner best
calculated to give to the youths of the poorest classes full opportunities of
improvement proportional to their capacities, so that they may qualify them-
selves for the utmost usefulness to their country of which they are capable.
“The best possible security for the proper administration of the system will
be found in the full and speedy publicity of all the particulars of its
working.
It has been frequently remarked that a great proportion of English in-
vestigators are men of independent means, who not only seek no advance-
ment as a reward of their labours, but often sacrifice those opportunities of
improving their worldly position which their abilities and influence open up
to them, for the sake of quietly advancing human knowledge. Rich and
powerful men have very great temptations to turn away from science, so
that those who devote their time and money to its service prove to us how
true and pure a love of science exists in this country, and how Englishmen
will cultivate it when it is in their power to do so,
Now and then a youth from the poorer classes is enabled by fortunate
accidents and the aid of a friendly hand to climb to a position of scientific
activity, and to give us, as Faraday did, a sample of the intellectual powers
which lie fallow in the great mass of the people.
Now, the practical conclusion to which I want to lead you is, that it rests
with you, who represent the national desire for the advancement of science,
to take the only measures which can now be taken towards the establish-
ment of a system of education worthy of this country and adapted to the
requirements of science. In the present stage of the business the first thing
to be done is to arouse public attention by all practicable means to the im-
portance of the want, and to get people gradually to agree to some definite
and practicable plan of action. You will, I think, find that the best way
to promote such agreement is to make people consider the natural forces
which have to be systematized by legislation, with a view of enabling them
to work freely for the desired purpose. When the conditions essential to
any national system come to be duly appreciated by those interested in the
ADDRESS. xci
cause of education, means will soon be found to carry out the necessary
legislative enactments.
“The highest offices in the State are on our present system filled by men
who, whatever their political opinions and party ties, almost infallibly agree
in their disinterested desire to signalize their respective terms of office by
doing any good in their power. Convince them that a measure desired by
the leaders of public opinion is in itself good and useful, and you are sure to
carry it.
Gad on the other hand, England is not wanting in men both able and
willing to come forward as the champions of any great cause, and to devote
their best powers to its service.
I may well say this at Bradford after the results achieved by your Member
in the Elementary Education Act.
* Objections will of course be raised to any system on the score of difficulty
and expense, more especially to a complete and good system. Difficult of
realization it certainly must be, for it will need the devoted and indefatigable
exertions of many an able and high-minded man for many a long year.
Only show how such exertions can be made to produce great and abiding
results, and they will not be wanting. And as for expense, you will surely
agree with me that the more money is distributed in such frugal and effective
manner, the better for the real greatness of our country.
What nobler privilege is attached to the possession of money than that of
doing good to our fellow men? and who would grudge giving freely from
’ his surplus, or even depriving himself of some comforts, for the sake of pre-
paring the rising generation for a life of the utmost usefulness and consequent
happiness ?
I confidently trust that the time will come when the chief item in the
annual budget of the Chancellor of the Exchequer will be the vote for
National Education. And when in some later age our nation shall have
passed away, when a more true civilization has grown up and has formed
new centres for its throbbing life, when there are but broken arches to tell
of our bridges and crumbling ruins to mark the sites of our great cathedrals
—then will the greatest and noblest of England’s works stand more perfect
and more beautiful than ever; then will some man survey the results of Old
England’s labours in the discovery of imperishable truths and laws of
nature, and see that her energy and wealth were accompanied by some
nobler attributes—that while Englishmen were strong and ambitious enough
to grasp power, they were true enough to use it for its only worthy purpose,
that of doing good to others. i
I must not, however, trespass longer upon your time and your kind at
tention. My subject would carry me on, yet I must stop without having
half done justice to it.
If I have succeeded in convincing you that a National system of Educa- +
tion is now necessary and possible, and in persuading you to do what you
respectively can to prepare the way for it, 1 shall feel that the first step is
made towards that great result.
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REPORTS
ON
THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Caytey, F.R.S.,
Professor Stokes, F.R.S., Professor Sir W. Tuomson, F.R.S.,
Professor H. J. 8. Smita, F.R.S., and J. W. L. Guaisurr, B.A.,
F.R.A.S. (Reporter), on Mathematical Tables.
§ 1. General Statement of the Objects of the Committee.
Tue purposes for which the Committee was appointed were twofold, viz.
(1) to form as complete a catalogue as possible of existing mathematical
tables, and (2) to reprint or calculate tables which were necessary for the
progress of the mathematical sciences.
These two objects, although so far connected, that it was absolutely
essential before any tables were calculated or reprinted to be certain that
such tables were not already in existence or easily accessible, were in other
respects quite different; and the Committee have therefore decided to keep
them distinct. The reasons in favour of the adoption of this course are ob-
viously very strong, as a new table would be out of place in a Report which
in other respects was merely a detailed catalogue. A further argument
against the publication of the tables in the Reports of the Association, is
the great objection to needlessly scattering tables. Tables of a kindred-
nature collected together, are of far more value than the same could be if
dispersed in several volumes of a periodical; and if the tables of the Com-
mittee were published annually as calculated, it would happen not only that
they would have to be sought in several volumes, and their utility in conse-
quence considerably impaired, but sometimes even portions of the same table
would be separated. The Committee have therefore considered that they
would best carry out the second object for which they were appointed, by
publishing their tables separately and independently of the Annual Reports
of the Association.
The form chosen for this publication is « quarto of the same size as that
of the Philosophical Transactions, this size being necessary for the uniformity
of the tables, as a large page is required in order to contain the values of the
function tabulated, together with its first, second, and third differences, which,
when given, should range with the former on the same page. Before the
1873, Be
9D . rnePortT—1873.
appointment of the Committee, certain tables of hyperbolic antilogarithms or
exponentials (viz. e” and e—*) and of hyperbolic sines and cosines had been
commenced by Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher; and these the Committee determined
to print and stereotype on their completion. They are now in the press.
A mass of calculations has been made for the tabulation of Bessel’s functions,
for real and imaginary values ; and it is intended to complete these tables, and
then to undertake calculations connected with the Elliptic Functions.
As yet no tables have been reprinted by the Committee; and it clearly
would not be possible to decide which most required reproduction, until the
Report was considerably advanced beyond its present stage.
All the tables printed by the Committee, whether calculated or reprinted,
are to be stereotyped ; and it is intended that they shall ultimately form a
volume; but the tables relating to each function will be published and circu-
lated separately as calculated, the stereotype-plates remaining in the posses-
sion of the Committee for future use.
The first object of the Committee was rendered necessary by the fact that
the mathematical tables that have been formed, are scattered all over the
world in the various mathematical and scientific journals, transactions of
societies, &c., so that it is extremely difficult to ascertain what tables have
been already calculated in any particular branch of science. Another reason is
that tables formed for some particular purpose, and published under a title of
special application, are often of equal importance in other investigations ; so
that great inconvenience is sometimes felt for the want of a table which
already exists under another name and having reference to a different subject ;
or it may even be recalculated. The difficulty of knowing exactly the work
already done in any subject is one which is common to all parts of science ;
but the inconvenience resulting from the nature of a work being obscured by
its name is to a great extent peculiar to this subject, or at all events is more
painfully felt in connexion withit. A familiar instance of a function occurring
in several distinct subjects is the integral |e-*2dw, which is of importance
in the determination of the probable error in the method of Least Squares,
Astronomical Refractions, and the theory of Heat; and good instances of
the manner in which the nature of a table can be obscured by its name are
afforded by nautical collections, where under such headings as * Table to
find the latitude by double altitudes of the sun and the elapsed time,” or
“Table of logarithmic risings,” &c., are given log cosecants, log versed sines,
&c. A catalogue, therefore, in which the tables were carefully described
From their contents seemed very desirable ; and this the Committee hope to be
able to accomplish by their Reports. =
It is intended to include all numerical tables that can be regarded as
belonging to mathematical science, or which are of interest in connexion
therewith ; but none will be noticed in which the tabular results or data are
derived from observation or experiment, or merely concern special subjects
that are not generally classed under the head of mathematics. Thus the
great majority of astronomical tables, including catalogues of stars, tables of
refraction, tables depending on the figure of the earth, &c., will be ex-
cluded, as the data for the formation of such tables are derived from observa-
tion. The same remark applies to all chemical tables, tables of specific gravity,
of weights and measures, for the determination of the longitude at sea, mortality
tables, de. TLife-assurance and annuity tables, and all conimercial tables
willalso be excluded. ‘With regard to these last, however, although all tables
such as ready reckoners and common interest tables will in general be omitted,
OO ew St
ON MATUIEMATICAL TABLES. 3
any one that is of yalue in relation to mathematics as a science will be in-
cluded, although it may have been calculated for merely commercial purposes
and published under a name that would apparently exclude it from this Report.
Many tables of compound interest are valuable when viewed as tables of powers;
and many navigation tables calculated merely for the use of the sailor, and pub-
lished under titles that would imply that they were of a merely technical cha-
racter, are in reality trigonometrical tables under a disguised form.
From the above remarks it will be found in most cases very easy to decide
whether a table is included in the scope of this Report or not. A few of course
come on the boundary ; and then there is some little difficulty in drawing the
line fairly. Of this kind are tables for the expression of hours and minutes as
decimals of a day, &c.; most of these it has been thought better to include.
It was necessary as a preliminary to form a classification of mathematical
(numerical) tables ; and the following classification was drawn up by Frof.
Cayley and adopted by the Committee.
A. Auxiliary for non-logarithmic computations.
1, Multiplication,
2. Quarter-squares.
3. Squares, cubes, and higher powers, and reciprocals.
B. Logarithmic and circular. ‘
4, Logarithms (Briggian) and antilogarithms (do.); addition and sub-
traction logarithms, &e.
5. Circular functions (sines, cosines, &c.), natural, and lengths of circular
ares.
6. Circular functions (sines, cosines, &c.), logarithmic.
C. Exponential.
7. Hyperbolic logarithms.
8. Do. antilogarithms (e*) and h .1tan (45°4-2), and hyperbolic sines,
cosines, &c., natural and logarithmic.
D. Algebraic constants.
9. Accurate integer or fractional values. Bernoulli’s Nos., A7 0, &e,
Binomial coefficients.
10. Decimal values auxiliary to the calculation of series.
E. 11. Transcendental constants, ¢, x, y, &c., and their powers and functions,
F. Arithmological.
12. Divisors and prime numbers. Prime roots. TheCanonarithmeticus &e,
13. The Pellian equation.
14. Partitions,
15, Quadratic forms a?+2?, &e., and partition of numbers into squares,
cubes, and biquadrates.
16. Binary, ternary, &c. quadratic and higher forms.
17. Complex theories.
G, Transcendental functions.
18. Elliptic.
19. Gamma,
20. Sine-integral, cosine-integral, and exponential-integral.
21. Besscl’s and allied functions.
° . a
22. Planetary coefficients for given me
a
23. Logarithmic transcendental.
24, Miscellaneous,
4 REPoRtT—1878.
Several of these classes need some little explanation. Thus D 9 and 10 are
intended to include the same class of constants, the only difference being that
in 9 accurate values are given, while in 10 they are only approximate ; thus,
for example, the accurate Bernoulli’s numbers as vulgar fractions, and the
decimal values of the same to (say) ten places are placed in different classes, as
the former are of theoretical interest, while the latter are only of use in caleu-
lation. It is not necessary to enter into further detail with respect to the
classification, as in point of fact it is only very partially followed in the Report ;
the final index, however, will be constructed as much in accordance with it as
possible.
The only perfect method by which all the tables on the above subjects could
be found with any certainty, is to examine all the volumes of the mathema-
tical and philosophical journals and transactions, given in the list prefixed to
the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific papers—a most laborious work, as
it requires every page in all these periodicals to be looked at, and any nu-
merical tables noted and subsequently examined, while if included in the
scope of the Committee’s work they must further be described. The mere
turning over the pages of several thousand volumes is a work of some labour,
and the completion of the Report must occupy the Committee for several
years. The work is also of such a nature that it would not be possible to
obtain even an approach to completeness in any one class till very considerable
progréss had been made with the preliminary examination.
This, however, is not the case to any great extent with the groups A and
B, or with C 7 or the first part of F 12, as tables in these classes are gene-
rally to be found in separate books, and not in the memoirs of socicties, or
journals. It was possible, therefore, to make progress in the above classes
immediately ; and the portion of the Report now presented to the Association,
practically contains a catalogue of tables which form separate books. The
three broad divisions into which mathematical tables divide themselves
practically are found to be :—
I. Subsidiary tables, which are rather of value as a means of performing
calculations than of interest in themselves: ¢. g. multiplication tables,
logarithms, &c. They generally form separate books.
II. Tables of continuous functions, generally definite integrals,
III. Tables in the theory of numbers.
; lorem II. and II, contain conclusive (in opposition to subsidiary)
ables.
A fuller description of the contents &c. of Division I, will be found in
§ 2. It is hoped next year to report on Division II., and the next year on
Division III. It will be necessary afterwards to add supplements to different
classes, and notably to the present portion of the Report, which has no claim
at all to be regarded as complete, but is published on the distinct understand-
ing that it is by no means exhaustive with regard to the subjects treated in
it ; asupplementary Report on the same subject will be subsequently added ;
and it is hoped that thus it will be rendered complete (sce § 2).
§ 2. General Introduction to the present Report, and Explanation of its
Arrangement and Use.
Art. 1. The present Report is intended to include all general tables, viz.
tables that are of general application in all branches of mathematics, and
are therefore useful wherever calculations have to be performed. The most
simple instances are multiplication tables, common logarithms of numbers,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 5’
and trigonometrical functions, which form the basis of, and are the means
by which all other calculations are made. Regarded from this point of view,
this division may be said to contain auxiliary or subsidiary tables, viz. such
as are not per se of any very great intrinsic interest (multiplication tables
are a good instance), but which are nevertheless of such paramount import-
ance that, without their aid, the calculation of other tables would be too
laborious to be practicable. As before remarked, one reason why these tables
may well form a division by themselves is, that, being intended for caleula-
tions of all kinds, they are usually published separately, and have not to be
sought among the transactions of societies and other periodicals. The num-
ber of tables in this class is of course many times greater than are all the
other classes put together ; but then, on the other hand, they admit of more
brief description, as scarcely any explanation is needed of the functions
tabulated, or of the purposes for which the calculation or publication was
undertaken. In the present Report not above five or six tables printed in
periodical publications are noticed; while it is probable that in the Reports
on the other classes there will not be a much greater number that will have
appeared as separate and independent books.
Art. 2. The object of the Report is to enable any one by means of it to
find out with ease what tables have been computed on any of the twenty-
five subjects (see § 3) to which it relates, and where they are to be found ;
and the desire to form a catalogue that shall give a systematic and practical
account of the numerical tables in existence that bear upon each of the
subjects included has been steadily kept in view ; in fact little else has beon
aimed at. Still, as in the search for and examination of so many books of
tables (the Report contains an account of more than 230) a good many works
of considerable historical or bibliographical interest came to light, it was not
thought desirable to suppress all notice of them. The majority of seven-
teenth-century works included are described, on account either of their rarity
or because they serve to illustrate the history and progress of the subject.
Of this kind are Narrer’s ‘ Canon Mirificus’ (1614), containing the first an-
nouncement of logarithms, Lupotr’s ‘Tetragonometria’ (1690), &e.; and when
such works have been included, their full titles have been given in § 5, with
suitable bibliographical accuracy. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose
that all the tables of the seventeenth century have been superseded ; Vuaca’s
‘ Avithmetica,’ 1628, is the most convenient ten-figure table of logarithms
that exists (it has only been reprinted once, and not in so useful a form); and
no natural canon published subsequently can bear comparison with Piriscvs,
1613. In performing mathematical calculations, we have had repeated occa-
sion to use both Vuace and Pirrscus. Ursinvs’s ‘ Napierian Canon’ (1624)
is the largest in existence. The points in which the Report is least complete
are the descriptions of common tables of the eighteenth century, and of com-
paratively modern Italian, Spanish, &c. tables of logarithms. The former
class we have purposely omitted, though we have examined many, as they
are neither of value intrinsically nor historically; a good many are briefly
noticed by De Morgan; and the latter we have not been able to see: several
titles will be found in the Babbage Catalogue.
Art. 8. The most valuable detailed list of tables hitherto published is the
article Tastes written by De Morgan for Knight’s ‘ English Cyclopedia’
(1861). This article first appeared in the ‘ Penny Cyclopedia’ (1842), but
it was carefully revised and largely augmented by its author before its re-
printing in the ‘ English Cyclopedia.’ In this article are contained notices
of 457 tables, many of which, however, are outside the scope of this Report.
6 nEPortT—18758.
We have had occasion to make great use of this article; and whenever De
Morgan’s name is cited without reference to any work of his, it is always to
be understood that it is this article‘which is referred to. Other works which
we have used, but which contain information almost wholly of a bibliogra-
phical or historical nature, are :—
(1) ‘ Historia Matheseos Universe a mundo condito ad seculum P. C. N.
XVI... . accedit ... historia Arithmetices ad nostra tempora,’ autore Jo.
Christoph. Heilbronner. Lipsie,... 1742. Ivol. 4to. The ‘ Liber quartus
sistens Historiam Arithmetices’ is at the end of the book, and occupies
pp. 723-924,
(2) ‘Geschichte der Mathematik,’ von Abraham Gotthelf Kistner. Gét-
tingen. (4 vols. 8vo, 1796-1800.) It forms the seventh ‘Abtheilung’ of
the ‘ Geschichte der Kiinste und Wissenschaften’ (57 yols.). The tables are
contained in vol, ii.
(3) * Bibliotheca Mathematica,’ auctore Frid. Guil. Aug. Murhard. Lipsi,
1797-1804 (also German title, ‘ Litteratur der mathematischen Wissen-
schaften’). 4 vols. 8vo. ‘Mathematische Tafeln’ is the heading of the
fourth division of vol. ii., and occupies pp. 181-201; they are divided into
two classes, the first containing logarithmic and trigonometrical tables, and
the second the rest; works that Murhard has had in his own hands are
marked with an asterisk.
(4) ‘ Bibliotheca Mathematica sive Criticus Librorum Mathematicorum,
....- commode dispositus ab J. Roggio.’ Sectio I. ‘Libros Arithmeticos et
Geometricos complectens.’ Tubinge,....1830 (also with German title-
page). This work we have found very useful. A great number of logarithmic
and trigonometrical tables are carefully described in Diy. IV. ‘ Elementar-
Geometrie’ (B.), pp. 367-410. It is right to add that the titles of tables
are to be found in all portions of the work, and are by no means restricted
to the arithmetical divisions. We believe that no more than the ‘ Sectio I’
was ever published.
The following is a continuation of Rogg :—
(5) ‘Bibliotheca Mathematica. Catalogue of Books in every branch of
Mathematics .... which have been published in Germany and other coun-
tries from the year 1830 to the middle of 1854” Edited by L. A. Sohnke,
... With a complete index of contents. Leipzig and London, 1854. 1 vol.
8yo.
(6) ‘ Bibliographie Astronomique, avec Vhistoire de l’Astronomie. ... Par
Jerdéme De La Lande... A Paris... . An XI.=1803. lvol. 4to. A sepa-
rate index to the general tables is given on pp. 960, 961.
(7) ‘ Litteratur der Mathematik, Natur- und Gewerbs-Kunde mit Inbegriff
der Kriegskunst,’...von J. S. Ersch. ‘ Neue fortgesetzte Ausgabe,’ yon F.
W. Schweigger-Seidel. ‘Aus der neuen Ausgabe des Handbuchs der Deuts-
chen Litteratur besonders abgedruckt.’ Leipzig, 1828. 1 vol. 8vo.
(8) ‘ Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch zur Geschichte der exacten
Wissenschaften . . . gesammelt’ von J. G. Poggendoff. Leipzig, 1863. 2
vols. 8yo.
(9) ‘R. P. Claudii Francisci Milliet Dechales Camberiensis e Societate
Jesu Cursus-seu Mundus Mathematicus.’ .. Lugduni, 1690. 4 vols. fol.
The first volume opens with a ¢tractatus Proemialis de progressu Mathe-
seos et illustribus Mathematicis;’ and pp. 28-87 are devoted to arithmetical
bibliography. We may state that a previous edition of 1674, in 3 yols. fol.,
does not contain the ‘ De progressu,’
——_—
——_—
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. i?
We may also mention De Morgan’s ‘ Arithmetical Books from the invention
of printing to the present day,’ London, 1847, 8vo, the introduction of which
contains useful bibliographical information about the description of books,
and Peacock’s “ History of Arithmetic” in the ‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana.’
There is one bibliographical work, viz. Scheibel’s ‘ Einleitung zur mathe-
matischen Biicherkenntniss.’ Neue Auflage. 3 vols. 8vo, Breslau, 1781
(as given in the Babbage Catalogue), which is continually referred to by
Murhard, Rogge, &c., though we have never been able to see a copy in any
library to which we have had access, or procure one otherwise. De Morgan
says, “Scheibel (additions) may be considered as partly repetition, partly
extension, of Heilbronner. He is one of those bibliographers who collect
from various sources the names and dates of more editions than those who
know catalogues will readily believe in.”
It is unnecessary here to mention works on general bibliography, such as
Hain, Ebert, Watt, &c., which are well known; we may, however, parti-
cularly notice ‘Trésor de livres rares et précieux ou Nouveau dictionnaire
bibliographique,’ par Jean George Théodore Graesse, Dresde [also Geneva,
London, and Paris |, 1859-1867 (7 vols. including supplement), which might
be of use, though we have found the mathematical works it contains very
inaccurately described ; but this is a fault common to all works of general
bibliography.
Montuela, ‘ Histoire des Mathématiques,’ we have not found valuable ; but
we may call attention to the accurate information given by Delambre in his
‘ Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne,’ t. i. Paris, 1821; and also in his other
histories.
Reuss’s ‘ Repertorium Commentationum a.societatibus litterariis editarum,’
Gottingse, 1801-1821, 16 vols. 4to, is a work very similar in its plan to
the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers, except that it is an indew
rerum instead of an indew auctorum. The mathematics is contained in vol,
vii., the arithmetic occupying pp. 2-31 of that volume. On p. 30 are refer-
ences to descriptions of calculating and other arithmetical machines.
We have found Nos. XIX. and XX. (on trigonometrical and logarithmic
tables) of Hutton’s ‘Mathematical Tracts,’ London, 3 vols. 8vo, 1812, very
useful.
Art. 4. The mode of arrangement of this Report (which properly occu-
pies § 3, § 4, and § 5), and the reasons that have led to its adoption, are as
follows:—If every table were published separately and formed a work by
itself, the obvious course would be to divide them into a certain number of
classes according to their contents, to prefix to each class a brief intro~
duction and explanation, and then to give a detailed description, in chrono-
logical order, of the tables included under it. This is, in fact, the course
that has been pursued with regard to separate tables (7. e. works containing
either a single table or only tables that come under the same class); § 3 is
divided into 25 articles, each article being devoted to one subject :—art. 1,
multiplication tables; art. 2, tables of proportional parts, &c. (for the con-
tents of all the articles, see the commencement of § 3). ach article begins
with a general, account, partly historical, of the subject included in it; and
then follow the descriptions of the separate tables on that subject. But the
majority of works noticed are collections, and include tables that are com-
prised under several articles; thus Hutton’s tables contain Briggian and
hyperbolic logarithms of numbers, a natural and logarithmic canon, &e. &c.,
each of which belongs to a different article. Two courses were therefore
open for the treatment of such works ;—(1) to describe them under the article
8 rrrort—1873.
having reference to the first or largest table in the work, and insert cross
references under each of the articles concerned with the other tables in-
cluded in the work; or (2) to describe all collections of tables in a section
by themselves, and give references to cach of the tables they contain under
the appropriate article in § 3. The second course was clearly the more
proper, for three reasons—(1) because it was free from the arbitrary element
inyolved in the choice of the leading table, which would be required in the
first method, (2) because it was undesirable to overload the articles of § 3
with descriptions of tables not belonging to them, and (3) because reference
to the works would be greatly facilitated by placing them in an article by
themselves; § 4 therefore contains all works the contents of which do not
belong wholly to one of the articles in § 3, or, in other words, which con-
tain at least two tables, the subjects of which are included in different
amaclés of § 3. As the works in § 4 will thus have to be continually re-
ferred to separately, they are arranged alphabetically, not chronologically.
$5 is a complete list of all the works containing tables that are described
in this Report; and to facilitate its use as an index, a reference is attached
to the section, or section and article, in which the work is described.
To take an example of the manner in which the Report is intended to be
used. Supposing it were required to know what tables there were of log
versed sines; the reader would turn to the beginning of § 3, and, looking
down the list of articles, see that, coming under the head of « logarithmic
trigonometrical functions,” such tables belonged to art. 15. He would ac-
cordingly turn to art, 15, and read or glance through the introductory
remarks to that article, and the works described there; not finding any book
containing log versed sines alone described in the article, he would conclude
that no separate table of the kind had come under the notice of the reporter ;
he would then look at the references to § 4; and if he wished for detailed
information with regard to any of those tables, he would examine the de-
scriptions in that section. Any one, on the other hand, desiring to know
the contents of any particular work would seek it in § 5; if it occurred there,
a reference would be found added either to § 4, or to § 3 and the article in
which itis described. No difficulty will be experienced in finding the descrip-
tion if it be remembered that all the works are cited by the author’s name and
the date ; and that while in § 4 they are arranged alphabetically, in the articles
of § 3 the arrangement is chronological. ’
The date is throughout appended to the author’s name in citing a work, in
order to identify the work in § 5 (the date given being always that assigned
to the work in § 5); there is also the further advantage, that any one who
requires information only with regard to modern tables, still procurable from
the bookseller, need not waste time in secking the detailed descriptions of
works published in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
It may be mentioned that a few works that do contain tables of more than
one kind, are nevertheless included in § 3: this happens when the smaller
tables are insignificant compared with those under which the work is classed ;
= aie are then appended also in the articles to which the smaller tables
elong.
_An asterisk prefixed to an author’s name (thus * Voisin or * Vorsty) in-
dicates that the description of the work of his referred to has not been derived
from inspection. In every case where there is no asterisk, the description
has been written by the reporter with the book itself before him.
Art. 5. In all cases where the author of a collection of tables has num-
bered or marked them himself, his numbering or marking has been followed
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 9
in this Report, except in very exceptional circumstances. Where, however,
the tables are not numbered or otherwise denoted, they have been marked
[T. 1.3, [T. I1.], &e., as it was necessary to have the means of referring to
them. Invariably, therefore, where the number of the table is not included
in square brackets, it is to be understood that it is the author’s own numbcr,
Thus IT. VII. in any particular work implies that the table in question is
numbered VII, in that work, while [T. VII.] implies either that the table
has no number, or that the classification in the work is different from that
adopted in. this Report. Whenever logarithms are mentioned without the
epithet hyperbolic or Napierian, common or Briggian logarithms (viz. to base
10) are intended. In some cases, where there might be some doubt, the
adjective ‘‘common” is introduced. By hyperbolic logarithms are always
meant logarithms to the base ¢ (2°71828 . . . ); and these are never called
Napicrian, this word being reserved for logarithms of exactly the same kind
as those introduced by Napier (see § 3, art. 17). Such asentence as “ Five-
figure logarithms to 1000,” is always to be understood as meaning ‘‘ logarithms
of numbers from unity to 1000, at intervals of unity to five decimal places ;”
- viz., when the lower limit of a table is not expressed, it is always to be taken
as unity ; and when the intervals are not mentioned, they are always unity.
The term ‘‘ places” is used throughout for ‘‘ decimal places” or “ decimals,”
a number ‘to 3 places” meaning a number given to 3 places of decimals
(not 3 figures). The only exception made to this rule is in the description of
tables of common logarithms; the words “ seven-figure logarithms, six-figure
logarithms,” &c., have become by usage so completely recognized as meaning
logarithms to seven places, to six places, &c., that it did not seem worth while
disturbing the established mode of expression, as it could lead to no error,
The contents of old works have been described in the language and nota-
tion of the present day, and not in the manner adopted by their authors ;
any peculiarities of notation &c. in a table, however, are pointed out. It was
long universal, and is still very common, to describe trigonometrical tables as
being computed to a certain radius; these are translated into the language
of decimals; thus a table “to radius 10,000,000 ” is described as a table
“ to seven places,” andso on. As arule the characteristics of the logarithms
have been ignored in describing a table; 7. ¢. it has not been stated whether
the characteristic was given or no, or, if given, what was the understanding on
which it was added. In many tables, contained in works intended for a special
purpose (as in collections of nautical tables, &c.), arbitrary numbers are added
to or subtracted from the characteristics to facilitate their use in working
some particular formula; to have included details of this kind would have
taken much room, and been really superfiuous, as in most cases all that is
required to be known in the description of a table of logarithms, is the range
of the table, and the number of places to which the mantisse are given.
We may here mention that an ambiguity occurs in the description of propor-
tional-part tables ; thus a“ table of proportional parts to tenths ” may mean
either that the proportional parts are given for one, two, three, &c. tenths of
the difference, or else that the numbers that form the proportional-part table
are given to one place of decimals. The former is the meaning generally in-
tended ; and it would be better if in this case the words “to tenths ” were
replaced by “ for every tenth.”
A good many tables had been described before the ambiguity was noticed ;
but it is believed the context will generally show the true meaning ; when
the words to tenths, to hundredths, &c. are italicized, the latter inter preta-
tion (viz. results given to one, two, &c, decimal places) i is to be assigned,
10 rnerort—1873.
Art. 6. To the particular editions of the works described no importance
is to be attributed. It would obviously have been impossible to always fix
upon the first or last edition as the one to be described ; in fact we had no
choice; we took what we could get. The list in § 5 always contains portions
of the titlepage of the same edition of the work that is described in § 3 or
§ 4 of the Report ; the particular edition chosen was usually determined by the
accidental circumstance of its being the first that was examined, any informa-
tion that was subsequently obtained about other editions being added at the
end of the description of the contents of the work in $3 or $4. It would
have been better to have always taken as the standard the last edition pro-
curable, and pointed out wherein it differed from its predecessors ; but this
would have required much rewriting of particular portions, and considerably
increased the labour of preparation, with a very small increase of regularity
in the arrangement of the Report, but with no corresponding increase in its
value.
Art. 7. In every case where a table has been described from inspection, all
the tables themselves have been examined, and not merely their titlepages,
tables of contents, &e. This was of course absolutely necessary in very many
instances, as it is comparatively rare that any thing more than a general
notion of the contents of a collection of tables can be gathered from the author’s
explanations ; but in any case it was essential if the Report was to have any
value for accuracy, because the titles assigned by their authors were sometimes
misleading, if not absolutely erroneous ; and frequently, evenif the more im-
portant tables had headings or descriptions prefixed, the smaller ones (which are
often more worthy of notice on account of their rarity or mathematical value)
were passed over. It must here be remarked that it is never safe to take
a description of a table from its author or editor, as it is not a very uncommon
thing to give as the contents of a table, not that which can be found from it at
once, but what can be obtained from the table by means of additional work,
such as an interpolation, Thus, under the heading “ Table of logarithms to
eight decimals” is sometimes given a table to five places, and a formula from
which to calculate the remaining three. «
Another case in point is SrrrnBercur’s table, described in this Report, the
titlepage of which describes it as giving the logarithms of all numbers to
1,000,000, when in point of fact it only extends to 10,000—the justification
for the title being that two more figures can be interpolated for. It is not
to be supposed, when such misstatements occur, that the author of the table
has any desire to mislead, as they usually result from ignorance ; but it is a
matter of regret, when it has become customary (and most properly so) that
a table should be described on its title as giving only what can be taken out
of it without additional calculation, that this rule should sometimes be vio-
lated and a designation given that is, to say the least, misleading. We have
also met with such instances as the following :—The title of a book is given
in a bookseller’s catalogue as (say) ‘‘ Table of divisors of numbers from 1 to
10,000,000 ;” but the following words (say), “ Part I. from 1 to 150,000 ”
(when perhaps no more was ever published), are left out—-an omission of
rather an important character as regards the contents and value of the table.
Cases of this kind show how imperatively necessary it is to examine the
table itself; and whenever the description of a table is taken from an adver-
tisement, bookseller’s catalogue, or other second-hand source, there is great
liability to error.
Art. 8. The names of authors occurring in the text have been printed in
small capitals when the work of theirs alluded to is described in this Report,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 11
otherwise in ordinary roman type: thus we should write “the table was
copied from ‘ Briees’s ‘Arithmetica’ of 1624,” because an account of Brices’s
work is given in the Report; but we should writé “ the sines were taken from
Vieta’s ‘ Ganon’ 1579,” because Vieta’s work is not described. This rule is
attended to always whenever an author's name is mentioned in juxtaposition
with his work, and it will be found to save unnecessary trouble in searching
for works not noticed in the Report. Of course all rules are sometimes diffi-
cult to carry out; and in cases such as when the author's name and work are
separated from one another, or the name occurs frequently in a paragraph by
itself, but really in connexion with some work not expressly named each time,
&e., we have attempted to carry out the spirit of the rule and no more. An
author’s name is enclosed in square brackets (thus [Pell] or [Prrx]) when
his name does not occur on the titlepage of the work of his referred to.
Art, 9. The words 8vo, 4to, &c. are used in § 5 to signify works of
octavo, quarto, &c. size, without reference to the number of pages to the sheet.
They are merely intended to give a rough idea of the size and shape of the work,
which is better ddne by using them in a general sense than by attaching to
them their technical meanings. The words “ large” or ‘“‘ small” have been
prefixed when the size was markedly different from what is usual. It must
be remembered that two hundred years ago all the sizes were much smaller
than at present, so that the usual quarto page of 1650 is smaller than an
octavo page of our day, though the shape is of course more square. Old works
‘are generally described as they would have been at the time ; but it sometimes
may haye happened that a true quarto of old date is here given as octavo, &e. :
this caution is necessary for those who might use §5 bibliographically.
Whenever, in transcribing portions of works in § 5, words have been omitted
from the titlepage, dots have been inserted to mark the omissions. We may
mention that we have used the word reprint in its proper sense ; viz. we haye
not spoken of a reprint except when the type was reset.
Art. 10. In the preparation of this Report extensive use has been made of the
libraries of the British Muscum, the Royal Society, the University of Cam-
bridge, the Royal Observatory, Trinity College (Cambridge), and the Royal
Astronomical Society, in one or other of which the majority of the works
noticed are contained. We have also, through the kindness of Professor
Henrici, been enabled to consult the Graves Library at University College,
London, which contains an almost unrivalled collection of old mathematical
works ; but as they are not yet arranged, it is not possible to find any par-
ticular work without great expenditure of time and labour. The De-Morgan
library at the London University is also still in process of arrangement, and is
therefore inaccessible for the present. By the kindness of Mr. Tucker, who
forwarded us an early copy of the sale-catalogue of the late Mr. Babbage’s
library, we have been enabled to extract several titles from it, and identity
works of the titles of which we had only imperfect descriptions ; but we have
not been able to see any of the books themselves. It must not be understood
that the Report contains notices of all the books of mathematical tables
contained in the libraries mentioned at the beginning of this article. or in-
stance, the Royal Society’s catalogue contains the titles of several works that
should be included but which we have not yet examined; and of course no
one can know what tables there are in such libraries as those of the British
Museum or the Cambridge University, where there is no catalogue of subjects,
For the omissions we could have rectified we must plead in excuse the
already great extent of the Report, and consequent necessity of drawing the
line somewhere. Of course many of the works noticed are either in our own
12 REPORT —1873,
possession or were lent by friends; and we must acknowledge the kind assist-
ance rendered by Mr. C. W. Merrificld, F.R.8., of whose mathematical library
we hope to make more use in a future Report.
Art. 11. The Report is avowedly very imperfect ; it contains probably not
one half of the works that have as good a right to be noticed as those that
areincluded. This defect will be remedied by the publication of an Appen-
dix or additional Report on the same subject, probably after the appearance
of the Reports on the other divisions. As it would be clearly impossible to
have made this Report perfect (and had it been possible, it would have occu-
pied more space than could be given to it), an Appendix giving the results
of the examinations of the memoirs, transactions, &c. in reference to this
class of tables would have had in any case to be added after the com-
pletion of the other divisions; and on this account it seemed unnecessary
to take especial pains to procure works that were clearly of no very great
importance, or to insert imperfect second-hand accounts of tables that would
in all probability be met with in the course of the formation of the subse-
quent Reports. Invariably, however, whenever a reference was found to a
table that seemed of importance, no pains haye been spared in the endeavour
to obtain and examine a copy; in the event of these efforts being fruitless,
a notice of the work compiled from other accounts has been given, with an
intimation of the source whence the information was derived ; but only three
or four works are included that have not come under the eye of the reporter.
It is probable that there may have been published recent works on the
continent no copy of which is contained in any of the public libraries of this
country ; and on this account it will probably be found very difficult to
make the list perfect. The present Report is, however, so far complete that
the Committee think they may ask mathematicians or computers who are ace
quainted with any works not included in it or in De Morgan, to inform them
of the fact. It is only in this way that completeness can be obtained, as
although, by an examination of the transactions &c. to which references are
given at the beginning of the Royal Society’s catalogue, the completion of the
accounts of tables contained in memoirs &c. would be merely a matter of time
and labour on the part of the members of the Committee, the discovery and de-
scription of books printed in out-of-the-way places, or for private circulation,
can only be effected by the cooperation of mathematicians who may happen
to possess copies*. ‘The Report, however, as it now stands, will be found to
contain more information about tables than is to be found anywhere else; in
fact, except De Morgan’s list (referred to in art. 3 of this section), we know no
place where any attempt is made to cover the ground included in this Report ;
and though De Morgan has referred to more works than are described here in
detail (even when commercial tables are excluded), it must be borne in mind
that his descriptions are too short and general to be of great value, that more
than a third of his accounts are compiled from sources other than the original
works, and that he has made no attempt todo more than roughly classify the
works (not the tables) ; in fact a more detailed description or classification was
excluded by the plan of his article, which notwithstanding gives a great deal
of information in a very small space,
Art. 12. By an oversight (which was not discovered till it was too late to
remedy it) we have excluded from the Report traverse tables, viz. Difference-
of-latitude and Departure tables, which under the head of multiples of sines
and cosines ought to haye been noticed. Such tables are of general use in
* It is requested that communications may be addressed to Mr, J. W. L. Giaisher,
Trinity College, Cambridge.
Eee
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 13
all mathematics, a3 they are in reality merely tables for the solution of right-
angled triangles ; we have noticed one such table (Massatovr, § 3, art. 10),
which was constructed for mining- (not nautical) purposes.
We hope to repair the omission by appending a separate list of traverse
tables to a future Report.
Art. 13. A very important incidental gain that it was hoped would be
afforded by the present Report, was the opportunity of correcting errors in loga-
rithmic and other tables by giving references to the places in which errata-lists
had been published. In the introductions or prefaces to works containing
tables, it is usual to give a list of the errors that have been found during
their preparation in previous tables; and as few possessors of a work can be
acquainted with the publications that have appeared subsequently, it was
thought that by referring, under each title, to the works or periodicals in
which lists of errata in it had appeared, an important service would be rendered.
Itwassoon evident, however, that it was impossible to deal adequately with the
subject of errors in this manner. Many of the important collections have
been through very numerous editions ; and it was not always stated in which
editions the errors were found; and when the edition was stated, it was
doubtful (without examination) whether the errata-list in question had come
under the eye of the editor, and the errors been corrected in subsequent
editions, or not. In the case of stereotyped tables, successive tirages are more
and more accurate ; and in regard to collections of such tables published long
ago, as, for example, Callet (first published in 1783, though since reset),it seems
useless to waste space by giving references to the numerous crrata-lists that
have been published, some of which must necessarily relate only to the earlier
tirages, and must have been corrected long ago. This is the case with all the
chief tables, and only in particular instances, when circumstances rendered it
probable that the errata-lists would be of use, have references been given to
them. As, however, this state of affairs is very unsatisfactory, it is hoped
that in a subsequent Report a complete list of errors in later editions of the
most-used mathematical tables, still unsuperseded, may be given; but it is ne-
cessary first to be satisfied that the errata given are not erroneous themselves.
Many of the chief modern lists of errata are noticed in this Report, and also
éthers that it seemed desirable to give references to at once; but we have
made no effort to deal with the matter in a complete manner. It is much to
to be regretted that it is not usual for editors of a new edition of a table to
give a list of the errors that occurred in former editions, and have been corrected
in that edition. It is only fair for the purchaser of a new edition of a work
to be informed wherein it differs from its predecessors ; but unfortunately the
object of the editor and publisher is to sell as many copies of the new edition,
not to render the old as valuable as the new. It is proper to add, however,
that usually, when tables are published by a mathematician for the advance-
ment of science, and not by a bookseller and editor for the sake of profit, an
exception is made to this rule, and errata are freely acknowledged. A remark
made by De Morgan with reference to mathematical books in general, viz.
that the absence of a list of errata means, not that there are no errors, but
mérely that they have not been found out, is more applicable to tables than
to any other class of work, in spite of the care usually bestowed on them ;
and an error in a table is far more fatal than an error in any other class of
work, as there is no context (as far as the user is concerned) to show imme-
diately that the result taken from the table is erroneous. The subject of
oe will particularly occupy the attention of the Committee in a future
eport.
14 neport—1878.
Art, 14. The whole of the work required in the preparation of the Report
has been carefully performed ; and we believe that not many inaccuracies will
be found. Every work noticed, except only three or four, has been described
from actual inspection ; and the account hasinvariably been written with the
book before us. Every one, however, who has had any experience of biblio-
graphical work knows how impossible it is to be always accurate; the work
has often to be performed in public libraries open only for a few hours in the
day, so that any one who has not an unlimited number of days at his command,
must sometimes work under pressure. Omissions are thus made, which, when
discovered during the revision six months afterwards, cannot be rectified
without great loss of time, even if it be remembered what library it was that
contained the work in question. The references from one part of the Report
to another will also, it is believed, be found correct; but as the whole plan
and arrangement have been altered in the course of the year over which the
preparation of the Report has lasted, it is possible that some of the old refer-
ences may remain still uncorrected. If this should be found to be the case, not
much difficulty can ever be experienced in seeing what is meant with the aid
of the list of articles at the beginning of § 3, and the list of works in § 5;
also if any misprints (such as T, II. for T. ITT. &c.) should escape notice in
the correction of the proofs, the reader will be enabled to correct these with-
out much waste of time. Lists of errata and corrections, should such be
needed, will be given in subsequent Reports. Whenever we have made a
statement on some other authority than that of our own observation, we have
invariably stated it, though we are aware that we thus lay ourselves open to
the imputation of not having verified facts of the accuracy of which we might
have assured ourselves; but, as De Morgan has observed, the possibility of
writing a history entirely from personal observation of the originals has not
yet been demonstrated.
§ 8. Separate Tables, arranged according to the nature of their contents ; with
Introductory Remarks on each of the several kinds of Tables included in
the present Report.
This section is divided into twenty-five articles, the subject matter of which
is as follows :—
Art. 1. Multiplication tables.
. Tables of proportional parts.
. Tables of quarter squares.
. Tables of squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots.
5. Tables of powers higher than cubes.
6. Tables for the expression of vulgar fractions as decimals.
7. Tables of reciprocals.
8. Tables of divisors (factor tables), and tables of primes.
9. Sexagesimal and sexcentenary tables.
10. Tables of natural trigonometrical functions,
11. Lengths (or longitudes) of circular arcs.
12. Tables for the expression of hours, minutes, &c. as decimals of a
day, and for the conversion of time into space, and vice versd.
13. Tables of (Briggian) logarithms of numbers.
14. Tables of antilogarithms.
15. Tables of (Briggian) logarithmic trigonometrical functions.
16, Tables of hyperbolic logarithms (viz. logarithms to base 2°71828...).
17. Napierian logarithms (not to base 271828 .. .).
w= CO bo
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 15
Art. 18. Logistic and proportional logarithms.
19. Tables of Gaussian logarithms.
20. Tables to convert Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms, and vice versd,
21. Interpolation tables.
22. Mensuration tables.
23. Dual logarithms.
24, Mathematical constants.
25, Miscellaneous tables, figurate numbers, &e.
Art. 1. Midtiplication Tables.
The use of the multiplication table is so essential a part of the history of
Numeration and Arithmetic, that for information with regard to its introduc-
tion and application we must refer to Peacock’s ‘ History of Arithmetic’ in
the ‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana,’ to De Morgan’s ‘ Arithmetical Books’
(London, 1847), as well as to Heilbronner, Delambre, &c. (see § 2, art. 3),
to Leslie’s ‘ Philosophy of Arithmetic,’ and perhaps to Barlow’s ‘ Theory of
Numbers’ (London, 1811), in most of which references to other works will
be found. There is abundant evidence that, till comparatively recent times
(say the beginning of the eighteenth century), multiplication was regarded
as a most laborious operation ; this is testified not only indirectly by the very
simple examples given in old arithmetics, but explicitly by Decker in his
‘ Eerste Deel vande Nieuwe Telkonst’ (see Phil. Mag. Suppl. Number, Dec.
1872). The great popularity of Napier’s bones, and the eagerness with
which they were received all over Europe, show how great an assistance the
simplest contrivance for reducing the labour of multiplications was considered
to be. It would be interesting to know how. much of the multiplication
computers were in the habit of committing to memory, as the bones would
be no great help to any one who knew it as far as nine times nine. In this
Report, however, we are only concerned with extended multiplication tables
(viz. such as are to be used as tables, and were not intended to be committed
to memory). ‘The earliest printed table of multiplication we have seen re-
ferred to is Thomas Finck’s ‘ Tabule Multiplicationis et Divisionis, seorsim
etiam Monetz Danice accommodate,’ Hafniz, 1604 (which title De Morgan
obtained from Prof, Werlauff, Royal Librarian at Copenhagen); but the
work, from its title, must have been rather a ready reckoner than a proper
scientific table. The earliest large table, which, strange to say, is still as exten-
siveas any (it has been equalled, but not surpassed by Crexxz, 1864), is Herwarr
AB Honensure’s ‘Tabule Arithmetice zpooPapaipecews Universales,’ 1610,
described at length below. Of double-entry tables, Crrii1n’s ‘ Rechentafeln,’
1864, is the most useful, and the most used, for general purposes, The other
important tables are chiefly for multiplication by a single digit.
A multiplication table is usually of double entry, the two arguments being
the two factors ; and when so arranged, it is frequently called a “ Pythagorean
Table.” The great amount of room occupied by Pythagorean tables (no
table so arranged could extend to 1000 x 10,000, and be of practicable size)
has directed attention to modes of arrangement by which multiplication can
be performed by a table of single entry ; the most important of these are
tables of quarter-squares, which are described in § 3, art. 3, where are also
added some remarks on multiplication tables of single entry. See also Dituine,
described below.
It is almost unnecessary to add that, when not more than seyen or ten
figures are required, multiplication can be performed at once by logarithms,
which (though not the best method for two factors when either a Pythagorean
16 REPoRT—1873.
or quarter-square table of suitable extent is at hand) have the advantage
that by their means any number of factors can be multiplied together at
once.
Gruson’s table, 1798, is for multiplications of a somewhat different kind from
the rest.
Crete, in the introduction to his ‘echentafeln’ (1820), mentions a
work, ‘Tables de Multiplication, 4 ’usage de MM. les géométres, de Mm. les
ingenieurs verificateurs du Cadastre, etc.’ sec. edit. Paris, Chez Valace, 1812,
which he says extends to 500 x 500, and occupies 500 quarto pages; while,
he adds, his own work, which is four times the extent, occupies only 1800
octavo pages. For the full titles of Picarte’s ‘ Tables de Multiplication’ and
‘Tableau Pithagorique,’ see under Picarre (1861), in § 3, art. 7.
Closely connected with multiplication tables are so-called Proportional-parts
tables (described in the next article); and very frequently in the latter the
last figure is not contracted, so that by a mere change of the position of the
decimal point they become tables of multiples.
Herwart ab Hohenburg, 1610. Multiplication table, from 2x1 to
1000x1000. The thousand multiples of any one of the numbers are con-
tained on the same page, so that (as the number 1 is omitted) there are 999
pages of tables. By a strange oversight, the numbering begins with 1 on
the first page of the table instead of 2, so that the multiples of are found
on page x—1: this is inconvenient, as the number of the page alone appears
on it, so that (say) to find a multiple of 898 we seek the page headed 897.
Each page contains 100 lines, numbered in the left-hand column 1, 2, 3,...;
and besides this column of arguments there are ten columns headed 0, 100,
... 900. The first figure of the multiplier is therefore found at the top of
the column, and the last two in the left-hand column (on p. 3 it will be
noticed 200 and 300 are interchanged at the top of the columns). There
being more than 1000 pages of thick paper, the book, as De Morgan has
observed, forms a folio of almost unique thickness. Also, as the pages con-
tain 100 lines, pretty well leaded, the size of the book is very large; so that
Leslie (Philosophy of Arithmetic, 2nd edit. 1820, p. 246) was quite right in
calling it “a very ponderous folio.”” De Morgan says ‘“‘the book is exces-
sively rare; a copy sold by auction a few years ago was the only one we
ever saw.”
Kiistner (‘ Geschichte,’ t. iii. p. 8) quotes the remark of Heilbronner (who
gives the title of the work, ‘ Hist. Math.’ p. 801), “ Docet in his tabulis sine
abaco multiplicationem atqne divisionem perficere,” &c., and adds that Heil-
bronner could not have seen the work, or he would have described it; he
remembers to have read that it was like a great multiplication table. The
title is given by Murhard, and marked with an asterisk to show that he had
seen a copy. Rogg gives the title very imperfectly ; and it is clear the work
has not been in his hands. There is a complete copy in the British Museum,
and a copy in the Graves Library; but the latter is imperfect, the pages
12-25, 120-145, and 468-517 having been lost, and their places supplied
with blank paper. On account of the rarity of the work, and the great in-
terest attaching to it from the time when it was published, we have thought
it worth while to give the title in full in§ 5. The clearness of the type
and the extent of the table (which has not been surpassed, and only equalled
by Crettr, 1864), taken in connexion with its early date (four years before
Narrer’s ‘Canon Mirificus’), give the work a peculiar interest. De Morgan
writes :—“ it is truly remarkable that while the difficulties of trigonometrical
ES —————————E
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 17
calculations were stimulating the invention of logarithms, they were also
giving rise to this the earliest work of extended tabulated multiplication.
Herwart passes for the author; but nothing indicates more than that the
manuscript was found in his possession.” We have seen the statement that
while Napier solved triangles by logarithms, Herwart did so by prosthaphe-
resis, and others of the like kind, the inference being that Herwart invented
a method which has been superseded by logarithms; this (if the present
work is the source of the statement) is incorrect, Herwart’s table being
merely useful in facilitating the multiplications required in the formule.
There are in the British Museum three other works of Herwart ab Hohen-
burg: viz., ‘Thesaurus Hieroglyphicorum e museo Joannis Georgii Herwart
ab Hohenburg...’ (Obl. fol. Munich ?, 1610 ?); ‘ Nove, verse et exacté ad cal-
culum...Chronologis é museo...’ Small 4to, 1612; and ‘Ludovicus Quartus
Imperator defensus... ab Joanne Georgio Herwarto’ &. 4to. Munich, 1618
(the middle one of which is given in Lalande’s Bib. Ast.). We have looked
at these three books in the hope that some mention might be made in them
of the table, or some information given about Herwart’s Museum ; but they
appear to contain nothing of the kind. We have scen also the titles of several
other works of Herwart’s, and references to where particulars of his life are
to be found; so that, considering the attention so large a work as his table
must have received from contemporary mathematicians, we still have hopes
of being able to bring to light some information with regard to its calculator,
- his objects, &e.
It should be stated that Herwart ab Hohenburg is spoken of quite as fre-
quently by the name of Hohenburg as by that of Herwart.
The author of the anonymous table (1793) described below, states that
many errors were found in Herwarr, and that Schiibler (whose table we have
not seen) was much more correct.
Riley, 1775. The first nine multiples of all numbers from 1 to 5280.
The multiples of the same number are placed one under the other, the factors
1, 2...9 being three times repeated on the page, which contains ten columns
of results and twenty-seven lines.
The preface is signed Geo. Riley and T. 0’B. Macmahon. There is an ad-
yertisement of Riley’s “ historical playing-cards” &c. at the end, and of several
works by Macmahon. On the relation of this book to another, “printed for
J. Plummer” (anonymous) in the same year, see De Morgan.
Anonymous, 1793. Multiplication table exhibiting products from 2 x 13
to 100 x 1000, arranged so that there are 100 multiples (in two columns) of
four numbers on each page, which therefore contains eight columns.
Gruson, 1798. ‘The first part of this book contains a number of tables,
the description of any one of which will explain the arrangement. ‘'ake the
table 36: it has ten columns, headed 0, 1, 2,..., 9 (as have all the other
tables), and 36 lines, numbered 0, 1, 2,..., 35; we find in column 6 and
line 21 (say) 237=6 x 36+421. The use of the table is as follows :—suppose
it requived to find the number of inches in 6 yards 21 inches; 36 in. =1yd.,
we find table 36, column 6, line 21, and have the result given in inches.
There are tables for all numbers from 1 to 100, and for primes from 100 to
400, the number of lines in each table being equal to the number of the
table. The use of the tables in performing ordinary divisions and multipli-
cations when there are four or more figures in the divisor or dividend, &e. is
fully explained by the author in the introduction. When used for division,
the table gives the quotient and the remainder.
There is also given a table of all simple divisions of numbers (not divisible
1873, c
18 REPORT—1873.
by 2, 3, or 5) to 10,500. A short and grandiloquent dedication to the
French Institute is prefixed.
Rogg gives also a German title, ‘ Pinacothek, oder Sammlung allgemein-
niitzlicher Tafeln fiir Jedermann’ &c.
Gruson, 1799. A table of products to 9x 10,000, The pages, which
are very large (containing 125 lines), are divided into two by a vertical linc,
each half page containing ten columns, giving the numbers and their first
nine multiples: the first half of the first page thus ends at 9x 124, the
second half at 9 x 249; and there are 1992 tabular results to the page. The
table has only one tenth of the range of BrerscunErEr’s; but the result is
given at once; however, the large size of the page (almost, if not quite, the
largest we have seen for a table) is a great disadvantage. There are two
pages of explanation &c.
The title describes the table as extending to 100,000, the above being only
the first part. We do not know whether any more was published, but think
probably not. Rogg mentions no more, At the end of the introduction
three errors occurring in some copies are given.
Martin, 1801. This is a large collection of tables on money-changing,
rentes, weights and measures, &. The only part of the book that needs
notice here is Chapter XI., which contains a multiplication table giving the
first nine multiples of the numbers from 101 to 1052 (19 pp.).
Dilling, 1826. In the use of a table of logarithms to multiply numbers
together, the logarithms used are of no value in themselves, being got rid of .
before the final result. If, therefore, letters a, 6, c,... be used instead, we
have no occasion to know the values of any one of them, but only the way in
which they are related to one another. The present table is constructed for
numbers up to 1000 on this principle ; within this range there are about 170
primes, the logarithms of which have to be denoted by separate symbols,
a, b,...,2,a,, 6,,...+, &e.; the powers of 2 are denoted by numbers; thus
log (2?)=2, log (2°)=3, &c.; and the logarithms of any number to 1000 can
be easily expressed in not more than four terms; thus log 84=2+a+e,
There is also a table of antilogarithms arranged according to the last letter
involved; thus log 2l=a+c, log 15=a+6, the sum =2a+b+c; and
entering the antilogarithmic table at ¢, we find 315 the product. We can
thus only multiply numbers whose product is less than 1000; and a table of
products of the same size would certainly have been more useful. ‘The table
can of course be used for division, square roots, &c., but only if the result is
integral, so that it is little more than a matter of curiosity. This table was
intended, however, only as a specimen, to be followed by a larger one to
10,000. We believe the continuation was not published ; and Rogg refers to
no Other work of Dilling.
The work, although nominally a table of logarithms, is included in this
article, as it is really a multiplication table. It is the only table we have met
with involving a principle which at one time would have been of value with
respect to multiplication, viz. to resolye the numbers into their prime factors,
and multiply them by adding their factors. Thus 21=3x7, 15=3.5, and
their product 315=3?x5x7; if therefore we had a table giving the prime
factors of all numbers from 1 to 1000, arranged in order, and another table
of like extent giving the numbers corresponding to the same products of
factors, arranged with the largest factor first, and the others in descending
order, so as to facilitate the entry, we could perform multiplication (where
the product does not exceed 1000) by addition only. In the construction of
such a table it would soon be found convenient to replace the two and three
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 19
figure primes by letters, to save room, and, in fact, to use letters through-
out—and further to simplify the printing by writing a‘ as 4a, &e., which
would do equally well; we then have Diutrye’s tables, which have not the
smallest connexion with logarithms, Such a table might once have been
found useful; but the slightest consideration shows that (except as a factor
table) it would be all but valueless now. The space a large table of the kind
would occupy, the impossibility of arranging the antifactor table so as to
admit of easy entry, and the great convenience of existing tables (both
Pythagorean and logarithmic) are alone sufficient to prove this.
Crelle, 1836. This table occupies 1000 pages, and gives the product of
a number of seven figures by 1, 2,..., 9, by a double operation, very much
in the same manner as BRErscHNEIDER’s does for a number of five: viz., each
page is divided into two tables; thus, to multiply 9382477 by 7, we turn to
page 825, and enter the right-hand table at line 77, column 7, where we find
77339; we then enter the left-hand table on the same page, at line 93,
column 7, and find 656, so that the product required is 65677339. We think
for numbers seven figures long the table effects a considerable saying of time,
as it is as. casy to use as Brurscuneier’s for five figures. It would take some
little practice to use the table rapidly in all cases, as of course the mode of
entry, &e, must be varied according as the number consists of seyen, six,
five, &c. figures; but the value of a table is measured not by the trouble
required to learn to use it, but by the time saved by means of it after the
computer has learnt its use.
Bretschneider, 1841, This table is for the multiplication of any
number up to 100,000 by a single digit. On each page there are tio tables,
the upper of which occupies ten lines, and the lower fifty. An example will
show the method of using the table. Suppose it required to multiply
56878 by 7, then the table is entered on the page headed 6800 (the headings
run from 0 to 99, with two ciphers added to each), acing 78 in the lower
table we find *146; and in the upper table facing 568, in the column for 7,
we find 397; the product required is therefore 398146, the third figure
being increased because the 146 was marked by an asterisk. The arguments
in the upper table, on the page headed 6800, are 68,168,268 .. . 968 (twice
repeated for the two cases when succeeding numbers are less and greater
than 50), and also 1,2...9, as the table is of double entry.
The arrangement of the table is thus very ingenious; but, as De Morgan
has remarked, multiplication by a single digit is so simple an operation that
it is questionable how far a table is serviceable when its use requires three
distinct points to be attended to.
The introduction (10 pages) gives a complete explanation of how the table
can be used when the number of figures is greater than five. Having made
some use of the table for this purpose, we do not think any time is saved by
it; at all events, not until the computer has had much practice in using it.
Grelle, 1864. This magnificent table gives products up to 1000 x 1000,
arranged in a most convenient and elegant manner, one consequence of which
is that all the multiples of any number appear on the same page. It is also
yery easy to get used to the arrangement of the table, which is as useful for
divisions as multiplications. It can be used for multiplying numbers which
contain more than three figures, by performing the operation, three figures
at a time; but it requires some practice to do this readily ; and a similar
remark applies to the extraction of square roots,
There is one great inconvenience that every computer must fecl in using
the work, viz, that the multiples of numbers ending in 0 are omitted, so that,
C2
20 ; REPoRtT—1873.
for example, we pass from 39 to 41. It is quite true that the columns for
40 are the same as those for 4 with the addition of a 0; but the awkward-
ness of turning to opposite ends of the book for (say) 889 and 890, and then
having to add a 0 to the latter, is very great. It is a pity that a desire to
save a few pages should have been allowed to impair the utility (and it docs
so "most seriously) of so fine a table. The matter is referred to in the
preface, where it is said that Crelle, “after mature reflection,” decided to
omit these numbers.
The original edition was published in 1820, and consisted of two thick
octavo volumes, the first proceeding as far as 500 x 1000, and the secord
completing the table to 1000x1000. The inconven‘ence referred to above
is felt more strongly in this than in the one-vo'ume edition, as frequently the
numbers ending in 0 have to be sought in a different volume from the others.
Both editions are, we believe, very accurate. There are 3 pp. of errata
(pp. xvii-xix) at the beginning of the edition of 1820. De Morgan gives
1857 as the date of Bremiker’s reprint, and says he has heard that other
copies bear the date 1859, and have no editor’s name.
Laundy, 1865. The first nine multiples of all numbers from 1 to 100,000,
given by a double arrangement: viz., if it is required to multiply 15395 by 8,
we enter the table on p. 4 (as 395 is intermediate to 300 and 400) at 15,
and in column 8 find 122; we enter another table on the same page at 395,
and in column 8 find 160; the product is therefore 123160. We take this
number instead of 122160 because in the column headed 8, first used, there
appears the note [375 |*, the meaning of which is that if the last three figures
of the number exceed 375 (they are 395 in the above example) the third
figure is to be increased by unity. The table is thus seen to be the same in
principle as BretscunEEr, but not quite so convenient. There are the same
objections to this as to the latter table. The present table occupies 10 pp.
4to, and Brerscunemrr’s 99 pp. 8vo.
_Mr. Laundy remarks in his preface that Cretrn’s ‘ Erleichterungs-Tafel,’
1836, although one hundred times as large as his, “ must not be estimated as
presenting advantages proportionate to its vast difference of extent.”’ In this
we scarcely agree; for it is only when the numbers are six or seven figures
long that one begins to feel the advantages of a table for so simple an operation
as multiplication by a single digit, and Cretty’s table would not take much
longer to use than the present. ;
The following is a list of references to § 4:— ee
Multiplication Tables—Dovson, 1747, T. XX XVIII. to 9 x 9999.; Hurron,
1781 [T. I.] to 100 x 1000; Carrer, 1853 [T. VIII.]; Scuréy, 1860, T. III. ;
Parxuovrst, 1871, T. XXVI., XXXIII., and XXXIV.; see also Lxstr,
1820, § 3, art. 3, and Wucuerer, 1796, T. II. (§ 3, art. 6.)
Art. 2. Tables of Proportional Parts.
By a table of the proportional parts of any number 2 is usually under-
stood, a table giving j>a, #2>2,...7%# true to the nearest unit. Of course
the assumption of 10 as a divisor is conventional, and any table giving
22a =—1)z ;
=, =, oie seas would equally be called a proportional-part table. . Ordi-
nary proportional-part tables (viz. in which a=10) are given at the sides of
the pages in all good seven-figure tables of logarithms that extend from
10,000 to 100,000, The difference between consecutive logarithms at the
commencement of the tables (viz. at 10,000) is 434, and at the end is there-
fore 43 ; so that a seven-figure table of the above extent gives the proportional
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 21
parts of all numbers from 43 to 434 (note that near the commencement of
the table, viz. from diff. 434 to diff. 346, the proportional parts are only
given for every other difference in some tables; whether a table gives the
proportional parts of all the differences or not is generally noted in § 4).
Several seven-figure tables extend to 108,000; and for the last 8000 the dif-
ferences decrease from 434 to 403. Tables in which a=60 often accompany
canons of trigonometrical functions that give the results for every minute, for
convenience of interpolating for seconds; such must be sought from the
descriptions of trigonometrical tables in § 3, arts. 10 and 15, and in § 4;
we have also seen tables for which a=30, where the functions are tabulated
for every two minutes or two seconds.
There are several tables to which proportional parts of the differences to
hundredths (viz. in which a=100) are attached, e.g. Gray (§ 3, art. 19),
Firrrowski (§ 4), and Prnero (§ 3, art. 13); but the ranges of the differences
are generally so small that it is not worth while giving references. In
Pinero, for instance, the range of the differences is only from 4295 to 4343
(in this work multiples are given, the last two figures being separated by a
comma).
The only separate table of proportional parts, properly so called, that we
have seen, is
Bremiker, 1843 (‘Tafel der Proportionaltheile’). Proportional parts to
hundredths (viz. multiples from 1 to 100, with the last figure omitted, and
the last but one corrected) of all numbers from 70 to 699. A very useful
table, chiefly intended for use in interpolating for the sixth and seventh figures
in logarithmic calculations.
T. ILL. of Scurén (§ 4) (which is there called an Interpolation Table) is a
large table of proportional parts.
It is to be noticed that all multiplication tables are, or rather can be used
as proportional-part tables. A table of multiples, with the last figure omitted,
and the last but one corrected (which can be done at sight), is a proportional-
part table to tenths; and if the last two figures are omitted, and the last
remaining figure corrected, to hundredths (see therefore § 3, arts. 1 and 3).
It is proper here to allude to slide-rules and other mechanical appliances
for working proportions &c. A card intended to do the work of a very large
slide-rule is described in § 4 (Evererr) ; and some information and references
about slide-rules of different shapes will be found in a paper “On a New
Proportion Table,” by Prof. Everett, in the Phil. Mag. for Nov. 1866.
The following are references to works described in § 4:—
Tables of Proportional Parts —Sir J. Moors, 1681 [T. I1.]; Ducom, 1820,
T. XX.; Lynn, 1827, T. Z; Cazter, 1853 [T. VIII.]; Scurén, 1860,
oo,
Art. 3. Tables of Quarter Squares.
Tables of quarter squares have for their object to facilitate the performance
of multiplications; and the principle on which their utility depends is con-
tained in the formula
ab=3(a+b) —j(a—b)’,
so that with such a table to multiply two numbers we subtract the quarter
square of the difference from that of their sum; the multiplication is there-
fore replaced by an addition, a subtraction, two single entries of the tables,
and a final subtraction—a very considerable saving if the numbers be high.
The work is more than with a product table, where a double entry gives the
result at once; but the quarter squares occupy much less space, and can
22 REPORT—1873.
therefore be tabulated to a much greater extent without inconvenience. In
tables of quarter squares the fraction + which occurs when the number is
odd is invariably left out; this gives rise to no difficulty, as the sum and
difference of two numbers must be both odd or both even.
A product can, of course, be obtained by logarithms with about the same
facility as by a table of quarter squares ; but the latter is preferable when all
the figures of the result are required.
Luvotr, 1690 (see § 3, art. 4), in the preface to his ‘ Tetragonometria,’
explains the method of quarter squares completely, and shows how his table
is to be used for the purposes of multiplication. The earliest table of quarter
squares De Morgan had heard of was Votsty, 1817; but CenrnerscHwer (see
below) refers to one by Biirger of the same date, the full title of which we
have quoted from Rogg.
Cretxe, in the preface to the first edition of his ‘ Rechentafeln’ (1820,
p. xv.), speaks cf “ Quadrat-Tafeln nach Laplace und Gergonne, mittelst
welcher sich Producte finden lassen,” &c. The allusion to Laplace doubtless
refers to the memoir in the ‘Journal Polytechnique,’ noticed further on in
this article; but we cannot give the reference to Gergonne.
The largest table of quarter squares that has been constructed is that
published by the late Mr. Launpy, which extends as far as the quarter
square of 100,000; it would be desirable, however, to have a table of double
this extent (viz. to 200,000), which would perform at once multiplications of
five figures by five figures (Mr. Laundy’s table is only directly available
when the sum of the numbers to be multiplied is also of five figures). The
late General Shortrede constructed such a table, we believe, in India, but
unfortunately abandoned the idea of publishing it on his return to England,
where he found so much of the field already covered by Laundy’s tables.
De Morgan, writing when it was anticipated that Shortrede’s table would be
published, suggested that it would be convenient that the second half should
appear first; and we should much like to see the publication of a quarter-
square table of the numbers from 100,000 to 200,000.
Mr. Lavnpy, in the preface to his ‘Table of Quarter Squares’ (p. vi), says
that Galbraith, in his ‘General Tables,’ 2nd edit. 1836, which were intended
as a supplement to the second edition of his ‘ Mathematical and Astronomical
Tables,’ gives a table (T. xxxiv.) of quarter squares of numbers from 1 to
3149. This book is neither in the British Museum nor the Cambridge Uni-
versity Library. The second edition of his ‘ Mathematical and Astronomical
Tables’ (1834) contains no such table. There is, however, no doubt about
the existence of the work, as the Babbage Catalogue contains the title
“Galbraith, W., New and concise General Tables for computing the Obliquity
of the Heliptic, &e. Edinburgh, 1836.”
In 1854, Prof. Sylvester having seen a paper in Gergonne in which the
method was referred to, and not being aware that tables of quarter squares
for facilitating multiplications had been published, suggested the calculation
of such tables, in two papers—“ Note on a Formula by aid of which, and of a
table of single entry, the continued product of any set of numbers... may be
effected by additions and subtractions only without the use of Logarithms”
(Philosophical Magazine, 8. 4. vol. vii. p. 430), and “On Multiplication by
aid of a Table of Single Entry ” (Assurance Magazine, vol. iv. p. 236). Both
these papers were probably written together ; but there is added to the former
a postscript, in which reference is made to Vorsrn and Shortrede’s manuscript.
Prof. Sylvester gives a generalization of the formula for ab as the difference
of two squares, in which the product a, @, +++ My is expressed as the sum of
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 23
nth powers of a,, @,,...@,, connected by additive or subtractive signs, For
the product of three quantities the formula is
abe=3,{(a+b+c)—(a+b—c)'—(c+a—b—(b+e—a)'}.
And at the end of the ‘ Philosophical-Magazine’ paper, Prof. Sylvester has
added some remarks on how a table to give triple products should be
arranged.
At the end of a memoir, “Sur divers points d’Analyse,” Laplace has given
a section “Sur la Réduction des Fonctions en Tables” (Journal de l’Hcole
Polytechnique, Cah. xy. t. viii. pp. 258-265, 1809), in which he has briefly
discussed the question of multiplication by a table of single entry. His
analysis leads him to the method of logarithms, quarter squares, and also to the
formula sin a sin6=4{cos(a—b)—cos(a+b)}, by which multiplication can
be performed by means of a table of sines and cosines. On this he remarks,
“* Cette manicre ingénieuse de faire servir des tables de sinus 4 la multiplication
des nombres, fut imaginée et employée un siécle environ avant invention
des logarithmes.”
It is worth notice that the quarter-square formula is deduced at once from
sin a sin b=3{cos(a@—b)—cos(a+b)}, by expanding the trigonometrical func-
tions and equating the terms of two dimensions; similarly from sin a sin }
sin c=}{sin (a+c—b)+sin (a + b—c) + sin(b4+c—a)—sin (@+b+¢)}, by
equating the terms of three dimensions, we obtain abe=,{(a+6+¢)'—&e.},
as written down above, and so on, the general law being easily seen. We
may remark that there is an important distinction between the trigonometrical
formule and the algebraical deductions from them, viz. that by the latter to
multiply two factors we require a table of squares, to multiply three a table
of cubes, and so on; 2.¢. each different number of factors requires a sepa-
rate table; while one and the same table of sines and cosines will serve to
multiply any number of factors. This latter property is shared by tables of
logarithms of numbers, the use of which is of course in every way preferable ;
still it is interesting to note the inferiority that theoretically attaches to the
algebraical compared with the trigonometrical formule. Other remarks on the
subject of multiplication by tables are to be found in § 3, art. 1.
It is almost unnecessary to remark that a table of squares may be used
instead of one of quarter squares if the semisum and semidifference of the
numbers to be multiplied be taken as factors. Tables of squares and cubes
are described in the next section.
*Voisin, 1817. Quarter squares of numbers from unity to 20,000. We
have taken the title from the introduction to Mr. Launpy’s ‘ Quarter Squares’
(1856). De Morgan also so describes the work. We have seen no copy; but
there is one in the Graves Library, although we were unable to find it: it
will be described from inspection in the supplement to this Report.
Geslie, 1820. On pp. 249-256 there is a table of quarter squares of
numbers from 1 to 2000, reprinted from Vorsry, 1817, whose work Leslie
met with at Paris in 1819. There is also given, facing p. 208, a large folding
sheet, containing an enlarged multiplication table, exhibiting products from
11x11 to 99x 99, the table being of triangular form. There are also, on
the same sheet, two smaller tables, the first giving squares, cubes, square
roots (to seven places), cube roots (to six places), and reciprocals (to seven
places) of numbers from 1 to 100, and the second being a small multiplication
table from 2x 2 to 25x25. In the first edition (1817, pp. 240) the quarter-
square table does not appear; and in the folding sheet (which follows the
24, RErORT—1873.
preface) the smaller multiplication table is not added ; squares and cubes only
are given in the other small table.
Centnerschwer, 1825. [T.I.] A table of quarter squares to 20,000; viz.
7 is tabulated from w=1 to v=20,000, the fraction 3, which occurs when
w is odd, being omitted. The last two figures of the quarter square, which
only depend on the last two figures of the number, are given once for all
on two slips bound up to face pp. 2 & 41.
Full rules are given as to how to use the table as a table of squares; and
three small tables are added, by means of which the square of any number
of five figures can be found tolerably easily. The arguments are printed
in red.
[T. IL.] Square roots of numbers from 1 to 1000 to six places.
There is a long and full introduction prefixed.
In his preface Centnerschwer states that after his work was in the press,
he received from Crelle a table, by J. A. P. Biirger, entitled ‘‘Tafeln zur
Erleichterung in Rechnungen,” Karlsruhe, 1817, in which the author claims
to be inventor of the method, while Centnerschwer states it was known to
Lupotr (1690), and even Euclid. That Luporr was the inventor of the
method is true; and there is attached to his work a table of squares to
100,000 (see Luporr, § 3, art. 4).
The full title of Biirger’s work, which we have not been successful in ob-
taining a sight of, is (after Rogg) as follows :—‘ Tafeln zur Erleichterung in
Rechnungen fiir den allgemeinen Gebrauch eingerichtet. Deren iiusserst ein-
fach gegebene Regeln, nach welchen man das Product zweier Zahlen ohne Mul-
tiplication finden, auch sie sehr vortheilhaft bei Ausziehung der Quadrat- und
Cubiewurzel anwenden kann, sich auf den binomischen Lehrsatz griinden.
Nebst Anhang tiber meine im vorigen Jahr erschienene Paralleltheorie.
Carlsruhe, 1817. 4to.” The book last referred to was entitled “Vollstindige
Theorie der Parallellinien &e. Carlsruhe, 1817; 2nd edit. 1821,” as given
by Rogg under Elementar-Geometrie.
Merpaut, 1832. The preméire partie gives the arithnome (i. e. quarter
square) of all numbers from 1 to 40,000, so arranged that the first three
figures of the argument are sought at the head of the table, the fourth figure
at the head of one of the vertical columns, in which, in the line with the final
(fifth) figure in the left-hand column, is given the quarter square required.
The quarter squares are printed in groups of three figures, the second group
being under the first, &c. A specimen of this table is given by Launpy
(1856, p. v of his Introduction).
The deuxiéme partie gives the reciprocals of all numbers from 1 to 10,000
to nine figures.
The author seems not to have been aware of the existence of any of the
previous works on the subject of quarter squares.
Laundy, 1856. Quarter squares of all numbers from unity to 100,000,
the fraction 7, which occurs when the number is odd, being, as usual, omitted.
The arrangement is es in a seven-figure logarithm table; viz. the first four
figures are found in the left-hand column, and the fifth in the top row; the
three or four figures common to the block of figures are also separated as in
logarithmic tables, and the change in the fourth or fifth figure is denoted by
an asterisk prefixed to all the quarter squares affected: at the extreme left
of each page is a column of corresponding degrees, minutes, and seconds
(thus, corresponding to 43510 we have 12° 5’ 10"=43510"). At the bottom
of the page are differences (contracted by the omission of the last two figures)
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 23
and proportional parts. The figures are very clear; and there is a full intro-
duction, with explanations of the use, &c. of the tables.
Mr. Laundy was induccd to construct his table by Prof. Sylvester’s paper
in vol. iv. of the ‘Assurance Magazine,’ referred to above; and a description
of the mode of construction &c. of the table (most of which is also incor-
porated in the introduction to it) is given in vol. vi. of the ‘ Assurance
Magazine.’
Art. 4. Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square roots, and Cube roots.
Tables of squares (or square roots of square numbers) are of nearly as
great antiquity as multiplication tables, and would, we think, be found to be
rather common in early manuscripts on arithmetic. They are, as a rule, but
slightly noticed in histories of the subject (see references in § 3, art. 1), partly
because the latter are very meagre, and very many manuscripts remain still
unexamined, and partly because it is rather the province of a history to de-
scribe the improvement of processes. The perfection of the methods of ex-
tracting the square root of numbers not complete squares, however, occupies
a conspicuous place.
In the MSS. Gg. ii. 33 of the Cambridge University Library, are two frag-
ments, one of Theodorus Meletiniotes, the second of Isaac Argyrus (both much of
the same date, time of John Paleeologus, 1360) (concerning the first, see Vin-
cent, Manuscrit de la Bibliotheque Impériale, xix. pt.2. p.6). The fragment
is a portion of the first book, and contains rules and small tables for multi-
plication, fractional computation &c.
The tract of Isaac Argyrus is entitled “‘ rov "Apyipou etipeots rwy TeTpayw-
rikoy mAEvpwY THY pi) PyTOY apLOpay.”
At the end there is a table of the square roots of all integral numbers from
1 to 120, in sexagesimal notation. The table is prepared as if for three
places of sexagesimals; but usually two only are perfect. Errors (probably
due to the copyist) are frequent. Before the table is a description of the
method of its use, including an explanation of the method of proportional
parts.
De Morgan speaks of two early (printed) tables in Pacioli’s ‘Summa,’
1494, and by Cosmo Bartoli, 1564, extending respectively to the squares of
100 and 661. The tables which we have examined are described below; but
there are several of some extent, which De Morgan refers to, that we have not
seen, viz. :—Guldinus, 1635, squares and cubes to those of 10,000; W. Hunt,
1687, squares to that of 10,000; and J. P. Biichner’s ‘Tabula Radicum,’
Nuremberg, 1701, which gives squares and cubes up to that of 12,000 (full
title given in Rogg). Lamserr (Introd. ad Suppl. &c. 1798) says that
Biichner’s table is ‘‘plena errorum.” Rogg gives the title “ Bobert, K. W.,
Tafeln der Quadratzahlen aller natiirlichen Zahlen von 1—-25,200; der Kubik-
zahlen von 1-1200; der Quadrat- u. Cubicwurzeln yon 1-1000. Neu berechnet,
Leipzig, 1812 ;” and the title occurs in the Roy. Soc. Lib. Cat. (though the
book is not to be found in the Library). De Morgan mentions “Schiert,
‘Tafeln,’ &. Rohn om Rheim, 1827,” as giving squares to 10,000, which is
no doubt a misprint for “Schiereck, J. F., Tafeln aller Quadrate von 1 bis
10,000. 4to. K6ln am Rhein, 1827,” which occurs in the Babbage Catalogue,
and also in Rogg. From the title of another work of Schiereck’s given in
the former catalogue, it appears that the table of squares also appeared as an
appendix to his ‘ Handbuch fiir Geometer,’ published in the same year.
Dr Morean speaks of Luporr’s ‘Tetragonometria,’ 1690, which gives
squares up to that of 100,000, “as being the largest in existence, and very
26 rEPoRT—1873.
little known.” ‘This is true; but Kuti, 1848, is of the same extent, and
also gives cubes up to that of 100,000, thus giving the largest table of squares,
and by far the largest table of cubes in the same work, and in a compact and
convenient form: of this work also it may be said thatit is very little known.
Hurron, 1781 (§ 4), gives squares to that of 25,400, and cubes to that of
10,000 ; but for most purposes Bartow (stereo. 1840), which gives squares,
cubes, and square roots and cube roots (and reciprocals) of numbers to 1000,
and is very accurate, is the best. We have not seen any square-root or cube-
root table of greater extent.
Extensive tables of quarter squares have been published, which are de-
scribed in § 3, art. 3; and some tables of squares, as Fad pe Bruno, were
constructed with the view of being used in applying the method of least
squares.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that logarithms find one of the most
valuable applications in the extraction of roots. Multiplications &c. can be
performed gencrally without their aid with a little more trouble; for finding
square and cube roots they are extremely useful; but for the extraction of
higher roots there exists no other method admitting of convenient application.
Maginus, 1592. The ‘Tabula Tetragonica’ is introduced by the words
“ sequitur tabula numerorum quadratorum cum suis radicibus nune primum
ab auctore supputata, ac in lucem edita,” and occupies leaves 41-64. It
gives the squares of all numbers from 1 to 100,100. We have seen the
‘Tabula Tetragonica’ quoted as an independent work ; and De Morgan says
that it was published separately, with headings and explanations in Italian
instead of Latin. In the copy before us Tavola is misprinted for Tabula on
pp. 41 and 43 back (only the leaves aré numbered).
The work contains sines, tangents, and secants also.
Magini was, we suppose, the vernacular name of the author, and Maginus
the same Latinized. We have somewhere seen Magini and Maginus spoken
of as if they were different persons.
Alstedius, 1649. In part 3. pp. 254-260, Alsted gives a table of squares
and cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000, Alsted’s is the first Cyclopedia, in
the sense that we now understand the word.
[Moore, Sir Jonas, 1650?] Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to
1000, fourth powers from 1 to 300, fifth and sixth powers from 1 to 200.
In the book before us (Brit. Mus.) this tract (which has a separate pagina-
tion) is bound up at the end, after Moore’s ‘Arithmetick (and Algebra),
Contemplationes Geometrice, and Conical Sections.’ De Morgan says that
power tables, exactly the same as these, were given in Jonas Moore’s ‘ Arith-
metic’? of 1650, and reprinted in the edition of 1660; so that probably the
tract noticed here usually formed part of the ‘Arithmetick.’
[Pell], 1672. Squares of numbers from 1 to 10,000 (pp. 29). This is
followed by the 6 one-figure endings, the 22 two-figure endings, the 159
three-figure endings, and the 1044 four-figure endings, which square numbets
admit of. 'They are given at length, and also in a synoptical form. The last
page in the Roy. Soc. copy is signed John Pell. (In the Royal Society’s Li-
brary Catalogue this table is entered under Fell, the signature at the end in
the Society’s copy having been struck out so as to render the first letter
uncertain.)
In the Brit. Mus. is a copy without any name (so that perhaps Pell’s name
was supplied in the Roy. Soc. copy only in manuscript). ‘ Dr. Pell’s Tables,’
however, is written in it, and no doubt can exist about its authorship.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 27
Ludolf, 1690. Squares of all numbers from unity to 100,000, arranged
in columns, so that the first three or four figures of the root are to be found at
the top of the column, while the final ones are given in the left-hand column of
the page. The table is well printed and clear, and, except Kuri, 1848,
which is of the same extent, is the largest table of squares that has been
published, and occupies about 420 pages. Some errata in it are given at
the end of the introduction (150 pp. in length), in which all possible uses
of the table are explained.
Lampert (Introd. ad Supplementa, 1798) speaks of the numbers in the
table as “satis accurati.” In chapter v. (pp. 48-86) (‘De Tabularum usu
seu Praxi circa Multiplicationem et Divisionem ’) the use of the table as one
of quarter squares (see $ 3, art. 3) is fully explained; as squares are given
in the table, the sum and difference have to be divided by 2. Rules and
examples are also added as to how to proceed when the semisum exceeds the
limits of the table by any amount; and the processes &c. are explained with
such fulness as to prove that all the credit of first perceiving the utility of
the method and calculating the necessary table is due to Ludolf.
The work is said to be very scarce; but we have seen several copies ; there
is one in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and another in the
Graves Library.
Heilbronner (under Herwarr AB Honensure) mentions Ludolf (Hist. Math.
p. 827), and (referring doubtless to the method of quarter squares) says that
he inyented a method of performing multiplications and divisions without the
Pythagorean abacus, “ que prolixe ab Illustr. Wolfio in seinen Anfangs-
Griinden et suis Elementis Matheseos exponitur.”
Séguin, 1786. At the end of the book is given a table of the squares and
cubes of numbers from unity to 10,000. The figures have heads and tails,
and are very clear. De Morgan states that the table was reprinted at about
the beginning of the century, and that it was this table which convinced him
of the superiority of the numerals with heads and tails, and led him in the
reprint of Lalande’s table, 1839, to adopt this figure—an example which has
since been very frequently followed.
As De Morgan does not appear to have seen it, it is possible that the ori-
ginal table was not reprinted, but only published separately, as the figures in
the table attached to Séguin answer De Morgan’s description very well.
Barlow’s tables (the stereotyped edition of 1840). Squares, cubes, square
roots, cube roots, and reciprocals to 10,000. The square roots and cube roots
are to seven places, and the reciprocals to seven significant figures, viz. nine
places to 1000, and above this ten. The work is a reprint of the more im-
portant tables in Bartow, 1814 (described in § 4); it was suggested by De
Morgan, who wrote the preface (2 pp.), and edited by Mr. Farley, of the
Nautical-Almanac Office, who also examined carefully Barlow’s tables. A
list of ninety errors found in the latter is given on the page following the
preface. This reprint is, we believe, very nearly, if not quite, free from
error; it is clearly printed and much used. We have also an edition, 1866,
from the plates of 1840.
Kulik, 1848. The principal table occupies pp. 1-401, and gives the
squares and cubes of all numbers from 1 to 100,000. There is a compression
resembling that in Crentn’s ‘ Rechentafeln ;’ viz. the last four figures of the
square and cube are printed but once in each line, these figures being the
same for all squares and cubes in the same line across the double page. The
arrangement will be rendered clear by the description of a page—say, that
corresponding to 92. There are ten columns headed 92, 192, 292... .992,
28 REPORT—1878.
each containing two vertical rows of numbers, the one corresponding to N’,
and the other to N*; the lines are numbered 0,1, 2....49 (and on the next
double page 50....99). If, then, we wish to find the cube of 79217, we take
the figures 49711306131 from column 792, line 17, and add the last four
figures 1313 (which conclude the cube of 9217 in the same line); so that
the cube required is 497113061311313. Certain figures, common to the
whole or part of a column, are printed at the top, and the change in the
column is denoted by an asterisk. This is the largest table of cubes in ex-
istence, and (except Lupotr, which is of the same extent) is also the largest
table of squares. The printing is clear, and the book not bulky; so that the
table can be readily used. At the end are eleven subsidiary tables. T. 1
(Perioden ygerader Summenden) consists of columns marked 4, 6,8... .48 at
the top, and 96,94....52 at the bottom, each containing the “complete
period” of the number in question ; thus for 42 we have 42, 84, 26, 68, 10,
&c. (these numbers being the last two figures of a series of terms in arith-
metical progression, 42 being the common difference); and these are given
till the period is completed, 7. e. till 42 occurs again. This may be at the end
of 25 or 50 additions; if the former, the periods are given commencing
with 1, 2, 3 (as well as 0); if the latter, with 1 or 2 only, as the case may
be; the periods for « and 100—. are of course the same, only in reverse
order. The use of the table as a means of verifying the table of squares
is obvious.
T. 2. Primes which are the sum of two squares (these being given also)
up to 10,529.
T. 3. Odd numbers which are the difference of two cubes (these being
given also) to 12,097.
T.4, Odd numbers which are the sum of two cubes (these being given also)
to 18,907.
T. 5-9. Four-figure additive and subtractive congruent endings for numbers
ending in 3 and 7, or 1 and 9, &c.: the more detailed description of these
tables belongs to the theory of numbers, which will form a part of a subse-
quent Report.
T. 10. The 1044 four-figure endings for squares, and the figures in which
the corresponding numbers must end.
T. 11. First hundred multiples of 7 and 77’ to twelve places. There is
appended to the tables a very full description of their ohject and use.
Bruno, Faa de, 1869. T. I. of this work (pp. 28) contains squares of
numbers from 0-000 to 12-000, at intervals of -001 to four places (stereo-
typed), intended for use in connexion with the method of least squares.
The following are references to § 4:—
Tables of Squares and Cubes, or both Squares and Cubes.—Scuvuze, 1778
[T. 1X.] and [T. X.]; Hurron, 1781 [T. II.] and [T. I1I.]; Vzea, 1797,
Vol. II. T. IV.; Lampert, 1798, T. XXXV. and XXXVI.; Barrow, 1814,
T. I.; Scurpr, 1821 [T. V.] (with subsidiary tables); Hanrscnr, 1827,
T. VIII.; *Satomon, 1827, T. I.; Gruson, 1832, T. II. and III.; Hwtssr’s
Vzea, 1840, T. IX. C.; Trorrer, 1841 [T. VI.]; Mutrrer, 1844 [T. ATs |;
Minstncer, 1845 [T. II.]; Kénrrr, 1848, T. V. and VI.; Wuticu, 1853,
T. XXI.; Brarpmorr, 1862, T. 35; Rankine, 1866, T. I. and II.;
Wackerrsartu, 1867, T. VI.; Parxuurst, 1871, T. XXVI. and XXXII,
and XXXIV. (multiples of squares); Prrers, 1871 [T. VI.]. See also
Tartor, 1780 [T. IV.] (§ 3, art. 9).
Tables of Square Roots and Cube Roots.—Dovson, 1747, T. XIX.;
Scuurzu, 1778 [T. XI.] and [T. XII.]; Masrres, 1795 (two tables);
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 29
Veca, 1797, Vol. II. T. 1V.; Hantscnt, 1827, T. VIII. ; *Sanomon, 1827,
T. I.; Gruson,i 1832, T. IV. and V.; Hiutssn’s Vues, 1840, IT. VIII.;
Trorrer, 1841 [T. VI.]; Mrysinerr, 1845 (T. II.]; Kourer, 1848, T. VII. ;
Wriitricu, 1853, T. XXI.; Brarpuorr, 1862, T. 85; *Scutémincu [18657] ;
Ranxine, 1866, T. I. A; Wacxersartru, 1867, T. VII. See also Centyer-
scuweR, 1825 ['T. II.] (§ 3, art. 3). And for Squares (for method of least
squares), Mitrer, 1844 [T. IIT.].
Endings of Squares.—(Three-figure endings) Laser, 1798, T. LV.
Art. 5. Tables of Powers higher than Cubes.
We know of no work containing powers of numbers (except squares and
cubes) only. Both Hurron, 1781, and Bartow, 1814, give the first ten
powers of the first hundred numbers; but we have scen no more extensive
table of this kind. Swanxs (§ 4) gives every twelfth power of 2 as far as 277;
and, according to De Morgan, John Hill’s ‘Arithmetic,’ 1745, has all powers
of 2upto2™*, Tables of compound interest are, in fact, merely power tables,
as the amount of £M at the end of » years at 7 per cent. is M{ 1 +i50 <igPen
interest tables r has usually values from 1 to 8 or 10 at intervals of 4 or 3
for different periods of years; but they could not be of much use, except for
the purpose for which they are calculated.
A good table of powers is still a desideratum, as the need for it is often
felt in mathematical calculations. Very many functions are expansible in an
ascending (convergent) series of the form A,+A,v7+A,v?+ &c., and a de-
scending series (generally semiconvergent) of the form B,+ B,a~'+B,a-?+
&e. The former is usually very convenient for calculation when a is small,
and the latter when x is large ; but between the two, for values of w included
between certain limits above unity, there will be an interval where neither
series is suitable—the ascending series because the terms a, w”,....(v >1)
increase so fast that n must be taken very large (7. e. very many terms must
be included) before A, is so small that A,” can be neglected, and the de-
scending series because it begins to diverge before it has yielded as many
decimals as are required. For these intermediate values the former series
(if there is no continued fraction available) must be used ; and then the terms
begin by increasing, often so rapidly, if a be moderately large, that it may be
necessary to calculate some of them to fifteen or twenty figures to obtain a
correct value for the function to only seven or eight decimals. In these
cases, so long as ten figures only are wanted, logarithms are employed ; but
when more are required recourse must be had to simple arithmetic; and it is
then that a power table is so much needed. Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher has had
formed in duplicate a table giving the first twelve powers of the first thousand
numbers, which, after the calculation has been made independently a third
time, will be stereotyped and published, probably in the course of 1873; it is
hoped that it will help to make the tabulation of mathematical functions
somewhat less laborious and difficult.
The following tables on the subject of this article are described in § 4:—
Tables of Powers higher than Cubes.—Donvson, 1747, T. XXT. (powers of 2)
and T. XXII.; Scxunzz, 1778 [T. VIII.]; Hurron, 1781 [T. IV.]; Vzea,
1797, Vol. II. T. II. (powers of 2, 3, and 5); Vuea, 1797, Vol. II. T. IV.;
Lampert, 1798, T. VIT.-IX. (powers of 2, 3, and 5) and T. XL.; Bartow,
1814, T. II. and III.; Hwxssn’s Veca, 1840, T. VI. (powers of 2, 3, 5)
and T. IX. A, B, D, E; Kéuter, 1848, T. II. (powers of 2, 3, and 5) and
T. ITVY.; Saanxs, 1853 (powers of 2 to 2); Brarpuorz, 1862, T. 35;
30 ~ pEPortT—1873.
Ranxinz, 1866, T. 2. See also Sir Jonas Moor [1650?], § 3, art, 4;
Taytor, 1781 [T. IV.] (§ 3, art. 9).
Tables for the solution of Cubic Equations, viz, +(a—a*).—Lambert, 1798,
T, XXIX,; Barrow, 1814, T. IY.
Art. 6. Tables for the expression of vulgar fractions as decimals.
The only separate tables we have seen are Wucurrer and Goopwyn’s
works described at length below. The Babbage Catalogue contains the title
of an anonymous book, “ 'Tafeln zur Verwandlung aller Briiche yon =, bis
10004, und yon +d, bis -74%%5 in fiinf- bis siebenziffrige Decimalbriche,
4to, Oldenburg, 1842,” of which De Morgan says “it gives every fraction
less than unity whose denominator does not exceed three figures, nor its nu-
merator two, to seven places of decimals. It is arranged by numerators ;
that is, all fractions of one numerator are upon one double page.” Recipro-
cals would properly be included in this article; but from their more frequent
use they have been placed in an article by themselves (§ 3, art. 7); Prcarrn’s
table in that article gives multiples of reciprocals.
We must especially mention the ‘Tafel zur Verwandlung gemeiner
Briiche mit Nennern aus dem ersten Tausend in Decimalbriiche,”’ which
occupies pp. 412-434 of vol. ii. of ‘ Carl Friedrich Gauss Werke,’ Gottingen,
Ato, 1863, and which somewhat resembles Goopwyn’s tables described below.
In it, among other things, the reciprocal of every prime less than 1000 is
given completely (2. e. till the figures cireulate). Had we met with the table
earlier we should have given a full description ; but we merely confine our-
selves here to giving the reference, reserving a more detailed explanation for
a future Report.
Wracherer, 1796. The decimal fractions (to five places) for all vulgar
fractions, whose numcrators and denominators are both less than 50 and
prime to one another, arranged according to denominators; so that all
haying the same denominator are given together; thus the order is... .+4
Pos Tess 448, ck, y...-, the arguments being only given in their lowest
terms. After 45 the system is changed, and the decimals are given for
vulgar fractions whose numerators are less than 11 only; thus we haye 2,
oo Fy ++ - 49, op Fy - a8 consecutive arguments (the arguments not being
necessarily in their lowest terms) ; and the dencminators proceed from 50 to
999.
[T. IL.]. Sevagesimal-Briiche, viz. sexagesimal multiplication table to 60
x 60; thus, as 5 x 29” = 145” = 2’ 25”, the table gives 2.25 as the tabular
result for the joint-entry 5 and 29. There are scyen other tables (IIL—VIII.)
for the conyersion of money into decimals of other money, for the coins of
different countries ; the English table will serve as an example. There are
given as arguments 51), 927, g3y---- $32 (ae. Id., 2d., dd., &e.), and as
tabular results the corresponding decimal fraction to ten places (i. e. of £1),
and also the shillings and pence ; thus for 13, there are given -8041666666,
and 6s. 1d,
The Leichs-Geld and Pfennig table is practically the same; the denomi-
nators are in all cases 240, or 960, or submultiples of the latter. Regarded ma-
thematically the English table gives nearly as much as all the rest, as for
denominators above 240 only a few numerators are taken. There are also tables
of interest, present value, &e., to a great many places. The value of z is given
on the last page to 306 places; thus, if the diameter = 10000... . (306
ciphers), then 7 = 31415 (307 figures), the ciphers and figures being written
G?
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 3l
at length—a curious mode of statement at the end of a book occupied with
decimal fractions.
Goodwyn’s Tables, 1816-1823. It is convenient to describe Good-
wyn’s four works (the titles of which are given at length in § 5) together, as
they all relate to the same subject.
The Tabular Series of Decimal Quotients (1823) forms a handsome table of
153 pages, and gives to cight places the decimal corresponding to every vulgar
fraction less than °.°,, whose numerator and denominator are both not greater
than 1000. The arguments are not arranged according to their numerators or
denominators, but according to their magnitude, so that the tabular results
exhibit a steady increase from -001 (= >55) to 09989969 (= 9%), The
author intended the table to include all fractions whose numerators and deno-
minators were both less than 1000 without restriction ; and at the end of the
book is printed ‘‘ End of Part I.;” but no more was ever published.
The arrangement of the arguments in order of magnitude is not very good,
as it requires the first two figures of the decimal to be known in order to know
where to look for it in the table; the table would be more useful if it were re-
quired to find a vulgar fraction (with not more than three figures in numerator
or denominator) nearly equal to a given decimal*; but this is not a trans-
formation that is often wanted. When the decimal circulates and its period
is completed within the first eight figures, points are placed over the first and
last figures of the period, if not, of course only over the first; and by means
of the same author’s table of ‘ Circles’ described below, the period can be
easily completed, and the whole decimal fraction found. The fractions which
form the arguments are given in their lowest terms.
The Table of Circles (18238) gives all the periods of the circulating decimals
that can arise from the division of any integer by another integer less than
1024. Thus for 13 we find -076923 and -153846, which are the only periods
in which the fraction = can circulate.
The periods for denominator 2” 5” x are evidently the same as those for
denominator a; and arguments of this form are therefore omitted; but a table is
given at the end (pp. 110 and 111), showing whether for any denominator less
than 1024 the decimal (1) terminates, and is therefore not included in the table,
(2) is in the table as it stands, or (3) is in the table but has to be sought
under a different argument (these last being numbers of the form 2" 5” @).
A third table (p. 112) also gives the number of places after the separatrix
(decimal point) at which the period commences.
The principal table occupies 107 pp. Some of the numbers are very long,
(¢. g., for 1021 there are 1020 figures in the period), and are printed in lines of
different lengths, giving a very odd appearance to many of the pagest.
A table at the end contains all numbers of the form 2* 5” that are less than
* It is proper to note, however, that the table was no doubt calculated for this purpose ;
the author considered his ‘Table of Circles’ as giving decimals to vulgar fractions, and in-
tended this table to give vulgar fractions to decimals (see the introduction to the second
part of the ‘Centenary’ 1816); the ‘ Tabular Series’ (1816) is complementary to the ‘ Cen-
tenary ;’ but not so the ‘ Tabular Series’ (1823) to the ‘Table of Circles’ (1823), as the
latter only gives the periods.
+ If the period of a decimal consists of an even number of figures, it is well known
that the figures in the last half are the complements to nine of the figures in the first
half; and the periods have been printed so that the complementary figures should be under
one another. When the period is odd, there is always another period of com lementary
figures, and the two are printed one under the other ; these facts account for what at first
sight appears a capricious arrangement of the figures.
32 REPORT—1873.
1,000,000, arranged in order of magnitude, with the values of n and m, and also
the values of the reciprocals of the numbers (expressed as decimals) and the
total number of the proper vulgar fractions in their lowest terms which can
arise for any of the arguments as denominator. An example of the use of
the tables is given at the end of the book.
The First Centenary fe. [1816] contains the factors of all numbers to 100,
and the complete periods of their reciprocals or multiples of their reciprocals,
also the first six figures of every decimal fraction equivalent to a vulgar frac-
tion whose denominator is equal to the argument. The following is a spe-
cimen of one of the tables:
34
2.17
*70588235
29411764
33 | -970588 1
31 | -911764 3
29 | -852941 5
27 | -794117 y
25 | -735294 9
23 | -676470 11
21 | -617647 13
19 | -558823 15
The explanation is very simple: we have 23 = -970588, and the other
figures of the period are 23529411764; al = ‘911764, and the other figures
are 70588235294, &e. If the numerator is in the third column we take the
complement of the result (¢. ¢. subtract each figure from 9); thus J- =
*029411, and the other figures of the period are 76470588235. The even
numbers are omitted, as the fractions are not in their lowest terms ; thus 32
=}, and must be sought under argument 17. [This table was published
separately by Goodwyn for private circulation. There is no date on the title-
page*; but the address is written from Blackheath, and dated March 5, 1816.]
There is added a tabular series of complete decimal quotients of fractions
whose numerator is not greater than 50 and denominater not greater than
100 (the heading of the table incorrectly says, ‘‘neither numerator nor de-
nominator greater than i100”), arranged as in the ‘ Tabular Series’ &c., 1823 ;
it is followed by an auxiliary table for completing such quotients as consist
of too many places to allow all the digits of their periods to appear in the
principal table. There is an appendix on Circulates &c. The ‘ Tabular Series’
(1816 and 1823) are interesting as exhibiting in the order of magnitude all
fractions whose numerators and denominators are both less than 100 up to i,
and whose numerators and denominators are both less than 1000 up to t-
In the preface to the latter table the author gives as a fact he has observed, that
* It is by no means improbable that the titlepage has been torn out from the only copy
we have seen, viz, that in the Royal Socioty’s Library,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 33
“Tn any three consecutive vulgar fractions in the table, if the numerators of
the extremes and the denominators be added together, the sum will form the
numerator and denominator of a fraction equal to the mean.” That this is
the case with all fractions, ranged in order, whose numerators and denomi-
nators are integers less than given integers, is a theorem discovered by Cauchy
and published by him in his ‘ Exercices.’
It has been thought worth while to describe Goodwyn’s works at some
length, as they are almost unique of their kind, and are rarely to be met
with.
De Morgan states that “ Mr. Goodwyn’s manuscripts, an enormous mass
of similar calculations, came into the possession of Dr. Olinthus Gregory,
and were purchased by the Royal Society at the sale of his books in 1842.”
There is no mention of them, however, in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of
MSS. ; and nothing is known of them at the Society. They may possibly be
brought to light in the rearrangement of the manuscripts consequent upon the
approaching change of rooms,
Art. 7, Tables of Reciprocals.
The most extensive table is
Oakes, 1865. Reciprocals from 1 to100,000. This table gives seven figures
of the reciprocal, and is arranged as in tables of seven-figure logarithms ; viz.
the first four figures are found in the column at the left-hand side of the page,
the fifth figures run along the top line, and the sixth and seventh are inter-
polated for by proportional parts. The reciprocal of a number of five figures
is therefore taken out at once, and the process of taking out a reciprocal is
exactly similar to that of taking out a logarithm.
From 10,000 to 22,500 the differences and proportional parts (being
numerous) are placed on the lower half of the page, the differences being
also placed at the side of each line; but above 22,500 the differences and
proportional parts are placed at the side of the page as in tables of logarithms.
The figures have heads and tails; and the change in the third figure of the
reciprocal is made evident by prefixing an asterisk to the succeeding numbers
in the line. The table is the result of an original calculation, and was con-
structed by means of the obvious theorem that the difference of two recipro-
cals, divided by the difference of the corresponding numbers, is the reciprocal
of the product of those numbers. The reciprocals of the higher numbers,
however, were calculated by differences, which differences were found by
logarithms. Various checks were applied; and the whole was virtually re-
computed on the Arithmometer of M. Thomas de Colmar. The significant
figures of the reciprocals alone are tabulated, decimal points and ciphers
being omitted, for the same reason that characteristics are left out in loga-
rithmic tables.
In T. I. of Bartow (§ 4) reciprocals are given of numbers from 1 to 10,000 ;
and this table also appears in the stereotype reprint of 1840 (see § 3, arf. 4):
the latter is the most generally used table of reciprocals, and is of sufficient
extent for most purposes ; it is also reputed to be very accurate, and is perhaps
free from error.
It must be added that Goopwyn’s ‘ Table of Circles,’ and ‘ Tabular Series,’
&e., 1823 (§ 3, art. 6), give reciprocals of numbers less than 1024 complete ;
viz. the whole period is given, even where it exceeds a thousand figures.
See also the reference to Gauss, vol. ii., near the beginning of the last
article (§ 3, art. 6),
As most nearly connected with a table of reciprocals (it gives not only
1873, D
84 REPORT—1878.
the reciprocals, but also multiples of them), we here describe Prcartr’s ‘ La
Division réduite 4 une Addition.’
Picarte [1861]. The principal table occupies pp. 15-104, and gives, to ten
significant figures, the reciprocals of all numbers from 1000 to 10,000, and also
the first nine multiples of the latter (which are therefore given to 10 or 11 sig-
nificant figures). It is easy to see how this table reduces Division to Addition.
The arguments run down the left-hand column of the page ; and there are nine
other columns for the multiples; each page contains 100 lines; so that there
are 10,300 figures to the page. Owing, however, to its size, and to the smallness
and clearness of the figures, there is no confusion, the lines being well leaded.
The great table is preceded by two smaller ones, the first of which (pp. 6, 7)
gives the figures from the ninth to the fourteenth (inclusive) of the logarithms
of the numbers from 101,000 to 100,409 at intervals of unity (downwards),
with first, second, and third differences ; and the second (pp. 10, 11) gives
ten-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000 ; and from 100,000 to 101,000 at in-
tervals of unity (with differences), There is also some explanation &c.
about the manner of calculating logarithms by interpolation, &c. The
author remarks on the increasing rarity of ten-figure tables of logarithms,
referring, of course, to Vuace and Veea. The whole work was submitted by
its author to the French Academy, and reported on favourably by a Commit-
tee consisting of MM. Mathieu, Hermite, and Bienaymé. ‘The report (made
to the Academy Feb. 14, 1859) is printed at the beginning of the work.
M. Ramon Picarte describes himself as Member of the University of Chili;
and the Chilian Government subscribed for 300 copies of the work. There
is no date; but the “ privilége” is dated Nov. 1860, and the book was re-
ceived at the British Museum, April 29, 1861, so that the date we have
assigned is no doubt correct. On the cover of the book are advertised the
following tables by the same author, which we have not seen :—
_ “Tables de multiplication, contenant les produits par 1, 2,3....9 et toutes
les quantités au-dessous de 10,000, 1 vol. in-18 jésus.”
“Tableau Pithagorique, étendu jusqu’é 100 par 100, sous une nouvelle
forme qui a permis de supprimer la moitié des produits.”
It is scarcely necessary to remark that any trigonometrical table giving
sines and cosecants, cosines and secants, or tangents and cotangents, may be
used (and sometimes with advantage) as a table of reciprocals. The extreme
facility with which reciprocals can be found by logarithms has prevented tables
of the former from being used or appreciated as much as they deserve.
The following is the list of references to § 4 :—
Tables of Reciprocals.—Maserrus, 1795 ; Bartow, 1814, T. I. (to 10,000) ;
Trorrer, 1841 [T. VIII.]; Winrtcn, 1853, T. XXI.; Brarpmorn, 1862, T.
35; ScutoémincH [1865?]; Ranxre, 1866, T. I. and I. A; Wackrrnarra,
1867, T. [X.; Parxaurst, 1871, T. XXV.; see also Merpavt, 1832 (§ 3,
art.3); Bartow (1840) (§ 3, art. 4).
Art. 8. Tables of Divisors (Factor tables), and Tables of Primes.
If a number is given, and it is required to determine whether it be prime,
and if not what are its factors, there is no other way of effecting this ex-
cept by the simple and laborious process of dividing it by every prime less
than its square root, or until one is found that divides it without remainder*.
The construction of a table of divisors is on the other hand very simple, as it
* Wilson’s theorem (viz. that 1.2.3....(n —1) + 1 is or is not divisible by 2,
according as ” is or is not prime) theoretically affords a criterion; but the labour of
applying it would be far greater than the direct procedure by trial.
~
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 35
is merely necessary to form the multiples of 2, 3, 5..up to the extent of the
table, the numbers that do not occur being of course primes. The manner
in which the formation of these multiples is best effected, and other practi-
eal details, are explained by Burcxaarpr in his preface to the second
million. The following is a list of tables of divisors and of primes, abridged
from an elaborate account prefixed to Currnac :—
1657. Francis Schooten: table of primes to 9997.
1668. Pell (in Branker’s translation of Rhonius’s ‘ Algebra,’ published at
London): least divisors of odd numbers not ending in 5 to 100,000.
1728. Poetius. An ‘ anatome’ of numbers to 10,000.
1746. Krier. Primes to 100,999.
1767. Anjema. All divisors (simple and compound) of numbers to
10,000. :
1770. Lamserrr. Least divisors of numbers to 102,000 (multiples of 2, 3,
and 5 omitted).
1772. Marci. Extension of Lambert’s table by the addition of primes to
400,000.
1785. Neumann. Simple divisors (Pell only gave the least) of numbers
to 100,100 (multiples of 2, 3, 5 omitted).
1797. Vuea. Simple factors to 102,000, and ‘primes to 400,000 (see
Vuea, ‘ Tabule,’ 1797, Vol. II. T. 1.).
1804. Krause.’ Factor table to 100,000.
From the above list Chernac has omitted Raun (1659), giving factors to
24,000, and Piert (1758) to 10,000, which are described below. A more
important omission is that of Fxrrxer, whose table is noticed at length
further on,
The titles of Anjema’s, Neumann’s, and Krause’s works are given in the
Babbage Catalogue as follows :—‘ Anjema (Henricus), Tabula divisorum
omnium numerorum naturalium ab 1 usque ad 10000. 4to, Lugd. Bat.
1767 ;” “ Neumann (Johann), Tabellen der Prim-Zahlen- und der Factoren
der Zahlen, welche unter 100100, und durch 2, 3, oder 5 nicht theilbar sind ;
herausgegeben durch J. N. 4to, Dessau, 1785;” and “ Krause (Karl C. F.),
Factoren- und Primzahlen-Tafel yon 1 bis 100000 neu berechnet. Fol.
Leipzig, 1804,”
The same catalogue also contains the title, “Snell (F. W. D.), Ueber eine
neue und bequeme Art, die Faktorentafeln einzurichten, nebst einer Kup-
fertafel der einfachen Faktoren yon 1 bis 30000. 4to. Giessen und Darm-
stadt, 1800.”
The following are accounts of tables we have seen :—
Rahn, 1659. On pp. 37-48 is given a table of divisors; viz. the least
divisor of every number, not divisible by 2 or 5, is tabulated from 1 to 24,000,
the primes being marked with a p.
Pigri, 1758. All the simple factors (so that if multiplied together they
give the number) are given of all numbers from 1 to 10,000. When the
number is a power, letters are used instead of numbers (a = 2,6 = 3,¢ = 5,
&c., as explained on p. 11 of the book); thus, answering to 25 we have ce,
to 27 bbb, to 225 bb, cc, &e.
Kruger, 1746. At the end of the ‘ Algebra’ is a list of primes to 100,999,
arranged consecutively in pages of six columns, and occupying 47 pp. The
titlepage runs ‘ Primzahlen von 1 bis 1000000’; but the limit is as above
stated; and there is no possibility that the copy before us is incomplete, as the
last page is a short one, and there is no printing on the back. ;
D2
36 REPORT— 1873.
The primes of each hundred are separated, which for some purposes would
be an advantage. :
Lamsert states (Introd. ad ‘Supplementa,’ &c., 1798) that Kriicnr received
this table from Peter Jeger.
Felkel, 1776. Table of all simple factors of numbers to 144,000, the
tabular results being obtained from three tables. Thus Table A gives primes
to 20,353; these occupy one page, along the top line of which run the Greek
letters a, 3.... and down the left-hand column four alphabets consecutively,
viz. small italic, small German, capital italic, and capital German (there
being 100 lines); and any prime given on this page is henceforth in the book
denoted by its coordinates, so to speak: thus 9839 would be printed pp, &e.
The principal table occupies 24 pp.; and then Table B occupies one page at
the end. Suppose it required to find the factors of 138,593. The middle
table is entered at 138 and Table B at 593. In the latter we find as result
“<g line 20,” so that we know that the compartment under g in the 20th line of
the block 138, refers to the number in question. In this compartment is printed
€, g, Bt, which, interpreted by Table A, gives 7, 13, and 1523 as the factors.
There are a few details that have been omitted in this description ; the last
three figures are written in the compartment wherever there is room for
them.
On the titlepage is a large engraving of a student (no doubt a portrait of
Felkel) turning in contempt from a disordered cabinet of military books to
another neatly arranged, containing Euler, Newton, Maclaurin, Bernoulli,
Boscoyvich, &c., and holding in his hand the works of Lambert ; with mottoes
‘* Bella odi, Pacem diligo, vera sequor,” &c. above. It will be seen that this
table is entirely superseded by Chernac and Burckhardt. In the arrangement
of the latter the table would only have occupied 16 much smaller pages,
and its use would have required no explanation ; but on account of the rarity
of the work, it has been thought worth while to describe at some length
what is certainly the most remarkable-looking table we have seen.
De Morgan states that ‘ Murhard mentions the first part of a table (by
A. Felkel) of the factors of all numbers not divisible by 2, 3 or 5 from 1 to a
hundred millions, Vienna (1776).” On referring to Murhard we find such is
the case, ** 100,000,000 ” being an obvious misprint for “10,000,000;” we
have seen Murhard’s error reproduced by other writers.
Of Felkel’s table Gauss (in the letter prefixed to Dasn’s Seventh Million)
says: “ Felkel hatte die Tafel im Manuscripte bis 2 Millionen fertig und der
Druck war bis 408,000 fortgeschritten, dann aber sistirt, und die ganze
Auflage wurde vernichtet bis auf wenige Exemplare des bis 336,000 gehenden
Theils, wovon die hiesige Bibliothek eines besitzt.” The copy of Felkel in -
the Royal Society’s Library, which extends to 144,000, is that which has
been described above. Felkel’s table is also referred to by Hoserr and
Ivrter in the introduction to their work (see § 4).
Felkel was editor of the Latin edition (Lisbon, 1798) of Lamnerr’s
‘Zusiitze’ (the ‘Supplementa’ &e., see § 4); and he has there given, in the
‘ Introductio Interpretis’ and at the end, some account of his life and the work
he accomplished and hoped to accomplish with regard to the theory of numbers.
He commenced the study of mathematics when of a somewhat advanced age ;
and he speaks in the warmest terms of Lambert, with whom he was in cor-
respondence, and from whom he derived much assistance. This accounts for
eae being the book open before the student in the engraving described
above.
In a note on p. xiy of the Introductio to the ‘ Supplementa,’ he (Felkel)
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 37
says : “ Nonsolum inveni formam omnes divisores numerorum excepto maxi-
mo, ab 1 usque 1,008,000 in spatio 42 plagularum representandi, verum etiam
reipsa opus spatio 16 mensium usque ad 2,016,000 confeci, annoque 1785
....ad 5,000,000 usque continuayi.” (See also p. vil of the ‘ Introductio In-
terpretis’).
Since writing the above description of Felkel, I have examined (in the
Graves Library) a far more complete copy, which contains probably all that
Felkel ever printed. There are three parts (bound together). The first is the
same as that described above, and extends to 144,000; the second part
(with fresh pagination) extends from 144,001 to 336,000 (pp. 2-63) ; we
then have ‘Tabula Factorum pars III exhibens factores numerorum ab
336,001 usque 408,000,’ occupying pp. 65-87. The table thus gives factors
as far as 408,000. The words “ 336,001 usque 408,000” have clearly ori-
ginally stood “ 144,001 usque 366,000 ;” but the latter numbers have been
stamped out and the former printed over them. ‘There is a note in the work
in the handwriting of Mr. Graves’s librarian, which, referring to Gauss’s
remark quoted above, proceeds :—* This copy contains 3 parts and gives the
factors of all numbers up to 408,000; such a copy is perhaps unique.”
Gauss stated that all the copies were destroyed except a few, which extended
to 336,000 ; so that there can be no doubt that the Graves copy, extending
to 408,000, must be, to say the least, excessively rare.
It should be added that the title and preface to the Graves copy are in
Latin, while the Royal Society’s copy has them in German (Poggendorff
also quotes the title in German with date 1777) ; the preface is dated April 1,
1777, although the titlepage bears date 1776. In the Graves copy some
errata in Part I. are given.
For several reasons Felkel’s connexion with numerical tables is a curious
one, and the record of his life would be interesting. We have seen (in some
work of reference) a number of mechanical contrivances assigned to him as
their inventor.
Chernac, 1811. Ina thick quarto are given all the simple divisors of
numbers from 1 to 1,020,000 (multiples of 2,3, and 5 being excluded).
This book was found by Burckhardt (who subsequently published the same
table, the least divisor only being given) to be very accurate ; he detected only
38 errors (he has given them in the preface to his first million), of which only
9 are due to the author, the remaining 29 having been caused by the slipping
&e. of type in the printing.
Hutton’s Phil. and Math. Dict. 1815. In vol. ii. pp. 236-238 (Art.
‘Prime Numbers’) isa table giving the least divisor of all numbers from 1 to
10,000, multiples of 2 and 5 being omitted.
Burckhardt (First Million), 1817. Least divisors of every number to
1,020,000. The library of the Institute contained a manuscript (calculated
by Schenmarck ?) giving the least divisor of numbers to 1,008,000 ; Burck-
hardt therefore computed the next 12,000 himself, and compared the manu-
seript with Cuernac—a laborious work, as when a wrong divisor was given,
» Burckhardt had to satisfy himself if the number was really prime, as was
the case in 236 instances. For primes less than 400,000 he referred to Vega
(see Vuea’s ‘ Tabule,’ 1797, Vol. II. T. I., and Hirsse’s Vue, 1840, T. V.).
Only 38 errors were found in Currnac. On the last page is a small table con-
taining the number of figures in the periods of the reciprocals of 794 primes
below 9901 (779 of which are below3000). Burckhardt mentions in the preface
that he has nearly completed the manuscript of the fourth, fifth, and sixth
millions, which will be published, if the sale of the first three millions is
38 REPORT—1873.
sufficiently fayourable to induce the bookseller to undertake them. There
are three pages on the use of the tables. ‘l'his work, though containing the
first million, was published after the second and third.
Five errors are pointed out at the beginning of Dasr’s ‘Seventh Million.’
Burckhardt (Second Million), 1814. The arrangement is the same as for
the first million ; and the table extends from 1,020,000 to 2,028,000. This
was the first published of the three millions ; and the method of calculation &c.
is explained in the introduction, the least factor alone being given. If the
others are required, the process is of course to divide the number by this factor
and enter the table again with the quotient. ‘To facilitate the division, on
the first page (p. vili) a table is given of the first 9 multiples of all primes
to 1423.
Burckhardt (Third Million), 1816. The arrangement is the same as in
the other millions: the table extends from 2,028,000 to 3,036,000.
Rees’s Cyclopzedia(vol. xxviii. Art. ‘Prime Numbers’), 1819, Attached
to the article “Prime Numbers” in Rees’s ‘Cyclopzedia,’ is a table of 23 pp.,
giving a list of primes up to 217,219 arranged in decades—a very convenient,
table, as there are 910 primes on each page. It is stated (and truly) that the
primes are given to twice the extent that they are to be found in any previous
English work. In the course of the article the author says, ‘And a work lately
published in Holland, not only contains the prime numbers up to 1,000,000,
but also the factors of all composite numbers to the same extent—a performance
which, it must be allowed, displays the industry of its author to much more
advantage than either his genius or judgement.” ‘This can only refer to Crer-
wac’s table, which was published at Deventer (Daventria) in 1811; anditisa
matter of regret that an English writer on mathematics should have thought
only deserving of a sneer a work the performance and extension of which
had been consistently urged by Euler and Lambert and afterwards by Gauss.
One would expect the article of such a writer on the theory of numbers to be
very poor; and such is the case. He has not thought it worth while to
state where the table he gives has been copied from ; it is no doubt taken
from Vega (‘ Tabule’), 1797, Vol. II. T. I.
Dase (Seventh Million), 1862. The least divisor of all numbers from
6,000,001 to 7,002,000 (multiples of 2,3 and 5 excluded), and therefore
also a table of primes between these limits.
The arrangement is as in Burckarpz, there being 9000 numbers to the
page.
‘This work was undertaken by Dase at the suggestion of Gauss; and the letter
of the latter is printed in the preface. In it Gauss adverts to, and expresses
his concurrence in, Felkel’s desire that the factorial tables should be extended
to ten millions ; he states that a manuscript containing the fourth, fifth, and
sixth millions (viz. 3,000,000 to 6,000,000) was some years before presented
by Crelle to the Berlin Academy, and he expresses a hope that it will soon be
published ; he therefore suggests that Dase should complete the portion
from 6,000,000 to 10,000,000. Dase accordingly undertook the work, and
at the time of his death in 1862 had finished the seventh million entirely
and the eighth million nearly ; while many factors for the ninth and tenth
millions had been determined. The seventh million (as also the two follow-
ing) were published after Dase’s death by a committee of his fellow-towns-
men as a memorial of his talent for calculation.
Dase (Highth Million), 1863. The arrangement is the same as in the
seventh million; and the table extends from 7,002,001 to 8,010,000; the
paging runs from 118 to 224,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 89
There is a short preface of 2 pp. by Dr. Rosenberg, who edited the work,
which was left nearly complete by Dase.
Dase and Rosenberg (Ninth Million), 1865. The arrangement is the
same as in the previous two millions ; and the table extends from 8,010,000
to 9,000,000. The work left incomplete by Dase at his death was finished .
by Dr. Rosenberg ; the paging runs from 225-334,
It is stated in the preface that the tenth million (the last which the tables
were intended to include) was nearly completed; but we believe it has not
yet appeared.
It will have been seen from the above accounts that Cuernac’s, Burcx-
HARDI’s, and Dasx’s tables together contain all the published results with re-
gard to factors of numbers; and by means of them we can find all the
simple divisors of numbers between one million and three millions and
between six millions and nine millions easily, and between unity and one
million at sight. There is, however, the gap from three millions to six
millions ; and it is very much to be regretted that this is not filled up.
Gauss states a table of divisors from three millions to six millions exists in
manuscript at Berlin; and Burckhardt also formed a similar table; so that
this portion has apparently been twice calculated (by Crelle? and Burck-
hardt).
pasiire letter is dated 1850 ; and it is a calamity that the anticipations con-
tained in it have not been realized, as a manuscript unpublished does more
harm than if it were non-existent, by checking others from attempting the
task. The completion of Gauss’s scheme (viz. the publication of tables to ten
millions) is very desirable, as these tables may be regarded as data in regard
to investigations in the theory of numbers (see references to memoirs of Kuler
and Gauss in Currnac, and Gauss’s letter). The tenth million also seems to
be still unpublished, though seven years ago we had Dr. Rosenberg’s assurance
that it was nearly completed. If the whole ten millions were published, we
should much like to see a list of all the primes up to this point published
separately,
Oakes, 1865 (Machine table). The object is to find the prime or least
factors of numbers less than 100,000 ; and for this purpose there are three
tables, A (1 page large 8vo), B (4 pp. folio), and C (1 page obl. folio), and
nine perforated cards, the one to be employed depending on the group of
10,000 that contains the argument. The mode of entry is somewhat compli-
cated ; and the table can only be regarded as a matter of curiosity ; for in the
method of arrangement of BurckHarpr or Dass the least factors of all
numbers under 100,000 only oceupy a little over 11 pp. or six leaves
of small folio or large 8vo size—while the present apparatus consists of six
leaves of large and different sizes, and nine cards, besides requiring an
involved course of procedure. Col. Oakes does not explain the principle
on which his method depends.
The following is a list of tables contained in works that are described in
§ 4.
Tables of Divisors—Dovson, 1747, T. XVII. (to 10,000) ; Maserus, 1795
(to 100,000); Vea, 1797, Vol. II. T. I. (to 102,000); Lamserz, 1798,
T. I. (to 102,000); Bartow, 1814, T. I. (to 10,000); Hanrscux, 1827,
T. VII. (to 18,277): *Satomon, 1827, T. II. (to 102,011); Hixssn’s Vuca,
1840, T. V.; Kouzzr, 1848, T. VIII. (to 21,524) ; Hotxn, 1858, T. VII. (to
10,841); Ranxtne, 1866 (to 256). See also Gruson, 1798, § 3, art. 1.
List of Prime Numbers.—Donson, 1747, T. XVIIL. (10,000 to 15,900) ;
Vee, 1797, Vol. II. T. I. (102,000 to 400,000) ; Lamprrr, 1798, T, II.
40 REPOLT—1873.
(multiples of primes); T. VI. (to 102,000); Barrow, 1814, T. V. (to
100,103); Hiutssn’s Vrea, 1840, T. V. (102,000 to 400,313); Muinsincrr,
1845 [T. II.] (to 1000); Byrne, 1849 [T.1.] (to 5000); Wacxersanim,
1867 (to 1063) ; Parxmursr, 1871, T. XXIII. (to 12,239).
Art. 9. Sewagesimal and Seacentenary Tables.
Originally all calculations were sexagesimal ; and the relics of the system
still exist in the division of the degree into 60 minutes, and the minute into
60 seconds. To facilitate interpolation, therefore, in trigonometrical and
other tables, several large sexagesimal tables have been constructed, which
are described or referred to below. They are, we believe, scarcely used at
all now, for several reasons—first, on account of the somewhat cumbrous size
of the complete tables, and secondly because for most purposes logistic
logarithms (see § 3, art. 18) are found more expeditious and convenient. A
third reason is that both Brrnovtui’s and Taytor’s tables were published by
the Commissioners of Longitude, and, like the other publications of the Board,
were advertised so little that their existence never became generally known.
Bernoulli, 1779. A sexcentenary table to 600 seconds, to every second,
giving at once the fourth term of any proportion of which the first term is
600" and cach of the other two are less than 600", The table is, of course, of
double entry ; it may perhaps be best described as giving the value of mate
correct to tenths of a second, w and y each containing numbers of seconds
less than 600", a being expressed in seconds alone, and y in minutes and
seconds (though the latter can be turned into seconds at sight, as the number
of seconds in the necessary integer number of minutes is given at the top of
each page). The «’s run down the left-hand column, and the y’s along the top
line ; and the arrangement is thus :—The portion of a from 1” to 60” and the
whole range of y is given; this occupies 30 pp.; then the portion for x from
60" to 120", and for y from 60” to 600"; and so on. The chief use of the
table consists in the fact that in astronomical tables the differences are
usually given for every 10’,so that the interpolation gives rise to a proportion
of the kind described above: in some cases the use of the table would be
preferable to that of logistic logarithms.
Taylor, 1780 [T. I.] (pp. 240). The table exhibits at sight the fourth
term of any proportion where tbe first term is 60 minutes, the second any
number of minutes less than 60,and the third any number of minutes and
seconds under 60 minutes. If the second term consists of minutes and seconds,
the table must be entered twice (once for the minutes and once for the seconds).
The table can of course also be put to other uses.
There is also added a table of the equation of second difference, giving the
correction to be applied on this account in certain cases,
[T. II.] (pp. 250, 251). Giving the thirds answering to the decimals in
every column of ['T. I.] where the result is expressed in minutes, seconds, and
decimals of a second.
[T. 1IT.] (pp. 263-312). A millesimal table of proportional parts adapted to
sexagesimal proportions, giving the result of any proportion in which the first
term is 60 minutes, the second term any number under 60 minutes, and the
third term any absolute number under 1000. It is in fact the same as the
sexagesimal table [T. I.], only that the third term is expressed in seconds,
and is given only to 1000 (16' 40"), and the result is also expressed in
seconds (in [T, I.] the third terms are given both in minutes and seconds) and
EO
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 41
in seconds wholly, so that the expression of the result in seconds wholly is the
chief characteristic of [T. ITI.].
This table is followed by 3 pp. to convert sexagesimals into decimals and
vice versd, and numbers into sexagesimals and vice versé. The other tables
are weights and measures &c. There are numerous examples given in the
introduction.
fT. IY.]. Another table occupying one page (p. 252) should be noticed ;
it gives squares, cubes, fourth, fifth, and sixth powers of any number of
minutes up to 60’: thus the square of 3’ is 9"; the cube, 27’; the fourth
power 1” 21”; the fifth 4° 3", &e. The words sursolid and square cube are
used for the fifth and sixth powers.
On the present work see also BrvrerLey (1833 ?) (§ 4).
It was the author of this table (Taylor) who afterwards calculated the
logarithmic trigonometrical canen to every second.
The following are references to works in § 4:—
Sexagesimal tables :—Lyny, 1827, T. Z; Baeay, 1829, T. XXIV. (lo-
garithms with sexagesimal arguments); Brvertry (1833 ?), T. VI. (pp. 232
&e.) and T. XV.; Suorrrepe (Com. log. Tab.), 1844; Gorpon, 1849, T.
XVII. (half sines, &c., expressed sexagesimally).
Tables for the conversion of sexagesimals into decimals, and vice versa :—
Doveras, 1809, T. III., Supplement; Ducom, 1820, T. XX.; Hirssn’s
Veea, 1840, T. IY.
Art. 10. Zubles of natural Trigonometrical Functions.
A history of trigonometrical tables by Hutton is prefixed to all the editions
of his ‘ Tables of Logarithms’ published during his lifetime * ; and, in his
Article on Tables in the ‘ English Cyclopzedia,’ De Morgan has given what
is by far the most complete and accurate account of printed tables of this
kind that has been published. Information about the earlier tables is also
to be found in Montucla and Delambre (see references in De Morgan). For
many years, when Mathematics had not passed beyond Trigonometry,
the method of construction and calculation of the ‘Canon Trigonometricus ’
formed one of the chief objects of the science, and the works on the subject
were comparatively numerous, though now, of course, of purely historic
interest only. Prior to the introduction of sines from the Arabians by
Albategnius, trigonometrical calculations were always made by chords. The
unit-are was the are whose chord was equal to the radius (viz. 60°); and
both are and radius were divided into 60 equal parts, and these subdivided
again into 60 parts, and so on. (It thus appears that it was not the right
angle that was divided into 90, 60 and 60 parts, &c., but that the unit-angle
was 60°, so that the division was strictly sexagesimal throughout. It is
curious that in some modern tables (see Brvertey, T. VI. and XV. &c.) the
original arrangement has been restored, for convenience of interpolating by
Taytor’s sexagesimal table). Thus in the earliest existing table, viz. the
table of chords in the Syntaxis of Ptolemy (died a.p. 178), the chord of 90°
is 84° 51' 10". Purbach (born 1423) and Regiomontanus (born 1436) calcu-
lated sines, the former to radius 600,000 and the latter to the same radius
and also to radius 1,000,000; but it is not certain whether they were printed.
The first known printed table, according to De Morgan, is a table of sines
to minutes, without date, but previous to 1500. Peter Apian first published
a table with the radius divided decimally (1533). Tangents were first pub-
* Tt also forms Tract XIX. vol. i. pp. 278-306 of his ‘ Mathematical Tracts,’ 1812.
42 REPORT—1873.
lished by Regiomontanus (1504); and the first complete canon giving all the
six ratios of the sides of a right-angled triangle is due to Rheticus (1551),
who also introduced the semiquadrantal arrangement. Rheticus’s canon was
to every ten minutes to 7 places; and Vieta first extended it to every minute
(1579). ‘The first complete canon published in England was by Blundevile
(1594), although a table of sines had appeared four years earlier.
Tt may be added that Regiomontanus (1504) called his table of tangents (or
rather cotangents) Tabula foecunda, on account of its great use ; and till the in-
troduction of the word tangent by Frxcx (1583), a table of tangents was called
a Tabula feecunda or Canon foecundus ; Fixcx also introduced the term secant,
the table of secants having previously been called Tabula benefica by Mauro-
lycus (1558), and Tabula focundissima by Vieta.
The above historical sketch has been compiled from Hutton and De Morgan ;
so that most of the statements contained in it are not derived from our own
inspection of the works mentioned. It is only intended to give an idea of the
history of the natural canon ; and from the experience we have had of the value
of second-hand information in mathematical bibliography, we should not re-
commend great reliance to be placed on any one of the facts. A good deal of
information about Rheticus, Vieta, &c. is given by De Morgan, whom we have
scarcely ever found inaccurate, even in trifling details, when describing works
he has examined himself. We have seen several of the works noted, but not
sufficient to make any corrections of importance to the current histories.
The next author of importance to Ruzricvs was Prriscus (1613), whose im-
portant canon, which still remains unsuperseded, is described below. The in-
vention of logarithms in the following year changed all the methods of caleula-
tion; and itis worthy of note that Narrmr’s original table of 1614 (see § 3, art.
17) was a logarithmic canon of sines and not a table of the logarithms of
numbers. Almost at once the logarithmic superseded the natural canon;
and since Prriscus’s time no really extensive table of pure trigonometrical
functions has appeared. Natural canons are now most common in Nautical
collections, where the tabular results are generally given to 5 or 6 places only.
Traverse tables (multiples of sines and cosines) have not been included
(see § 2, art. 12). Massanour (described below), however, is really a table
of this kind, although constructed for a different purpose.
Finck [1583]. Canon of sines, tangents, and secants in separate tables,
quadrantally arranged, for every minute of the quadrant, to 7 decimal places.
The sines occupy pp. 138-173, the tangents pp. 176-221, and the secants
pp. 224-269. De Morgan says that Finck calculated his own secants. There
is no date on the titlepage; but the preface and the colophon are both dated
1583. The name tangent is introduced by Finck on p. 73, and that of
secant on p. 76. These names were speedily adopted: thus Clavius, at the
end of his edition of ‘ Theodosius’ (Rome, 1586), reprints Finck’s tables, and
uses his terms both in the headings of the tables and in the trigonometry.
He does not mention either Finck or Rheticus by name, but speaks of them
as recentiores (p. 188). Pitiscus, in his trigonometry appended to Abraham
Shultet’s ‘Sphericorum’ (Heidelberg, 1595), uses the names tangent and
secant, and refers to Finck or Rheticus for the requisite canons ; and in his
larger trigonometry (Augsburg, 1600) he reprints Finck’s tables to five deci-
mals, placing the sines, tangents, and secants together in one table. Blun-
devile, in his ‘ Exercises ’ (London, 1594), reprinted the tables from Clavius.
All these works are before us; but a more detailed account would be of only
historical or bibliographical interest.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 43
Rheticus, 1596 (‘Opus Palatinum’). Complete ten-decimal trigonome-
trical canon for every ten seconds of the quadrant, semiquadrantally arranged,
with differences for all the tabular results throughout. Sines, cosines, and
secants are given on the versos of the pages in columns headed respectively
Perpendiculum, Basis, Hypotenusa ; and on the rectos appear tangents, cose-
cants, and cotangents, in columns headed respectively Perpendiculum, Hypo-
tenusa, Basis*. This is the celebrated canon of George Joachim Rheticus,
the greatest of the table-computers, to whom also is due the canon of sines
described below under Piriscus, 1613. At the time of his death (1576)
Rheticus left the canon all but complete; and the trigonometry was finished
and the whole edited by Valentine Otho under the title ‘Opus Palatinum,’
so-called in honour of the Elector Palatine Frederick IY., who bore the ex-
pense of publication. The edition before us is in two volumes, the second
containing the ten-decimal canon and occupying 540 pp. (2-541) folio; then
follow 13 pp. of errata numbered 142-153 and 554. At the end of the
first volume is a canon of cosecants and cotangents (in columns headed
Hypotenusa and Basis respectively) to 7 places for every 10 seconds, in a
semiquadrantal arrangement. It occupies 180 pp. (separate pagination,
2-181); and there seems no reason why it should have been printed at all, as
the great ten-decimal canon completely supersedes it. Besides, it is exceed-
ingly incorrect, as comparison with the latter shows at once. On this point
De Morgan says that its insertion ‘‘ was merely the editor’s want of judg-
ment; it is clearly nothing but a previous attempt made before the larger
plan was resolved on;” while Hutton writes, “But I cannot discover the
reason for adding this less table, even if it were correct, which is far from
being the case, the numbers being uniformly erroncous and-different from the
former through the greatest part of the table.” Mention of it is introduced
by Hutton with the words, “ After the large canon is printed another smaller
table,” &e., while in the copy before us it ends the first volume, the second
containing the great canon. It is also to be inferred from De Morgan’s ac-
count that the whole work generally is bound in one (very thick) volume.
The tangents and secants in the early part of the great canon were found to
be*inaccurate ; and the emendation of them was intrusted to Pitiscus, who
“corrected the first, eighty-six pages, in which the tangents and secants were
sensibly erroneous ” (De Morgan) ; and copies of this corrected portion alone
were issued separately in 1607, as well as of the whole table with the correc-
tions. We have not seen one of these corrected copies ; but vide De Morgan’s
full account, ‘ English Cyclopedia,’ Article “‘ Tables,” and ‘ Notices of the
Roy. Astron. Soc.,’ t. vi. p. 213, and ‘ Phil. Mag.’ June, 1845. The pagina-
tion of the other parts of the work is ‘ De Triangulis globi cum angulo recto,’
pp- 38-140; ‘ De Fabrica Canonis, pp. 3-85 ; ‘De Triquetris rectarum line-
arum in planitie,’ pp. 86-104; ‘ De Triangulis globi sine angulo recto,’ pp.
1-341 ; ‘ Meteoroscopium,’ pp. 3-121 (the first three by Rheticus and the
rest by Otho).
In 1551 Kheticus had published a ten-minute seven-place canon in his
‘Canon Doctrine Triangulorum,’ Leipzig, with which the present work must
not be confounded. And in 1579 Vieta published his ‘ Canon Mathematicus,
seu ad triangula cum Adpendicibus,’ for every minute of the quadrant. This
* The explanation of these terms is evident. The sines and cosines are perpendiculars
and bases to a hypotenuse 10,000,000,000; the secants and tangents are hypotenuses
and perpendiculars to a base 10,000,000,000, and the cosecants and cotangents are hypo-
tenuses and bases to a perpendicular 10,000,000,000. The object Rheticus had in view
was to calculate the ratios of each pair of the sides of a right-angled triangle.
44 , REPORT—1873.
and several other works that we have examined will be noticed at length in a
future Report.
On Rheticus’s other works see Pririscus, 1613, below.
Gernerth has given a list of 598 errors that he found in the first seven or
eight figures of the ten-decimal canon in the ‘ Zeitschrift fd. ésterr. Gymn.’
VL. Heft, 8. 407 (also published separately). He also gives an account of the
contents of the ‘ Opus Palatinum,’ from which it appears that in his copy the
different parts of it were bound up in a different order from that in which they
appear in the copy we have examined (which seems to be anomalous in ‘this
respect); and he omits the 121 pp. of the ‘ Meteoroscopium.’ The great in-
accuracy of the small canon is also noticed by him; and it is on this account
that he gives no errata list for it.
Pitiscus, 1613 [T. 1] (pp. 2-271, calculated by Rheticus), Natural
sines for every ten seconds throughout the quadrant, to 15 places, semiqua-
drantally arranged, with first, second, and third differences. (On p. 13, Per-
pendiculum and Basis are printed instead of Sinus and Sinus complement).
[T. IL] (pp. 2-61, calculated by Rheticus). Natural sines for every
second from 0° to 1°, and from 89° to 90°, to 15 places, with first and second
differences.
[T. ILI. and IV.] (pp. 3-15). The lengths of the chords of a few angles,
to 25 places, with verifications &c., followed by natural sines and cosines
for the tenth, twentieth, and fiftieth second in every minute to 35’, to 22
places, with first, second, third, fourth, and sometimes fifth differences.
The numbering of the pages thus recommences in each table (except. T.
IV.) ; and each has a separate titlepage. On the first two the date is printed
clo . Io. x11. instead of clo. Ioc . x11.
The rescue of the MS. of this work from destruction by Pitiscus (as told by
himself in the preface) forms a striking episode in the history of mathematical
tables. The alterations and emendations in the earlier part of the corrected
edition of the ‘ Opus Palatinum ’ were made by Pitiscus; and he remarked that
a table of sines to more places than ten was requisite to enable the corrections
to be conveniently made. He had his suspicions that Rheticus had himself cal-
culated a ten-second canon of sines to fifteen decimal places; and on application
to Valentine Otho, the original editor of the ‘ Opus Palatinum,’ the latter, who
was then an old man, acknowledged that such was the case, but could not
remember where the MS. was (“ ob memorie senilis debilitatem ”). He thought
that perhaps he had left it at Wittemberg; and accordingly Pitiscus sent a
messenger there to search for it; but after considerable expense had been in-
curred he returned without it. After the death of Otho, when the MSS. of
Rheticus, which had been in his possession, passed into the hands of James
Christmann, the latter discovered the canon among them, when it had been
given up for lost. As soon as Pitiscus knew this he examined the MSS. page
by page, although they were in a very bad condition (situ et squalore obsitas
ac peene foetentes), and to his great satisfaction found :—(1) the ten-second
canon of sines to 15 places, with first, second, and third differences (printed
in the work under notice); (2) sines for every second of the first and last
degrees of the quadrant, also to 15 places, with first and second differences ;
(3) the commencement of a canon of tangents and secants, to the same
number of decimal places, for every ten seconds, with first and second dif-
ferences ; (4) a complete minute-canon of sines, tangents, and secants, also
to 15 decimal places. From this account, taken in connexion with the
‘Opus Palatinum’ and the contents of the present work, one is able to
form some idea of the enormous computations undertaken by Rheticus ;
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 45
his tables not only to this day remain unsuperseded and the ultimate authori-
ties, but also formed the data whereby Vlacq calculated his logarithmic
canon, Pitiscus says that for twelve years Rheticus constantly had some com-
puters at work (duodecim totos annos semper aliquot Logistas aluit); and how
much labour and expense on his part would have been wasted but for, the
zeal of Pitiscus is painful to contemplate; as it was, it is matter of regret
that Rheticus did not live to see the publication of either of his canons,
the first of which appeared twenty years, and the other thirty-seven years
after his death. It was Pitiscus’s intention to add Rheticus’s minute-canon
of tangents and secants; but they laboured under the same defect as those in
the (uncorrected) ‘ Opus Palatinum,’ and on this account he was dissuaded
from so doing by Adrianus Romanus. ‘The matter spoken of above as
[T. III. and IV.] was due to Pitiscus himself, and was introduced at the
advice of the same mathematician.
The enormous work undertaken by Rheticus needs no eulogy; and the
earnestness and love of accuracy displayed by Pitiscus, not only rendered
apparent by his acts but also evident in the prefaces to his several works,
will always render his an honoured name in science.
The present work is exceedingly rare; and the copy we have examined is
in the library of the Greenwich Observatory. It, the ‘Opus Palatinum,’
and Vraco’s ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica,’ 1628, and ‘ Trigonometria Artifici-
alis,’ 1633, may be said to be the four fundamental tables of the mathemati-
cal sciences.
Gernerth (in the work cited under Ruertcus, 1596, supra) has given a
list of 88 errors that he detected in the first 7 or 8 places of the canon of
sines; he detected altogether 110; but 22 he states were given by Vega
in his ‘ Logarithmisch-trigonometrische .... Tafeln und Formeln,’ Vienna,
1783; this was Vega’s first publication of tables; and we have not seen the
work.
Grienberger, 1630. Sines, tangents, and secants, to 5 places, for every
minute from 0° to 45° (with foot entries also; but the table is only half a
complete canon, as ¢.g.sin 50° could not be taken out from it). There are five
more figures added to the sines, but separated from them by a point (this is
not a true decimal point, as is evident from the rest of the work, where no
trace of decimals occurs), the object the author had in view in adding them
being that when the sines had to be multiplied by large numbers, the re-
sults might still be correct to the last unit (radius 100,000). Grienberger
stated that more than 35 years before (about 1595) he had calculated a
canon of sines to 16 places, and made considerable progress with the secants
when the ‘ Opus Palatinum’ appeared and caused him to lay aside his work.
This he regretted exceedingly at the time of writing the present work, as he
was not able to add the five extra figures to the tangents and secants, which
he had transferred from his MS. in the case of the sines. The ‘ Opus Pala-
tinum’ contained enough figures; but some of them were doubtful, and he
wished no doubt to attach to any part of his table. The book is a duodecimo
volume, and would scarcely have been noticed here, but from the fact of part
of it having been the result of an original calculation. Napier’s bones are
mentioned, but not logarithms. The preface contains Grienberger’s 39-figure
value of x (see ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ July 1873); and it was in con-
nexion therewith that we sought the work out, and learnt with some surprise
of Grienberger’s incomplete and unpublished calculations. The copy we
examined is in the British Museum.
Massaloup, 1847, 1.1. The first five hundred multiples of the sines and
46 REPORT—1873.
cosines of all angles from,1° to 45° at intervals of 10' to two places. The table
occupies 442 closely printed pages.
T. IL. gives the first 109 multiples of the sine of all angles from 0° to 15°
at intervals of 1' to two places.
The above is the mathematical description of these tables; but in the
book, which is intended for surveyors &c., the multiples correspond to differ-
ent lengths (1.0, 1.1,....50.0 Ruthen) of the hypothenuse; and the sine
and cosine columns are headed Hohe and Grundlinie, and are given in
Ruthen. As the arguments are at intervals of a Fuss (= ;4, of a Ruthe)
the table exhibits the results apparently to 3 places. The arrangement in
T. I. is different from that in T. II., as while in the former the Ruthen and
Fiisse run down the column, and the minutes along the top line (so that all
the multiples of the same sine or cosine are given consecutively), in T. IT. the
minutes run down the column, and the Fiisse along the top line (so that the
same multiples of different angles are given consecutively). In this table also
the results are given to 3 places, if the method of statement used in the book
be followed. As it has been assumed that a Ruthe = 10 Fuss, while fre-
quently it = 12 Fuss, T. IID. is given to convert decimals into duo-
decimals, or, more strictly, Ruthen Decimalmaass into Werkmaass and
Bergmaass.
T. I. and II. are of course simple traverse tables.
Junge, 1864. Natural sines and cosines for every ten seconds of the
quadrant to 6 places. The table is one of the clearest we have seen, the
figures being distinct, and plenty of space being left between the columns
&c., so as to give a light appearance to the page, though its large size is
rather a disadvantage. The tabular results were interpolated for by Thomas’s
calculating machine from the natural sines in Hirssn’s tables; and the last
figure may be in error by rather more than half a unit. The connexion
between the tables and Thomas’s machine, referred to in the title and in the
preface, merely amounts, we suppose, to this—that while computers in
general use log sines, those who possess Thomas’s machine will find it
easier to dispense with logarithms and use natural sines and ordinary
arithmetic.
*Clouth. Natural sines and cosines (to 6 places) and their first nine
multiples (to 4 places) for every centesimal minute of the quadrant, arranged
semiquadrantally, the sines and their multiples occupying the left-hand pages,
and the cosines the right; the arguments are also expressed in sexagesimal
minutes and seconds, the intervals being then 32'"4. We have not seen the
work itself, but only a prospectus, containing 2 pp. (108 and 109) as specimens.
Judging from this, the book would contain 208 pp. In the copy of the pro-
spectus before us, the words “‘ Mayen (chez auteur)” are covered by a piece
of paper on which is printed “Halle, Louis Nebert, Libraire-Kditeur.”
There is no date; but we should judge the table to have been only recently
published.
We have also seen advertised ‘Tafeln zur Berechnung goniometrischer
Co-ordinaten,’ by F. M. Clouth—no doubt a German edition of the same
work.
, re following is a classified list of trigonometrical tables described in
Sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines—(To 7 places) Hanrscat, 1827,
T. V.; Winticn, 1853, T. B; Hurron, 1858, T. IX.
(To 6 places) Gansrarru, 1827, T. VI.
Sines, tangents, and secants.--(To 7 places) Sir J. Moorn, 1681 [T. 1I1.];
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. AZ
Vraca, 1681 [T. I.]; Ozanam, 1685; Suerwin, 1741 [T. IV.]; Henr-
scnen (Vuace), 1757 [T. 1.]; Scmunzz, 1778 [T. V.]; Lamsurr, 1798, T.
XXVI.; Doveras, 1809 [T. IIT.}.
(To 6 places) Ovcutren, 1657 ['T. I.] (centesimal division of the degree) ;
Unsinus, 1827 [T. V.]; Bearpmorn, 1862, T. 38.
(To 5 places) Hotxn, 1858, T. II.; Prrers, 1871 [T. V.]}.
Sines and tangents (only).—(To 7 places) Bares, 1781 [T. I1.]; Vuea,
1797, T. III.; Hoserr and Inrter, 1799 ['T. I.] (centesimal) and B (cen-
tesimal); (?) *Satomon, 1827, T. XII.; Turxism Locarivums [1834];
Hinsse’s Veca, 1840, T. IIT.
(To 6 places) Trorrer, 1841 [T. IV.].
(To 5 places) Scumipr, 1821 [T. I11.]; Rankine, 1866, T. 6; Wacker-
BARTH, 1867, T. VIII.
(To less than 5 places) Parxuurst, 1871, T. XXX. and XXXI.
Tangents and secants (only).—Doxn, 1789, T. VY. (4 places); [Suner-
sHanks, 1844] [‘T. IV.] (4 places).
Sines (alone).—(To 15 places) Catrur, 1853 ['T. VII.j (centesimal),
(To 7 places) Donn, 1789, T. IIT; Hassrzr, 1830 [T. V.].
(To 6 places) Masxetynz (Requisite Tables, Appendix), 1802, T. I.; Ducom,
1820, T. XIX. ; Keriean, 1821, T. IX.; J. Taytor, 1833, T. XX.; Nori,
1836, T. XXVI.; Grirriy, 1843, T. 19; J. Tayror, 1843, T, 32; Domxz,
1852, T. XXXVI.
(To 5 places) Lamsert, 1798, T. XXV.; Masxetyne (Requisite Tables),
1802, T. XVII.; Bownrren, 1802, T. XIV.; Moors, 1814, T, XXIV.;
Wattacz, 1815 [T. III.]; Greeory, &., 1843, T. X.
Multiples of sines—Scuvuze, 1778 (T. VI.]; Lamzerr, 1798, T. XXV.
Versed sines (alone).—(To 7 places) Sir J. Moorr, 1681 [T. IV.]; [Sir
J. Moorz, 1681, Versed sines}; Dovson, 1747, T. XXVI.; Dovetas, 1809,
[T. IV.]; Fartny, 1856 [T. I.].
(To 6 places) Maskrtyne (Requisite Tables, Appendix), 1802, T. II. ;
Macray, 1810, T. XLI.; Lax, 1821, T. XVII. (and coversed &c. sines) ;
Ripprz, 1824, T. XXVIII.; Norm, 1836, T. XXXVI.; Ruwxer, 1844,
T. III. ; Inman, 1871 [T. VII.] and [T. TX.].
Sines &c. expressed im vadicals:—Lampert, 1798, T, XIX.; Ursrnvs,
1827 [T. III.]; Vues, 1797, Appendix.
Miscellaneous. — Sin? 3 Anprew, 1805, T. XIII; sin?2 and tan’x,
Pasquicn, 1817, T. II.; suversed, coversed, sucoversed sines, Lax, 1821, T,
XVII.; 3 sin x, Sranspury, 1822, T. ¥; sexagesimal cosecants and cotan-
gents, Bevrrtey (1833 ?), T. VI. (pp. 232 &c.); sexagesimal sines, Id. T,
XV.; sin 5 Horsse'sVnoa T.IV. 1840; sin”S, [Suerpsnanxs, 1844][T. VI.];
2 sin wv expressed sexagesimally, Gorpon, 1849, T. XVIII.; see also Scuzé-
mitcn [1865 ?].
Note.—A list of tables in which both natural and logarithmic functions are
given side by side in the same table is added at the end of § 3, art. 15.
Art. 11. Lengths of Circular Ares.
Tables of the lengths (or longitudes) of circular ares are very frequently
given in collections of logarithmic and other tables; but we have seen none
of sufficient extent to be published separately. Angles are measured either
by degrees, minutes, &c., or by the ratio which the corresponding are bears
48 REPORT—1873.
to the unit are, or arc equal in length to radius, The latter method is usually
described in English text-books under the title “ Circular Measure ;” so that
in the descriptions in § 4 we have spoken indifferently of the length of the
are of x°, the longitude of x°, or the circular measure of 2°, The tables of
circular arcs usually give the circular measure of 1°, 2°,.. up to 90°, 180°,
or sometimes 360°, of 1’, 2',....60', of 1”, 2”,....60", and very often of
1”, 2'",....60'" also. By means of such a table any number of degrees,
minutes, &c. can be readily expressed in circular measure.
The following is a detailed list of the lengths of circular ares contained in
works described in § 4:—
(To 44 places) Hozserr and Iprier, 1799, G (centesimal division).
(To 27 places) Acapfémre pe Prusse, 1776 [T. II.]; Scuvuze, 1778
[T. VII.]; Lawzerr, 1798, T. XXII.
(To 25 places) Catrer, 1853 [T. V.] (sexagesimal and centesimal).
(To 15 places) Hanrscnt, 1827, T. X.
(To 12 places) Scumrpr, 1821 [T. IV.]; Mirrmr, 1844 [T. IV.}.
(To 11 places) Vea, 1794, T. II.; Hitssn’s Vuea, 1840, T. II.; Kiéurer,
148° [T. V..].
(To 10 places) Suorrrepx, 1849, T. III.; Bruns, 1870.
(To 8 places) Vrca, 1797, T. III. ; Prarson, 1824 [T. IIT.].
(To 7 places) Dopson, 1747, T. XXV.; Unsrnus, 1827 [T. II1.]; Grv-
son, 1832, T. VI.; Trorrmr, 1841 [T. VII.]; Suorrrepx (tables), 1844,
T. XXXVITI.; Warysrorrr’s Scavmacuer, 1845 [T. Il.]; Witricn, 1853,
T..D; Bremrxer’s Veca, 1857, T. II.; Hurroy, 1858, T. XI. ; Dupuis,
1868, T. IX.; Prrers, 1871 [T. IIL.]
(To 6 places) Bremrxrr, 1852, T. IT.
(To 5 places) Wackrrsarrn, 1867, T. IV.
See also Vzeca, 1800, T. II.; Byrne, 1849 [T. Il}; *Scnnéminee
[1865 ?}.
Art, 12. Tables for the expression of hours, minutes, Sc. as decimals of a day,
and for the conversion of time into space, and vice versa.
The largest table we have seen to convert hours, minutes, &c. into decimals
of a day is Hott, 1866. Tables of this kind are not numerous.
Three hundred and sixty degrees of space or arc are equivalent to twenty-
four hours of time; so that 1" corresponds to 15°, 1™ to 15’, and 1$to 15”;
1" is therefore 4 thirds of time =4t; 36'=2™ 24 &e. Small tables to convert
space (arc, or longitude) into time are not unfrequently given in collections
(generally nautical) of tables. A complete table of the kind gives the numbers
of hours and minutes corresponding to 1°, 2°,.. ..360°; and the same figures
also denote the number of minutes and seconds, and seconds and thirds (of
time) corresponding to 1', 2',.... 360’, or 1", 2",.. ..360" respectively. In
this Report", ™, 8, &c. are used to denote hours, minutes, seconds, and thirds (of
time), and °,',",'”"" for degrees, minutes, &c. of space—a distinction which it
is often convenient to adopt.
_ Littrow, 1837. T. I-IV. (5 pp.) are small tables for the conversion of are
into time &c. All the other tables, which occupy more than nine tenths of
the tract, are astronomical.
Howell, 1866 (Time Tables), T. IT. To convert hours, minutes, and’
seconds into the decimal of a day (pp. 15). Any number of hours, minutes,
and seconds (and fractions of a second, as proportional parts are added)
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 49
ean be readily expressed as a decimal (to scyen places) of a day, and vice
versd by means of it.
The following are tables described in § 4:—
Lables for the conversion of Lime into Space, and vice versé.—Cross-
wetL, 1791, T, XIII.; Bownrreu, 1802, T. XII.; Rrtos, 1809, T. XVI.;
Karrean, 1821, T. XIII.; Sranspvry, 1822, T. I. ; Pearson, 1824 [T. 1.];
Garprairn, 1827, T. XII. (Introd.); Warysrorrr’s Scuumacuur, 1845 fede e's
Kéurer, 1848 [T.I.]; Gorvon, 1849, T. XI. ; Domxt, 1852, T. XLVI. and
XLVII.; Bremixerr, 1852, T. II. ; Tomson, 1852, T. I. ; Bremrcer’s Vue,
1857, T. III.; Hover, 1858, T. I. ; Purers, 1871/7. Lisik
Tables to express Degrees, Minutes, ce. as decimats of a right angle,
or Hours, Minutes §c. as decimals of a day, and vice versd, Jv—Hosrrr
and Iprrer, 1799, C. L-IV., D. I.-ILL., E. L.-IV., F.; Gatbraita, 1827,
T. XI. (Introd.); Hanzscun, 1827, I. XII.; Bevertey (1883 7), T. VI.
(p. 127); Kouume, 1848, T.IX.; Perers, 1871 [T. I.].
Art. 13, Tables of (Briggian) Logarithms of Numbers.
The facts relating to the invention of Briggian (or decimal) logarithms are
as follows:—In 1614 Napier published his ‘Canon Mirificus’ (see $ 3,
art. 17), which contained the first announcement of the invention of logarithms,
and also a table of logarithmic sines, calculated so as to be very similar to what
are now called hyperbolic logarithms, Hxnry Briaes, then Professor of Geo-
metry at Gresham College, London, and afterwards Savilian Professor of Geo-
metry at Oxford, admired this work so much that he resolved to visit Napier.
“‘ Naper, lord of Markinston, hath set my head and hands at work with his
new and admirable logarithms. I hope to see him this summer, if it please
God ; for I never saw a book which pleased me better, and made me more
wonder.” This he says in a letter to Usher (Usher’s ‘ Letters,’ p. 36, aceord-
ing to Ward). Briggs accordingly visited Napier, and stayed with him a
whole month (in 1615). He brought with him some calculations he had
made, and suggested to Napier the advantages that would result from the choice
of 10 as a base, having publicly explained them previously in his lectures
at Gresham College, and written to Napier on the subject. Napier said that
he had already thought of the change, and pointed out a slight improvement,
viz. that the characteristics of numbers greater than unity should be posi-
tive, and not negative, as Briggs suggested. Briggs visited Napier again in
1616, and showed him the work he had accomplished, and, as he himself says,
would have gladly paid a third visit in 1617, had Napier’s life been spared
(he died April 4, 1617). The work alluded to is Brrees’s ‘ Logarithmorum
Chilias Prima,’ which was published (privately, we believe) in 1617, after
Napier’s death, as in the short preface he states that why his logarithms are dif-
ferent from those introduced by Napier “ sperandum, ejus librum posthumum,
abunde nobis propediem satisfacturum.” The liber posthumus was Napicr’s
‘ Constructio,’ which appeared in 1619, edited by his son (see § 3, art. 17).
Briggs continued to labour assiduously, and in 1624 published his ‘Arith-
- metica Logarithmica,’ giving the logarithms of the numbers from 1 to
20,000, and from 90,000 to 100,000 (and in some copies to 101,000), to 14
laces.
. To the above facts we must add that Napier mado a remark, both in Wright’s
translation of the ‘ Descriptio’ (1616) and in the ‘ Rabdologia’ (1617), to the
effect that he intended in a second edition to make an alteration equivalent
to taking the logarithm of 10 equal to unity.
We haye thought it proper to give the circumstances attending the inven-
1873, BE
50 REPORT—1873.
tion of Briggian logarithms in the above detail, as there seems every proba-
bility that the relations of Napier and Briggs may become a subject of con-
troversy among those who have never taken the trouble to examine the
original sources of information. Hutton, in his ‘ History of Logarithms’
(prefixed to all the early editions of his logarithmic tables, and also printed
in vol. i. pp. 306-340 of his ‘ Tracts,’ 1812), has unfortunately interpreted all
Briggs’s statements with regard to the invention of decimal logarithms in a
manner clearly contrary to their true meaning, and unfair to Napier. In
reference to the remark in Briggs’s preface to the ‘Chilias,’ that it is to be
hoped that the posthumous work will explain why the logarithms are different
from Napier’s, Hutton proceeds :—‘ And as Napier, after communication had
with Briggs on the subject of altering the scale of logarithms, had given notice,
both in Wright’s translation and in his own ‘ Rabdologia,’ printed in 1617,
of his intention to alter the scale (though it appears very plainly that he never
intended to compute any more), without making any mention of the share
which Briggs had in the alteration, this gentleman modestly gave the above
hint. But not finding any regard paid to it in the said posthumous work,
published by Lord Napier’s son in 1619, where the alteration is again adverted
to, but still without any mention of Briggs, this gentleman thought he could
not do less than state the grounds of that alteration himself.
«Thus, upon the whole matter, it seems evident that Briggs, whether he had
thought of this improvement in the construction of logarithms, of making 1
the logarithm of the ratio 10 to 1 before Lord Napier or not (which is a secret
that could be known only to Napier himself), was the first person who com-
municated the idea of such an improvement to the world; and that he did
this in his lectures to his auditors at Gresham College in the year 1615, very
soon after his perusal of Napier’s ‘ Canon Mirificus Logarithmorum’ in the year
1614, Healso mentioned it to Napier, both by letter in the same year and on his
first visit to him in Scotland in the summer of the year 1616, when Napier ap-
proved the idea, and said it had already occurred to himself, and that he had
determined to adopt it. It would therefore have been more candid in Lord
Napier to have told the world, in the second edition of this book, that Mr.
Briggs had mentioned this improvement to him, and that he had thereby been
confirmed in the resolution he had already taken, before Mr. Briggs’s com-
munication with him, to adopt it in that his second edition, as being better
fitted to the decimal notation of arithmetic which was in general use. Such
a declaration would have been but an act of justice to Mr. Briggs; and the
not having made it cannot but incline us to suspect that Lord Napier was
desirous that the world should ascribe to him alone the merit of this very
useful improvement of the logarithms, as well as that of having originally in-
vented them; though, if the having first communicated an invention to the
world be sufficient to entitle a man to the honour of having first invented it,
Mr. Briggs had the better title to be called the first inventor of this happy
improvement of logarithms.”
The above comments of Hutton’s are all the more unfortunate because they
occur in a history that is generally accurate and truthful. It is needless
to say that, the facts being as above narrated, there is not the smallest
ground for imputing unfairness to Napier; but Hutton seems to have some-
how become possessed of such an idea and read all the facts by the light of it.
On the other hand, however, some of the accounts are scarcely fair to Briggs.
Mr. Mark Napier, in his ‘ Memoirs of John Napier,’ has successfully refuted
Hutton ; but he has fallen into the opposite extreme of extravagantly eulogizing
Napier at the expense of Briggs, whom he reduces to the level of a mere
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 5l
computer ; and in these terms Mr. Sang has also recently spoken of the latter.
Mr. Napier attributes Hutton’s assertions to national jealousy (!); and it will
be a matter of regret if any other writers should follow his example in at-
tempting to glorify Napier by depreciating Briggs. The words of the latter,
in the 1631 translation (and amplification, see below) of his ‘ Arithmetica’ of
1624, are :—‘“ These numbers were first invented by the most excellent Iohn
Neper, Baron of Marchiston ; and the same were transformed, and the founda-
tion and use of them illustrated with his approbation [ex ejusdem sententia |
by Henry Briggs.” No doubt the invention of decimal logarithms occurred
to both Napier and Briggs independently; but the latter not only first an-
nounced the advantage of the change, but actually completed tables of the
new logarithms. Thus, as regards the idea of the change, Napier and
Briggs divide the honour equally ; while, on the principle that “great points
belong to those who make great points of them,” nearly all belongs to Briggs.
On the subject of Briggs and the invention of logarithms, see the careful
and impartial life of Briggs in Ward’s ‘ Lives of the Professors of Gresham
College,’ London, 1740, pp. 120-129, and also ‘ Vitee quorundam eruditis-
simorum et illustrium virorum’ &c., scriptore Thoma Smitho, Londini, 1707
(Vita Henrici Briggii), as well as ‘ Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston,’ by
Mr. Mark Napier, Edinburgh, 1839, and the same author’s ‘ Naperi libri qui
supersunt’ (see § 3, art.17). See also Hutton’s account (reference given above)
and Phil. Mag., October and December (Supplementary No.) 1872, and May
1873. It is proper to add that the date we have given for Briggs’s first visit
to Napier, viz. 1615, is different from that assumed by other writers, viz. 1616;
we have, however, little doubt that the former is correct, as it in all respects
derees with the facts. The reason that Ward, Hutton, &c. assign Briggs’s
first visit to 1616, and the publication of the ‘ Chilias’ to 1618, is, no doubt,
due to the fact that they supposed Napier to have died in 1618 ; but Mr. Mark
Napier has shown that the true date is 1617 ; and this brings all the facts into
agreement (see Phil. Mag. December 1872, Supp.).
Like Napier, Briggs was not very particular about the spelling of his name.
In Wright’s translation it appears as Brigs on the titlepage, Brigges on the
first page of the preface, and Briggs in the eulogistic verses.
Although we haye spoken of logarithms to the base 10 &c., we need scarcely
observe that, although exponents and even fractional exponents were in a sort
of way introduced by Stevinus, neither Napier nor Briggs, nor any one till
long after, had any idea of connecting logarithms with exponents.
To return to the original calculation of the logarithms of numbers. Briggs,
as has been stated, published the logarithms of the numbers from 1 to
20,000 and from 90,000 to 100,000 to fourteen places, in his ‘ Arithmetica.’
There was thus left a gap from 20,000 to 90,000, which was filled up by
Adrian Vlacq (although Briggs had in the mean time nearly completed the
necessary calculations ; see Phil. Mag. May 1873), who published at Gouda,
in 1628, a table containing the logarithms of the numbers from unity to
100,000 to 10 places of decimals. Having calculated 70,000 logarithms and
copied only 30,000, Vlacq would have been quite entitled to have called his
a new work. He designates it, however, only a second edition of Briggs,
the title running, “ Arithmetica logarithmica sive logarithmorum chiliades
centum, pro numeris naturali serie crescentibus ab Unitate ad 100000.....
Editio secunda aucta per Adrianum Vlacq, Goudanum.. . . .Goude, excudebat
Petrus Rammasenius. 1628.” This table of Vlacq’s was published, with an
English explanation prefixed, in London in 1631, under the title, “ Logarith-
micall Arithmetike, or Tables of Logarithmes for absolute numbers, from an
B2°
52 , REPoRT—1873.
unite to 100000... .. London, printed by George Miller, 1631” (full titles are
given in § 5).
Speaking of Briggs’s ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica’ of 1624, De Morgan, in
his article on Tables in the ‘ English Cyclopzedia,’ says :—* After his [ Briggs’s |
death, in 1631, a reprint was, it is said, made by one George Miller; the
Latin title and explanatory parts were replaced by English ones— Logarith-
micall Arithmetike’ &e. We much doubt the reprint of the tables, and think
that they were Briggs’s own tables, with an English explanation prefixed in
place of the Latin one. Wilson (in his ‘ History of Navigation,’ prefixed to
the third edition of Robertson) says that some copies of Vlacq, of 1628, were
purchased by our booksellers, and published at London with an English ex-
planation premised, dated 1631. Mr. Babbage (to whose large and rare col-
lection of tables we were much indebted in the original article) has one of
these copies ; and the English explanation and title is the same as that which
was in the same year attached to the asserted reprint of Briggs. Wehaveno
doubt that Briggs and Vlacq were served exactly in the same manner.” On
referring to Robertson (fourth edition, p. xvi), there is found to be no further
information than that contained in the above extract. That De Morgan’s
suggestion is quite correct, and that Miller’s and Vlacq’s tables are both
printed from the same types, we have assured ourselyes by a most careful
comparison, which leaves no doubt whatever that the two works are printed
from the same type throughout. We are thus enabled to state that the
same errata-list suffices for both; and this is important, as Vrace (1628,
or 1631) is still the most convenient and most used ten-figure table in ex-
istence. Briggs’s friends were annoyed at Vlacq’s publication; but it must
be borne in mind that their objections have reference, not so much to the table
(which is the only thing of practical importance now) as to the prefixed tri-
gonometry, which Vlacq curtailed in his “ second edition.” George Miller also
published some copies of the original ‘Arithmetica’ of 1624, with the same title-
page and introduction as were prefixed to the copies of Vlacq of 1628; and this
was distinctly wrong, as the titlepage does not in this case describe the con-
tents correctly.
It thus appears that Briaas’s table was published in 1624, and Vraca’s in
1628—that copies of the tabular portions of both these works were obtained by
George Miller, and published by him in 1631, with the same (Iinglish) title-
page and introduction, which, though correctly describing the contents of
Vlacq, is quite inappropriate for Briggs. This has led to a very great amount
of confusion, which has been greatly increased by the fact that on the title-
pages Briggs’s and Neper’s names occur, and that Vlacq only called his work
a second edition. It is in consequence exceedingly common to see Vlacq’s
work assigned to Briggs or Neper; and it is almost invariably ascribed to one
or other of the latter in the catalogues of libraries,
Vrace’s ‘Arithmetica’ of 1628 was also published with the same date, with
a French title (“ Arithmétique Logarithmétique” &e.) and introduction.
Vlacq modestly describes his share of the calculation in the words :—* La
description est traduit du Latin en Francois, la premiere Table augmentée,
et la seconde compos¢ée par Adriaen Vlacq.” Miller’s (1631) copies of Vlacq
are not so rare as the extract from De Morgan might imply. We have seen
five of them, and only three or four of the original (1628) works (including
both Latin and French).
In 1631 Vxrace published his ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis’ (§ 4). This
work contains, among other tables, the logarithms of the numbers from unity
to 20,000, printed also (with the exception of the last sheet, referred to fur-
ther on) from the same type.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 53
No further calculation of logarithms of numbers took place till the end of
the last century, when the great French manuscript tables (the ‘Tastes
pu Capastre’—see description of them below) were computed under the
direction of Prony. These, as is well known, have never been published.
In 1794 Vuea published his ‘ Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus,’ which
contains a complete ten-figure table from 1000 to 101,000. It was not, how-
ever, the result of a fresh calculation, but was copied from Vlacq, after ex-
amination and correction of many errors (see Vuea’s ‘Thesaurus,’ § 4).
In 1871 Mr. Sine published his seven-figure table of logarithms of numbers
to 200,000, the second half of which was obtained by anew calculation. It is
thus seen that, with the exception of the Tanres pv Capasrre, and the second
half of Mr. Sane’s table, every one of the hundreds of the tables that have
appeared has been copied from Briees or Vrace ; and considering the enor-
mous number of calculations in which logarithms have been employed,
and the vast saving they have effected of labour, it must be admitted that
(apart from the fact that the great tables of Brices and Vrace remain
still unsuperseded) great historical interest attaches to the original com-
putation.
Vxace’s ten-figure table contains about 300 errors (leaving out of consi-
deration errors affecting only the last figure by a unit). The greater number
of these were found cither by Vega, or by Lefort from comparison with the
TaBtEs pu Capasrre: complete references and a small subsidiary list are
given in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for May
and June 1872. While speaking of ten-figure logarithms, we may men-
tion Pryero’s table described below ; but Viace (1628 or 1631) and Vue
(1794) are far preferable: they are unfortunately so rare, however, that not
many besides those who have access to a good library can make use of
them, and, except to a few, the employment of ten-figure logarithms in their
most convenient form is denied: we much prefer Vrace to Vuea for use, as
the arrangement is more convenient.
To return to the history of logarithmic tables to a less number of figures.
Tn 1625 Wingate published at Paris his « Arithmétique Logarithmétique,’ con-
taining seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and logarithmic sines and tangents
from GuntTER (see De Morgan; the full title of the Gouda edition of Wingate
(1628) is given by Rogg, p. 408), thus introducing Briggian logarithms into
France ; and in 1626 appeared both Henrron’s ‘Traicté’ (§ 4) at Paris, con-
taining 20,000 logarithms from Briggs and Gunter’s logarithmic sines and
tangents, and Dr Drcxnr’s ‘ Nieuwe Telkonst’ (§ 4) at Gouda, giving also
logarithms from Briggs and Gunter; then Vlacq began to calculate logarithms,
and brought them in 1628 to the state in which they now are. There isa table
of logarithms in Norwoop’s ‘ Trigonometrie’ (1631) ; and in 1633 appeared
Ror’s table (§ 4), in which the first four figures of the logarithm are printed
atthe top of the column. This was an advance halfway to the modern arrange-
ment, which was introduced in its present form in Joun Nuwton’s eight-figure
table (1658). On Favrmargr, 1631, and Ovenrrep, 1657, see § 4.
Tables of seyen- and five-figure logarithms are too numerous to notice
here separately. The chief line of descent is Briaes, Viace, Roz, perhaps
Newton, the editions of Sarrwin, Garpiner; and then both Hurron and
Cattet bring down the succession to the present day. A very fair account
of several logarithmic tables is given by Rogg in section iy. “ Elementar-
Geometrie ” (B) of his ‘Handbuch,’ who added to the books described in this
part of his bibliography a description of the contents. But the reader must
be warned against trusting his accounts, except where he is clearly describing
54, neEPort—1873,
works he has seen. Of seven-figure tables we have found Bansacu as con-
venient as any, and it is nearly free from error ; Catter.and Hurron are also
much used; SHorrreDE and Sane are both conspicuous for giving the multiples
of the differences instead of proportional parts; the latter work also extends
to 200,000 instead of 100,000 as usual. Of five-figure tables Dn Morean’s
(Useful-Knowledge Society) tables are considered the best, and are practically
free from error. We cannot, however, here particularize the advantages of
the different tables, which must be gathered from their full descriptions,
Some of them have, of course, been merely included on account of their his-
torical value. We may here mention that the subject of errors in these tables
will be considered in a subsequent Report.
Vega (p. iii of the Introduction to the ‘ Thesaurus,’ 1794) says that Vlacq’s
‘ Arithmetica’ (1628) and ‘ Trigonometria’ (1633) were printed at Pekin in
1721, under the title “Magnus Canon Logarithmorum, tum pro sinibus ac
tangentibus ad singula dena secunda, tum pro numeris absolutis ab unitate ad
100,000. Typis sinensibus in Aula Pekinensi, jussu Imperatoris excusus,
1721” (three volumes folio, on Chinese paper), and that a copy had been ~
offered him for sale two years previously (1792). Montucla (‘ Histoire,’
vol. iii. p. 358) says, the name of the Emperor in question was Kang-hi.
Rogg also (p. 408) confirms Vega, extracting the title from Brunet’s
‘ Manuel du Libraire.’
In the preface to his tables (1849) Mr. Filipowski concludes by a sneering
remark on the Chinese, saying that Mr. Babbage proved, “ as had long been
suspected, from what source those original inventors had derived their
logarithms ;” and we have noticed this tendency to ridicule the Chinese in
this matter as detected plagiarists in others. In point of fact there is no more
plagiarism than when Babbage or Callet publishes a table of logarithms with-
out the name of Vlacq on the titlepage. ‘The first publication in China, we
infer from Rogg, merely professed to be a reprint of Vlacq ; and if logarithms
came into general use, it is natural that they would be published, as with us,
without the original caleulator’s name. The fault is with those who form
preconceived opinions on subjects they have not investigated.
A Turkish table of logarithms is described in § 4. A small table of
logarithms to base 2 is noticed below, under Montrrrater, 1840.
We may mention a little book, ‘Instruction élémentaire et pratique sur
Tusage des Tables de Logarithmes,’ by Prony (Paris, 1834, 12mo), which
explains the manner of using of tables of logarithms &c., adapted to CaLLey,
In many seven-figure tables of logarithms of numbers the values of § and T
are given at the top of each page, with V, the variation of each, for the purpose
: ; sin z
of deducing log sines and tangents. § and T are the values of log ad and
tan v : os
log for the number of seconds denoted by certain numbers (sometimes
a
only the first, sometimes every tenth) in the number-column on each page.
Thus, in Cartier, 1853, on the page of which the first number is 67200,
sin 6720” ad Teloe tan 6720"
"6120 ait eam, 2O1D
each for 10”. To find then, say, log sin 1° 52’ 12'"7, or log sin 6732'"7, we
have S=4-6854980, and log 6732:7=3-8281893, whence, by addition, we
have 85136873; but V for 10" is —2:29; whence the variation for 12':7
is —-3, and the log sine required is 8-5136870, Tables of S and T are fre-
quently called, after their inventor, Delambre’s tables.
It is only since the completion of this Report, and therefore too late to
S=log , while the V’s are the variations of
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 55
make any use of it, that we have received from Professor Bierens de Haan a
copy of a very valuable tract, ‘ Jets over Logarithmentafels,’ extracted from
the ‘ Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Weten-
schappen, Afdeeling Natuurkunde,’ Deel xiv. Amsterdam, 1862, 8vo (pp. 80),
which contains by far the most complete list of authors or editors of loga-
rithmic tables of all kinds, with the dates and places of publication (from 1614
to 1862), that we have seen, and must be nearly perfect. Some remarks are
* made on those of them that de Haan has examined himself; and there is ap-
pended’a valuable index of reference to papers on logarithms that have ap-
peared in any Journal or Society’s Proceedings,
We may also refer to the paper of Gernerth’s noticed under Ruericus,
1596 (§ 3, art. 10), which contains a number of last-figure errors in logarith-
mic and other tables. Gernerth was desirous of ascertaining the care bestowed
on the editing of mathematical tables, and considering that it was best
measured by the accuracy of the last figure, he confined himself to the exa-
mination of this point alone (except in the cases of Ruericus and Prriscvs,
where the first seven or eight figures were included), and detected very many
errors. He altogether examined tables by eighteen authors; but generally,
where the errors were numerous, he has given only five per cent. of those that
he found.
Also, as this sheet is passing through the press, we add references to two
papers in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for
April and May, 1873, “« On the Progress to accuracy of Logarithmic Tables,”
and “On Logarithmic Tables ;” in the former of which the number of Vlacq’s
original errors that were reproduced in succeeding works is discussed, while
the latter contains remarks on logarithmic tables both of numbers and trigo-
nometrical functions. An abstract of the first appears also in the ‘ Journal
of the Institute of Actuaries,’ vol. xvii. pp, 352-354.
Briggs, 1617. Logarithms of numbers from unity to 1000 to 14 places
of decimals. This was the first table of Briggian logarithms calculated or
published. Neither author’s name nor date nor place appears on the title-
page of the work, which is a mere tract of 16 pp. (at all events in the Brit.
Mus. copy) ; but that it was published by Briggs in 1617 is beyond doubt
(see ‘ Phil. Mag.’ loc. cit. below).
The preface concludes with the motto “ In tenui; sed non tenuis fructusve
laborve.” On the work see the introductory remarks to this Article, and
also ‘Phil. Mag.’ December (Supplementary No.) 1872. It is stated by
Hutton and all the other writers to be an 8-place table; but it really is as
described above. One reason for the universal error is that copies are so
extremely rare that we have only been able to see one *, viz. that in the British
Museum, in the catalogue of which it is entered under Logarithms, and
marked as of [1695?]. The book is not in the printed Bodleian Catalogue. It
is peculiarly interesting as being the first publication of decimal logarithms.
Nearly all the descriptions and bibliographies will be found very erroneous,
several confounding it with Wright’s translation of Narrer’s ‘Canon’ (see
§ 3, art. 17).
Briggs, 1624. Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 20,000, and from 90,000
to 100,000, to 14 places, with interscript differences. The characteristics to
the logarithms are given ; and this has led to the table being sometimes erro-
neously described as being to 15 places. The table occupies 300 pages.
* We think we remember to have met with another among the Birch MSS. in the
British Museum,
56 nEPORT— 1873.
Several lists of crrata in this work have been given-—viz. by Virace
in his ‘ Arithmetica,’ by Saurwrn in his tables, by Vues (folio, 1794), by
Lurorr (‘ Annales de ’Observatoire de Paris’). The introduction occupies
88 pages, and is in Latin.
In some copies there is an additional chiliad added, so that the range of
the second portion of the table is from 90,000 to 101,000 ; and there is a
table of square roots of numbers up to 200, to 10 places, occupying the last
two pages: these copies are very rare. There is one in the Library of
Trinity College, Cambridge, with the following note in it by Dr. Brinkley :—
«This is a very scarce copy, having an addition very rarely to be met
with. Vide Hutton’s preface to his ‘ Logarithms,’ p. 33, who could never
find a copy with the addition.” Mr. Merrifield has also one of these
copies.
On this work see the introductory remarks to this Article.
Tables du Cadastre. On the proposition of Carnot, Prieur, and Brunet,
the French Government decided in 1784 that new tables of sines, tangents,
&e., and their logarithms, should be calculated in relation to the centesimal
division of the quadrant. Prony was charged with the direction of the work,
and was expressly required ‘ non seulement 4 composer des Tables qui ne lais-
sassent rien a désirer quant 4 V’exactitude, maisa en faire le monument de caleul
le plus vaste et le plus imposant qui eut jamais été exécuté ou méme congu,”—
an order faithfully carried out. Prony divided the calculators &c. into three
sections: the first consisted of five or six mathematicians (including Legendre),
who were engaged in the purely analytical work, or the calculation of the
fundamental numbers; the second section consisted of seven or eight caleu-
lators possessing some mathematical knowledge ; and the third comprised
the ordinary computers, 70 or 80 in number. The work, which was done
wholly in duplicate, and independently by the two divisions of computers,
occupied two years.
As a consequence of the double calculation, there are two manuscripts in
existence, one of which has been long deposited in the Archives of the Obser-
vatory ; the other, though supposed to be in the Archives of the Bureau des
Longitudes, was in reality in the possession of Prony’s heirs, by whom it was
presented to the Library of the Institute in 1858.
Each of the two manuscripts consists essentially of 17 large folio volumes,
the contents being as follows :-—
Logarithms of numbers to 200,000 .............0008- 8 vols
ANDI BAL GUNS. cyte Metin Ry: tr aus 5 sf Gt goto, = bck bas “cae 1 yol.
Logarithms of the ratios of ares to sines from 02:00000 to Sunt
02:05000, and log sines throughout the quadrant .. ore
to 005000, and log tangents throughout the
Logarithms of the ratios of ares to tangents from 0%-00000
4
quadrant i
Cy
It would take too much space to state the intervals &c. in detail. Speaking
generally, the trigonometrical functions are given for every hundred-thousandth
of the quadrant (10" centesimal or 3':24 sexagesimal). The tables were all
calculated to 14 places, with the intention of publishing only 12 ; but M. Le-
fort, who has recently examined them, states that the twelfth figure may be in
error by as much as 0°8 of a unit in this place, though a little additional care
would have rendered it more accurate. The Institute copy has also a table of the
first 500 multiples of certain sines and cosines; and the Observatory copies
have an introduction containing, among several other subsidiary tables, the first.
ON MATUEMATICAL TABLES, 57
26 powers of - to 28 figures. It may be mentioned that the logarithms of
10,000 primes were calculated to 19 places, and the natural sines for every
minute (centesimal) to 22 places. This account of the ‘Tables du Cadastre’
has been abridged from a memoir by M. Lefort, in t. iv. (pp. [123]-[150]) of
the ‘ Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris’ (1858), where an explanation of the
methods of calculation, with the formule &c., is given. The printing of the
table of natural sines was once begun. M. Lefort says that he has seen six
copies, all incomplete, although including the last page. De Morgan also men-
tions that he had seen some of the proofs. Babbage compared his table with
the ‘Tables du Cadastre ;’ and M. Lefort has given, by means of them, most
important lists of errors in Viace and Briees; but these are almost the only
uses that have been made of tables the calculation of which required so great
an expenditure of time and money. “In 1820,” says De Morgan, “a dis-
tinguished member of the Board of Longitude, London, was instructed by our
Government to propose to the Board of Longitude of Paris to print an abridg-
ment of these tables, at the joint expense of the two countries. £5000 was
named as the sum which our Government was willing to advance for this
purpose ; but the proposal was declined” (Peuny Cyclopedia, Article
“ Prony”). The value of the logarithms of numbers is now materially
lessened by Mr. Sang’s seven-figure table from 20,000 to 200,000 (see
Sane, 1871, in this Article).
Rogg (p. 241) gives the title “‘ Notice sur les grandes tables logarithm. et
trigonom. calculées au Bureau du Cadastre,” Paris, an IX. (=1801), and
on the subject gives a reference to Benzenberg’s ‘ Angewandte Geom.’ iii.
. 507.
" Hiill, 1799. Five-figure logarithms from 1 to 100 and from 1000 to
10,000, printed at full length, and with characteristics—no differences
(pp. 28-38). The author was an accountant; and the table was intended
for commercial purposes, its use in which is explained in the book,
Reishammer, 1800. These are commercial logarithms, intended for
merchants &c. When the number is less than unity, the logarithm of its
reciprocal (which the author calls the logarithme négatif) is tabulated; if
greater than unity, its own logarithm (logarithme positif). The first table
(which only occupies 2 pages) gives the logarithmes néyatifs of the frac-
tions from =}, to 1, at intervals of =3, to 5 places (the characteristics are
given, and not separated from the other figures). This is followed by the
principal table, which occupies 117 pages. On the first page are given the
logarithmes négatifs of 128 fractions, viz. of all proper fractions whose deno-
minators are 60, 48, 40, or 32, arranged in order thus:—,1,, 34, +4, sa alo
...-47, 38, 80. The rest of the logarithms are positifs; and the argu-
ments proceed from 1 to 111, with the 128 fractions just described inter-
mediate to cach integer. Thus we have 1,4, 144, &e., 244, 225, &e., as
arguments. ‘The arguments then proceed from 111 to 207 at intervals of
lz, from 207 to 327 at intervals of 7, thence to 807 at intervals of 3, and
from 808 to 10,400 at intervals of unity,—all to 5 places. The characteristics
are given throughout. A page of proportional parts is added.
There are besides several small tables, to facilitate the calculations, only
one of which requires notice. It gives on a folding sheet the 128 fractions
previously described, expressed as fractions with denominators 100 and 10,
and also (when the numerator is integral) expressed as fractions with de-
nominators 60, 48, 40, 32, 30, 24, 20, 16, 15, 12, 8, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. Thus ay
=10;+100, and=1,3,+10; as it cannot be expressed in lower terms
58 _ RePoRT—1873.
(or higher terms with any of the above denominators), it only appears as 5 in
the 48 column.
In reference to a work by Girtanner (1794) which we have not seen, but
which appears to be very similar to the present, De Morgan justly remarks,
* But it will not do: Mohammed must go to the mountain. When coin-
age, weights, and measures are decimalized, the use of logarithms will follow
as a matter of course,. It is useless trying to bring logarithms to ordinary
fractions.”
Rees’s Cyclopzedia (Art. “ Logarithms,” vol. xxi.), 1819. Seven-figure
logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, with differences ; arranged in
groups of five.
Schron, 1838. Three-figure logarithms to 1400, and five-figure logarithms
to 14,000, with corresponding degrees, minutes, &c., and proportional parts.
Of the 20 pages 4 are occupied with explanations &c, The arrangement is as
in seven-figure tables.
Steinberger, 1840. The titlepage is misleading ; the logarithms do not
extend from 1 to 1,000,000, but only from 1 to 10,000. The only pretext
for giving 1,000,000 as the limit is that, of course, two additional figures may
be obtained by interpolation; but on this principle ordinary seven-figure
tables should be described as extending, not to 100,000, but to 10,000,000.
The first five figures of the logarithms are printed in larger type than, and
separated by an interval from, the last two, so that the table may be more
conveniently used either as a five- or seven-figure table; the change of
figure is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to all the logarithms affected. The
figures, though large, are not clear, the appearance of the page being dazzling ;
the 6’s and 9’s also seem too large for the other figures, and after all are not
very readily distinguishable from the 0’s. No ditferences or proportional
parts are given.
Montferrier’s Mathematical Dictionary, 1840. Under the Article
“Logarithmes,” in t. iii. (the supplementary volume) is given a table of four=
figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 10,000 (pp. 271-279),
In the same volume (p. 252, facing ietter L) is given a table of logarithms
of the numbers from 1 to 420 to base 2 to five places, the only table of the
kind we have met with.
' Babbage, 1841. Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1200 and
from 10,000 to 108,000, with differences and proportional parts (the last
8000 are given to 8 places). Degrees, minutes, and seconds are also added,
but they are divided from the numbers by a thick black line, and are printed
in somewhat smaller type, so that they are not so obtrusive as in CALLer and
others. On the last page there are a few constants.
Great pains were taken with the preparation of this table (which is stereo-
type), with the view of ensuring the maximum of clearness &c., and with
success. The change of figure in the middle of the block is marked by a
change in type in the fourth figure in all the logarithms affected. This is,
we think, with the exception of the asterisk, the best method that has been
used. The chief defect, or rather point capable of improvement, is that the
three leading figures in the logarithms are not separated, or in any way dis-
tinguished, from the rest of the figures in the block, as is the case in Callet
and others. The table was read (wholly or partially) altogether nine times
with different tables of logarithms (four of these readings were made after the
stereotyping), and is no doubt all but perfectly correct.
One feature of this table is that every last figure that has been increased is
marked with a dot subscript.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 59
We know of only two errors: viz., in log 52943 the last figure should be
5 instead of 6 ; and in log 102467 the last two figures should be 02 instead of
92. The occurrence of the former of these errors is very remarkable, as the
logarithm is correct in Vega (folio, 1794), with which the table was read
twice (see Sang, ‘Atheneum,’ June 8, 1872, and Glaisher, ‘ Atheneum,’
June 15, 1872, or ‘Journal of the Institute of Actuaries,’ July 1872 and
January 1873). The latter is given in Gould’s (American) ‘ Astronomical
Journal,’ vol. iv. p. 48.
Copies of the book were printed on papers of different colours—yellow,
brown, green, &c., as it was considered (no doubt justly) that black on a
white ground fatigues the eye more than any other combination*, Yellow
or light brown seem the colours most preferred by computers, green not being
very satisfactory.
In the preface to his tables (1849), Mr. Finrpowsx1 writes :—“ Babbage’s
‘Tables of Logarithms,’ which probably are the most accurate of all; for, by
the aid of his ingenious calculating machine, he was enabled to detect a
variety of errors in former tables.” This is untrue.
[Scheutz, 1857.] Five-figure logarithms, from 1000 to 10,000, caleu-
lated and printed by Scheutz’s calculating machine: specimens of a
few other tables are added, A history and description of the machine &c,
is given.
Sang, 1859. Five-figure logarithms, from 1000 to 10,000, arranged as
in a seven-figure table ; no differences.
Gray, 1865. The table in this tract is rather an auxiliary table to
facilitate the calculation of logarithms to twelve places, than a table itself.
The tables at the end of the work (see p. 2 of the Introduction) give
log (1+:001n), log (1+:001°n), log (1+-001°n), from n=0 to n=999, at
intervals of unity, to twelve places. The use of the sequantities in the cal-
culation of logarithms is well-known (see, ¢. g., Introduction to SaHorrREpE’s
Tables, yol. i. 1849). Pages 43-55 are occupied with the history of the
method, and will be found valuable and interesting. The rest of the book
is devoted to explanations &c. ~
Weddle’s method of calculating the logarithms of numbers by resolving
them into the reciprocals of series of factors of the form 1—-1"r, being a
digit, and then using a subsidiary table of the logarithms of these factors, is
fully explained, as also are some improved methods of Mr. Gray’s own,
depending substantially on the same principle; and all are illustrated with
full numerical examples. The whole constitutes the most complete account
of the simplest and best of the known methods for the calculation of isolated
logarithms that we have met with; and any one engaged on work of this
kind would do well to consult it. Of course for calculating a table, the
method of differences, as Mr, Gray remarks, is the best. A portion of this
tract appeared in the ‘ Mechanics’ Magazine’ for 1848; and the whole is
reprinted from the ‘Assurance Magazine and Journal of the Institute of
Actuaries.’
_Pineto, 1871. This work consists of three tables; the first (Table
auxiliaire) contains a series of factors by which the numbers whose logarithms
are required are to be multiplied to bring them within the range of
Table 2, and occupies three pages. It also gives the logarithms of the
_ reciprocals of the factors to twelve places. Table 1 merely gives logarithms
to 1000, to ten places. Table 2 gives logarithms from 1,000,000 to 1,011,000,
_ * “Of all the things that ate meant to be read, a black monumental inscription on white
marble in a bright light is about the most diflicult.”——De Morgan, _
60 REPORT—1873.
to ten places; the left-hand pages contain the logarithms, and the right-
hand pages the proportional parts, which are given for eyery hundredth
of the differences. 'The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk; and
the last figure is underlined when it has been increased.
The mode of using the tables is as follows :—If the first figures of the
number lie between 1000 and 1011, the logarithm can be taken out directly
from table 2; if not, a factor M is found from the auxiliary table, by which
the number must be multiplied in order to make its initial figures lie between
these limits, and so bring it within the range of table 2. After performing
this multiplication the logarithm can be taken out; and to neutralize the
effect of the multiplication, as far as the result is concerned, log (=) must
be added ; this quantity is therefore given in an adjoining column to M in
the auxiliary table. A similar procedure gives the number answering to any
logarithm, only that another factor (approximately the reciprocal of M) is
given, so that in both cases multiplication is used.
The laborious part of the work is the multiplication by the factor M ;
but this is compensated to a great extent by the ease with which, by the
proportional parts, the logarithm is taken out. Great pains have been taken
to choose the factors M (which are 300 in number) so as to minimize this
labour ; and of the 300 only 25 consist of three figures all different and not
involving 0 or 1. Whenever it was possible, factors containing two figures
alike or containing a 0, or of only one or two figures, have been found. The
process of taking out a logarithm is rather longer than if Vuace or Vrea
were used; but, on the other hand, the size of this book (only about 80 pp.
8vo) is a great advantage, both of the former works being large folios. Also
both Vlacq and Vega are so scarce as to be very difficult to procure; so that
Pineto’s table will be often the only ten-figure table available for any one who
has not access to a good library; and on this account it is unique. Though
the principle of multiplying by a factor, which is subsequently cancelled by
subtracting its logarithm, is frequently employed in the construction of tables,
this is, we believe, the first instance in which it forms part of the process of
using the table. By taking the numbers to 12 instead of 10 places, in a
manner explained in the introduction, greater accuracy in the last place
is ensured than results from the use of Vlacq or Vega. It is not stated
whether the table is stereotyped ; so we presume it is not.
On the last page (p. 56) are given the first hundred multiples of the
modulus and its reciprocal to 10 places. (Notices and examples taken from
Pincto’s tables will be found in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Mathematics’ for
October 1871, and the ‘ Messenger of Mathematics’ for July 1872.)
Sang, 1871. Ten-figure logarithms, from 1 to 1000, and seven-figure
logarithms, from 20,000 to 200,000, with differences and multiples (not pro-
portional parts) of the differences throughout.
The advantages arising from the table extending from 20,000 to 200,000,
instead of from 10,000 to 100,000, are, that whereas in the latter the dif-
ferences near the beginning of the table are so numerous that the propor-
tional parts must either be very crowded or some of them omitted, and even
if they are all given the interpolation is inconvenient, in a table extending
from 20,000 to 200,000 the differences are halved in magnitude, while the
number of them in a page is quartered; the space gained enables multiples
instead of proportional parts to be given.
The table is printed without rules (except one dividing the logarithms
from the numbers); and the numbers are separated from the logarithms by’
7
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 61
reversed commas. The absence of rules docs not appear to us by any
means an unqualified advantage; and a further drawback is that numbers
and logarithms are printed in the same type. The change of figure in the
line is denoted by an Arabic nokta (a sign like the diamond in a pack of cards);
and this, though very clear for 0’s, leaves the other figures unchanged, and
is greatly inferior in all points of view to the simple asterisk prefixed, or the
small figure as used by Basnace.
In spite of these drawbacks the table is very convenient, and has
advantages possessed by no other, as, in addition to the greater case with
which the interpolations can be performed, greater accuracy is obtained—the
last figure being often inaccurate by one or two units in logarithms inter-
polated from the usual seven-figure tables. We find, however, that computers
prefer BanpaGce, except for numbers beginning with 1.
The logarithms of the numbers between 100,000 and 200,000 were caleu-
lated de novo by Mr. Sang, as if logarithms had never been computed before ;
and a very full account of the method and manner in which the calcula-
tions were performed is given by him in the ‘ Edinburgh Transactions,’
vol. xxvi. pt. ili. (1871). This is the only calculation of common logarithms of
numbers since the days of Vlacq, 1628 (except the French manuscript tables).
_ Two errors in the book (which is stereotyped) were pointed out in the
‘ Athenzeum’ for June 8 and 15, 1872, viz. the last figures of log 38962 and
52943 should be 2 and 5 instead of 3 and 6 respectively.
Mr. Peter Gray has kindly communicated to us the following six im-
portant errors which have been discovered and communicated to Mr. Sang
(or found on revision) and circulated by him in certain later copies of his
tables :—
Page 203, log 118536, for 9503 read 8503
5. ap) LOR ALSOB Gr 55119539 .'};, 9 8539
» » log 118538, ,, 9576 ,, 8576
» 220, log 127340, ,, 9348 ,, 9648
» 312, log 173339, ,, 9863 ,, 8963
» 3854, for number 19540 read 19440.
The following is a classified list of the tables of logarithms contained in
works that are described in § 4:—
Tables of Logarithms of Numbers (to more than 20 places),—Smarp,
1717 [T. IV.] (61 places) ; Saerwin, 1741.[T. I.] and ['T. I1.] (61 places) ;
Hoserr and Inerer, 1799 ['T. III.] (86 places); Byrne, 1849 ['T. IV.]
(50 places); Carrer, 1853 ['T. III.], I. and II. (61 places); Hurron, 1858,
T. 5 and 6 (61 places, early editions only); Parxuursr, 1871, T. IL., III.,
and IX. (102 places), and T. XVIII. (61 places).
(To 20 places) Garvrner, 1742, and (Avignon) 1770 [T. IV.] and [T. V.];
Parxuovrst, 1871, T. XIII. and XIV.
(To 15 places) Doveras, 1809, T. TV., Supplement.
(To 11 places) Borpa and Drramsre, 1800 or 1801 [T. II.]; Koutmr,
1848 [T. III.}; Carter, 1853 [T. II.], I. and IL; Hover, 1858, T. VY.
(table to calculate logarithms); Hurron, 1858, T. IT. and LIT.
(To 10 places) Dz Drcxer, 1626 [T.I.]; Henrton, 1626 [T.I.]; Viace, 1628
and 1631 [T. I.]; Vrace, 1633 [T. II.]; Veca, 1794 [T. I.]; Hanrscnz,
1827, T. IV. ;. *Satomon, 1827, T. VIII.; Parxuvunrsr, 1871, T. XII,
(To 8 places) Joun Newron, 1658 [T. I.]; Hovrr, 1858, T. IV. (table to
calculate logarithms) ; Parxuurst, 1871, T. XX XVII.
(To 7 places) Favimanur (Logarithmi), 1631 ; Norwoop, 1631; Roz, 1633,
62 REPORT—18738.
T. I.; Ovewrren, 1657 [T. II.]; Sir J. Moorn, 1681 [T. I.]; Vxraca,
1681 [T. IL]; Ozanam, 1685; Garpiner, 1742, and (Avignon) 1770
[T. I1.]; Suprwiy, 1741 [T. III.]; Donson, 1747, T. XXXII. ; Hentscuen
(Vuaca), 1757 [T. II.]; Scuvrzn, 1778 [T. I.]; Down, 1789, T. I. ; Tayror,
1792 [T. I.] and [T. II.]; Vzea, 1797, T. I.; Vuea, 1800, T. I.; Borpa
and Drrampre, 1800 or 1801 [T. I.]; Doveras, 1809 [T. I.], and Supple-
ments; Laranpr, 1829 [T. I.]; Hassrzr, 1830 [T. I.]; Gruson, 1832;
T. I.; Turxisn Loearrrums (1834); [De Morean] 1839 [T. I1.]; Fanrtey,
1840, T. II.; Hitssn’s Vuea, 1840, T. I.; Trorrer, 1841 [T. IX.];
Snorrrepe (Tables), 1844, T. I.; Miysmycer, 1845 [T.1.]; Konner, 1848
[T. I.]; Ssorrrepn, 1849, T. I.; Wrrricn, 1853, T. XX.; Carrer, 1853,
T, I.; Bremrxer’s Vues, 1857, T. I.; Hurron, 1858, T. I.; Scurén, 1860,
T. 1.; Wacxersarra, 1867, T. I.; Dupuis, 1868, T. I. and II.); Brouns,
1870, T. I.
(Lo 6 places) Dunn, 1784 [T. I.]; Avams, 1796 [T. I.]; Masxetyne (Re-
quisite Tables, Appendix), 1802, T, III. ; Mackay, 1810, T. XLV.; Waxtzacs,
1815 [T. 1.]; Ducom, 1820, T. XXI.; Lax, 1821, T. XVIII; Kertean,
1821, T. X.; Rrippre, 1824, T. V.; Ursrnvs, 1827 [T. I.]; Garsrarrn,
1827, T. II.; *Sanomon, 1827, T. VII.; J. Tayzor, 1833, T. XVIIL}
Norrg, 1836, T. XXIV. ; Jann, 1837, Vol. I.: Farrey, 1840 ['T. I.}; Trorrer,
1841/[T. I.]; Grirriy, 1843, T. 17; J. Taytor, 1843, T. 4; Rimxer, 1844,
T. I. ; Coreman, 1846, T. XX. ; Rapmr, 1846, T. I.; Domxn, 1852, T. XXXII. ;
Bremixer, 1852, T. I.; Tomson, 1852, T. XXIV.; Rappr, 1857, T. 64;
Brarpmore, 1862, T. 36; Inman, 1871 [T. VII.]}.
(To 5 places) Barns, 1781 [T. I.]; Masxnryne (Requisite Tables), 1802,
T, XVIII.; Bownrren, 1802, T. XVI. ; Latanpz, 1805 [T. I.]; Rios, 1809,
T. XV.; Moors, 1814, T. IV.; De Prassn, 1814 [T. 1.]; Pasavrcn, 1817,
T. I.; Reynavp, 1818 [T. I.]; Scumrpr, 1821 [T. I.]; Sranspury, 1822,
T. X.; [Scnumacuer, 1822?], T. V. (arguments in degrees &c.); Hanrscut,
1827, T. I.; Bacay, 1829, T. XXIII. ; Kourer, 1832 (T. I.]; [De Morean],
1839 [T. I.]; Grecory &e., 1848, T. XI.; Minrmr, 1844 [T. I.]; Srremann,
1855, T. I.; Howzn, 1858, T. I.; Gaterairm and Havenron, 1860 [T. I.],
and [T. II.]; *Scurominem (1865 ?]; Ranxinu, 1866, T. I.; Wackrerparra,
POET, Lee:
(To 4 places) [Encxn, 1828] [T. I.]; [Sneersmanxs 1844] [T. I];
Warnstorrr’s Scuumacuer, 1845 [T. III.]; Hoter, 1858, T. VI.; Anony-
mous [1860 ?] (on acard); Orprorzer, 1866.
See also Suorrrupr (Comp. Log. Tab.), 1844; Parxuvrsr, 1871, T.
XXVII, and XXVIII.
Art. 14. Tables of Antilogarithis.
Tn the ordinary tables of logarithms the natural numbers are all integers,
while the logarithms tabulated are only approximate, most of them being
incommensurable. Thus interpolation is in general necessary in order to
find the number answering to a given logarithm, even to five figures. It
was natural therefore to form a table in which the logarithms were exact
quantities, ‘00001, ‘00002, -00003.... to 99999, &c., and the numbers in-
commensurable. Few of such tables have been constructed, as for most
purposes the ordinary tables are sufficiently convenient, and computers much
prefer to have only one work to refer to, The earliest antilogarithmic table
is Dopson, 1742; and the only others of any extent are Suorrrepr (1844
and 1849) and Finirowsxr (1849), described in §4. Mr. Peter Gray, has
a large twelve-figure antilogarithmic table far advanced towards completion ;
but whether it will be published is uncertain,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 63
Dodson, 1742 (Antilogarithmic Canon). Numbers to eleven places
corresponding to logarithms from 00000 to 1-00000, at intervals of :00001,
arranged like a seven-figure logarithmic table, with interscript differences,
and proportional parts at the bottom of the page. The changes in the fourth
figure in the middle of the column, both in the numbers and the differences,
are marked by points and commas, but not very clearly. There is an intro+
duction of 84 pages ; and the tables occupy about 250 pages.
In page ix of the Introduction an extract is given from Wallis, who states
that Harriot began, and Warner completed, a table of antilogarithms, which
was ready for press fifty years before. This was told Wallis by Dr. Pell, who
had assisted Warner in the calculation ; and Wallis mentions that he had
himself seen the calculation thirty years before, among Harriot’s or Warner’s
papers. Dr. Pell subsequently informed Wallis that the papers were in the
hands of Dr. Busby, and that he (Dr. Pell) hoped to publish them shortly.
Dr. Pell died in 1685; and at the time Wallis wrote Dr. Busby was
also dead, and the printing had not been begun. Speaking of this manu-
seript De Morgan remarks :—“ All our efforts to trace it, by help of published
letters &c., lead to the conclusion that, if existing, it must be among Lord
Macclesfield’s unexamined manuscripts at Shireburn Castle: this is by no
means improbable.” See, however, some additional information and im-
portant remarks by De Morgan, ‘ Budget of Paradoxes’ (1872), pp. 457, 458.
A list of thirty-six errors affecting the first eight figures in Dodson’s
canon is given by Frrrrowsxr in the preface to his ‘ Antilogarithms’ (1849).
Mr. Peter Gray (‘ Insurance Record, June 9, 1871) says that in 1847 he had
collected a list of 125 errors in Dodson ; these he communicated to SHoRTREDE,
and they were corrected in the plates of his tables (1849). Dodson’s work
is unique of its kind, and it remained the only antilogarithmic canon for
more than a century after its completion, till in 1844 SHorrrepE published
the first edition of his tables ; in 1849 he published his second edition; and
in the same year Frtrpowsxr’s tables appeared.
For hyperbolic antilogarithms (viz. e* and e~*) see under miscellaneous
tables (§ 3, art. 25).
The following are antilogarithmic tables described in § 4:—
Antilogarithmic Tables—Garviner, 1742, and (Avignon) 1770 [T. VI.]
(20 places); Donson, 1747, T. XXXIII.; [Suerrsuanns, 1844] (T. VIL];
Snorrrepe (Comp. Log. Tab.), 1844; Snorrrepe (tables), 1844, T. II., and
1849, T. II. ; Fri1rowsxr, 1849, T. I. ; Carrer, 1853([T. IT. ], III. ; Sreamwany,
1855, T. II.; Howrr, 1858, T. VI.; Hurron, 1858, T. IV.; Anonymous
[1860 ?] (on a card); Parxuvrsr, 1871, T. XXVII., XXVIII, and XXXV.
Art. 15. Tables of (Briggian) Logarithmic Trigonometrical Functions.
A general account of the introduction of Briggian logarithms is given in
§ 3, art. 13; and Naprer’s ‘ Canon Mirificus’ (1614), containing a Napierian
logarithmic canon, is described in § 3, art. 17. The first table of decimal
logarithms of numbers was published by Briecs in 1617, and the first
(decimal) logarithmic canon by Gunrer in 1620 (see below), giving the
results to 7 places. The next calculation was by Vuaca, who appended to
his ‘ Centum Chiliades’ in the ‘ Arithmetica’ of 1628 a minute logarithmic
canon to 10 places, obtained by calculating the logarithms of the sines &e.
of Ruericus. After the publication of his ‘ Arithmetica’ in 1624, Brices
deyoted himself to the calculation of logarithmic sines &c., and at his death
in 1631 had all but completed a ten-decimal canon to every hundredth of a
64 REPORT—1873.
degree. This was published by Vlacq at his own expense at Gouda in
1633, under the title ‘ Trigonometria Britannica’ (see below): the intro-
duction was written by Gellibrand, by whose name the book is sometimes
cited. In the same year Vuace published his ‘Trigonometria Artificialis,’
containing a ten-second canon to ten decimals. Gunrer’s original table
contains a good many errors in the last figures; and a very slight comparison
shows whether any particular table was copied from Gunrer or VuAce;
Henrton, 1626, and pz Decker, 1626 (§ 4), are from the former, FavLHaBER
(§ 4), 1631, from the latter. Briggs appreciated clearly the advantages of
a centesimal division of the quadrant, and, by taking a hundredth of a degree
instead of a minute, made a step towards a reformation in this respect;
and Hutton has truly remarked that, but for the appearance of Vuace’s
work, the decimal division of the degree might have become recognized,
as is the case with the corresponding division of the second*.
The next great advance on the ‘ Artificialis’ was more than a century and
a half afterwards, when Micwarr Taytor (1792) published his seyen-decimal
canon to every second (§ 4). On account of its great size, and for other reasons,
it never came into very general use, Bacay’s 1829 (§ 4) being preferred ;
the latter is now, however, very difficult to procure. The only other canon
to every second we have seen or heard of is Suorrrepr’s, 1844 and 1849
($ 4), which is the most complete as regards proportional parts &e. that we
know of. The canon is in modern editions issued separately.
_ Lalande (‘ Encyclopédie Méthodique. Mathématiques,’ Ast. Tables) states
that in April 1784 he received from M. Robert, curé of St. Genevieve at
Toul, a volume of sines for every second of the quadrant, and soon after
the tangents; but he had heard that Tayzor, in England, was engaged in
publishing log sines and cosines to every second, and that the Board of
Longitude had contributed £300 to the expense. These volumes were pur-
chased by Babbage at the sale of Delambre’s library, and they appear in the
Babbage Catalogue (only the title of the table of sines is given; but it is to
be presumed that the library contains both, as two volumes are spoken of).
Babbage lent them in 1828 to the Board of Longitude; and some errata in
Tarytor, 1792, were found by means of them. [They are now (1873) in the
possession of Lord Lindsay, who has purchased the whole of Mr. Babbage’s
mathematical library. |
No ten-decimal canon to every second has been calculated. The French
manuscript tables are described in § 3, art. 13. Of logarithmic trigonometrical
canons that have appeared the number is very great. We may especially
mention Catiur, 1853; Brewrkrr’s Vuea, 1857; Hurroy, 1858; Scurén,
1860 ; Dupuis, 1868 ; and Bruuys, 1870.
*-'The centesimal division of the degree is of paramount importance, whereas the cente-
simal division of the right angle is of next to none at all; and had the French mathemati-
cians at the end of the last century been content with the former, it is not unlikely that their
tables would have superseded the sexagesimal ones still in use, instead of having been almost
totally ignored by computers. Thehundredth part of a right angle is almost as arbitrary a
unit as the ninetieth ; and no advantage (but on the contrary great inconvenience) would re-
sult from the change ; but to divide the nonagesimal degree into centesimal minutes, and these
into centesimal seconds, &c., in other words to measure angles by degrees and decimals of
a degree, would ensure all the advantages of a decimal system (a saving of work in interpo-
lations, multiplications, &e.), This Briggs and his followers, Roe, Oughtred, John Newton,
&e., perceived and acted upon two hundred and fifty years ago; and they seem to have
shown a truer appreciation of the matter than did the French mathematicians. It ma
be taken for granted that the magnitude of the degree will never be altered; but there is
no reason why sexagesimal minutes and seconds should not be replaced by decimals of a
degree ; and this is a change which might, and we hope will hereafter be made.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 65
The chief tables in which the angle is divided completely centesimally are
Carter 1853, Borpa and Dretampre, and Honerr and Ipeter.
For the meaning of § and T (Delambre’s tables), see § 3, art. 13, near the
end of the introductory remarks.
Gunter, 1620. Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant
(semiquadrantally arranged) to 7 places. This is the first (Briggian) loga-
rithmic trigonometrical canon calculated or published. The book is ex-
tremely scarce ; and we have only seen one copy of it, viz. that in the British
Museum, where it is bound up with Briees’s ‘ Logarithmorum Chilias Prima.’
There is engraved on the titlepage a diagram of a spherical triangle, S P Z.
De Morgan (who had never seen a copy) says that it also contains logarithms
of numbers as far as 1000; but this is not correct. The British-Museum copy
has written in ink on the titlepage, “ Radius autem verus est 10,000,000,000.”
This has reference to the fact that the logarithm of the radius is taken
to be 10, and is true in one sense, but not in the usual one, which
is that, this being the radius, the sines &c. are true to the nearest unit.
Custom has very properly decided to consider the radius of a logarithmic
canon the same as what would be the radius of the resulting natural canon
‘if the logarithms were replaced by their numbers. We have not seen the
second edition, in which no doubt the logarithms of numbers mentioned
by De Morgan were added; or it is just possible that some copies of
Briaas’s ‘ Chilias’ (1617) were issued with the ‘Canon,’ both being bound
together in the copy we have seen, and that this has given rise to the
assertion. GunrTrr’s ‘Canon’ was also issued under an English title, ‘ A
Canon of Triangles,’ &c. (Bodleian Catalogue): see Phil. Mag. (Suppl. No.)
Dec. 1872. For a life of Gunter, see Ward’s ‘ Lives of the Professors of
Gresham College,’ pp. 71-81.
Briggs, 1633 (‘Trigonometria Britannica’). Natural sines (to 15
places) and tangents and secants (to 10 places), also log sines (to 14
places) and tangents (to 10 places), at intervals of a hundredth of a degree
from 0° to 45°, with interscript differences for all the functions. The
division of the degree is thus centesimal; but the corresponding argu-
ments in minutes and seconds are also given, the intervals so expressed
being 36”.
This table was calculated by Briggs; but he did not live to publish it. The
trigonometry is by Gellibrand.
Gunter, 1673. At the end of the work is given a table of log sines and
tangents for every minute of the quadrant to 7 places, followed by seven-
figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000.
The table of log sines &c. is printed as it appeared in Guyrmr’s ‘ Canon
Triangulorum,’ 1620, as the last figures in very many instances differ from
the correct values, which were first given by Vuace in the ‘ Arithmetica’ &c.
1628). '
( Th is the fifth edition of Gunter’s works; but we remember to have seen
it stated somewhere that the works themselves (separate) were regarded
as the first edition in this enumeration.
Berthoud, 1775. At the end of the ‘ Recueil des Tables nécessaires
pour trouver la longitude en mer,’ is a table of log sines to every minute of
the quadrant to 6 places (pp. 25-34).
Callet, 1827 (‘ Log Sines &c.’). Log sines and tangents for every second
to 5°, and log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from 0° to 45°, at
intervals of ten seconds, with differences, all to seven places.
1873. F
66 ~ REPorT—18738.
- These are the same as Carter 1853 [T. IX. and X.] (§ 4), and were pub-
lished separately, De Morgan states, to accompany Babbage’s logarithms of
numbers ; they are in consequence printed on yellow paper ; but it is, both
in colour and texture, very inferior to that used by Babbage.
Airy, 1838. Log sines and cosines from 0" to 24", at intervals of
10° fo 5 places. The proper sign is prefixed to each quantity.: no differ-
ences. The sines are on the left-hand pages, the cosines on the right-hand.
As was remarked by De Morgan, this is an eightfold repetition of one
table: it occupies 48 pp. The table is improperly described as having been
“ computed under the direction” &c.; it is, of course, only a simple re-
arrangement.
The following is a complete classified list of tables on the subject of
this article contained in the works that are described in § 4, with several
other lists appended.
Log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines—(To 7 places) WiLticH,
1853, T. B; Hurron, 1858, T. IX.
(To 5 places) Rros, 1809, T. XVI. (also log coversed &c.).
| Log sines, tangents, and secants—(To 10 places) Vuace, 1628 and 1631
[T. IL.]; Favrmanrr (Canon), 1631.
(To 7 places) Sir J. Moorr, 1681 [T, III.]; Saerwry, 1741 [T. IV.];
ini and Drtamsre, 1800 or 1801, T. VI. (centesimal); Doveras, 1809
AL].
(To 6 places) Dunn, 1784 [T. II.]; Avams, 1796 [T. IL]; Waxtacs,
1815 [T. I1.]; J. Taynor, 1833, T. XTX. ; Norrg, 1836, T. XXV.; Trorrer,
1841 [T. IU.]; Grirrm, 1843, T.18; J. Taytor, 1843, T.5; Riitmer,
1844, T. II.; Cotrmman, 1846, T. XXIII.; Raper, 1846, T. IV. ; Domxz,
1852, T. XXXV.; Rapzr, 1857, T. 68; Inman, 1871 [T. IV.].
(To 5 places) Masxrryne (Requisite Tables), 1802, T. XIX.; Bow.
prrcH, 1802, T. XVII.; Moorr, 1814, T. V.'; Garsrarrn, 1827, T. V.;
Greeory &e., 1843, T. IX.; Hower, 1858, T. I.
(To 4 places) Gornon, 1849, T. IX. (cosecants),
Log sines and tangents (only).—(To 11 places) BorpA and Detampre, 1800 .
or 1801 [T. III.] (centesimal), and [T. V.] (logarithmic differences of sines
and tangents).
(To 10 places) Vrace, 1633 [T. I.]; Ror, 1633, T. I. (centesimal
division of the degree) ; Vrea, 1794, T. II.
(To 8 places) Joun Newron, 1658 [T. II.] and [T. III.] (arguments
partly centesimal), a
(To 7 places) pz Decker, 1626 [T. I1.]; Hennton, 1626 [T. II.]; Norwoop;
1631; Vuaca, 1681 [T.I.]; Ozanam, 1685; Garpryer, 1742, and (Avignon),
1770 [T. II.]; Dovsoy, 1747, T. XXXIV.; Huntscnmn (Vuace), 1757
[T. I.]; Scnvrzr, 1778 [T. III] and [T. V.]; Donn, 1789, T. IIL;
Tayzor, 1792 [T. I1I.]; Veea, 1797, T. 11.; Lawszrr, 1798, T. XXVL;
Hoserr and Inerer, 1799 [T. I.] (centesimal) ; Veca, 1800, T. IT.; (?) *Saxo-
won, 1827, T. IX.; Bacay, 1829, Appendix; Latanpr, 1829 [T. II];
Hasster, 1830 [T. IL.-IV.]; Gruson, 1832, T. VII.; Turxisn noGaRrrraus
[1834]; Hixssn’s Veca, 1840, T. IL; Sxorrrepe (Tables), 1844, T. II.,
and 1849, Vol. II. ; Kéuzer, 1848 [T. [V.]; Carer, 1853 [T. VI.] (cente-
simal), (T. IX.] and [T. X.]; Bremrxer’s Veea, 1857, T. II. and II1.;
Hvrron, 1858, T. VIII.; Scuréy, 1860, T. I. ; Dupvis, 1868, T. VI., VIL,
and VIIT.; Brunys, 187 0, T. II. and III. LS
- (To. 6 places) Ovenrrnp, 1657 [T. I.] (centesimal division of degree) ;
Dvcom, 1820, T..IX.; Unstyvs, 1827 [T. IL] and [T, V.]; J, Tarnon, 1833,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 67
T. XIX.; Norm, 1836, T. XXV.; Jamn, 1837, Vol. Il.; Fartry, 1840
[T. I1.]; J. Taytor, 1843, T.5; Rimxer, 1844; Domxz, 1852, T. XXXIV. ;
Bremrxer, 1852, T. I,
(To 5 places) Barus, 1781 [T. IL.]; Latanpz, 1805, T. II,; De Prassz,
1814(T. II.]; Pasavicen, 1817, T. II.; Reynavp, 1818 [T. I1.]; Scummz,
1821 [T. Il.]; Kourer, 1832 [T. II.]; [De Morean], 1839 [T, IIL.];
Gatprairn and Haventon, 1860 [T. III.]; Wackxernarrn, 1867, T. II.
(To 4 places) [Encxz, 1828] T. II.; Brevertey (18337), T. XVIL.;
Mitier, 1844 [T. IV.]; [Sueersnanxs, 1844] [T. ILL]; Wanrnsrorrr’s
Scnumacuer, 1845 [T. IV.]; Tuomson, 1852, T, XVI.; Opronzer, 1866;
Parxuorst, 1871, T. XXX. and XXXI.
piper.) SHortREDE (Comp. Log. Tab.) 1844.
og sines and secants (only).—(To 5 places) Sransgury, 1822, T,. H,
Log sines (alone*) (for small arcs, sines = tangents)—(To 7 places)
Garpiner, 1742 [T. II.], and (Avignon) 1770 [T. IL.]; Huxssn’s Vuea, 1840,
T. I.; Kouter, 1848 [T. IV.].
(To 6 places) Mackay, 1810, T. XLVI.; Kerrean, 1821, T, VIII;
Hawnrsonzt, 1827, T. II.; Farney, 1840 [T. III.]; Rarnr, 1846, T, III. ;
Raper, 1857, T. 66 and 67 ; Bearpmorz, 1862, T. 37 ; Inuay, 1871['T. III],
(To 5 places) [ScoumacuER, 1822?]'T. VI.; [Dr Morean] 1839 [T. IV, |;
Raprr, 1846, T. I]. ; Tomson, 1852, T. XII.
(To 4 places) (Sunersnanns, 1844](T.IT.]; Parxuvurst, 1871,T. XX XVIII.
(ixpressed otherwise) Acapémin DE Prussn, 1776 [T. I.]; Cater, 1853
(T. VII.] (centesimal) (15 places).
Log tangents (alone*) (for small ares, sines = tangents).—(To 7 places)
Garprver (Avignon), 1770 ['T. II.].
(To 6 places) Mackay, 1810, T, XLVII.; Hantscun, 1827, T. III.
Log versed sines (alone).—(To 7 places) Sir J. Moorn, 1681 [T.IV.];
[Sir J. Moorz, 1681, versed sines]; Dovexas, 1809 [T, IV.]; Farury, 1856
T, 41, |.
: (tot places) Rimxmrn, 1844, T. IV.
(To 5 places) Kurican, 1821, T. XI.; J, Tayztor, 1833, T, XXI., and
1843, T. 30.
(To 4 places) Donn, 1789, T. V.
Note.—Log rising (in nautical tables) =log versed sine. See next page,
_ Log secants (alone).—(To 5 places) Tnomson, 1852, T. XI.
Miscellaneous. — Log sec w, + log sec w, and 4 log sin a, Croswett, 1791,
T.1.; log diff. sin., Borpa and Detamsrz, 1800 or 1801 [T. V.] (centesimal) ;
log 3 (1 + cos w), log 3 (1 + sin x) &c., Rios, 1809, T. XVI.; log tan
3 Sranspury, 1822, T. D; log 4 (1 — cos wv) &e., Sranspury, 1822, T. H.;
log 4 (1—cos w), Norte, 1836, T. XXXI.; log $ (1—cos w), Coreman, 1846,
T. XXI.; log 3 (1—cos x), Gorvon, 1849, T. XVIII.; log + (1—cos x),
Tuomson, 1852, T. XIII. ; log cosec w—:54000, Toomson, 1852, T. XV.; log
sin ee Tuomson, 1852, T. XXIII.; log 3 (1—cos w), Rarer, 1857, T. 69;
+ log $ (1—cos w) and log } (1—cos x), Inaan, 1871, T. V. and VI.
The following are tables generally met with in nautical collections :—
Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter-point.—(To 7 places)
-* Tables of sines and tangents are not unfrequently printed with the sines on the versos
and the tangents on the rectos of the leaves, or vice versd, so that practically they are sepa-
rated ; but in such cases the table has usually been regarded merely as one of sines and
tangents, j ps }
F
68 REPORtT—1873.
Noriz, 1836, T. XXIII.; Snorrrepz (Tables), 1844, T. V.; Doxn, 1789,
T. IL. (sines and cosecants only).
(To 6 places) Rupprz, 1824, T. IV.; Garsrarra, 1827, T.IV.; J. Tayror,
1833, T. XVII.; Trorrer, 1841 [T. II.]; Grirri, 1843, T. 16; J. Tayor,
1843, T. 3; Coreman, 1846, T. XIX.; Domxz, 1852, T. XXXII.; Raper,
1857, T. 65.
(To 5 places) Apams, 1796 [T. IiI.]; Bownrren, 1802, T. XVI.; Moore,
1814, T. III.
Log. 4 elapsed time, mid time, and rising.—(To 5 places) Donn, 1789,
T. IV.; Masxetyne (Requisite Tables), 1802, T. XVI.; Bownrrcn, 1802,
fi. 24 8
The three Tables are separated in the following :—(To 5 places) Mackay,
T. XLYIII.-L.; Moors, 1814, T. XXIII.; Norrie, 1836, T. XXVII-—
XXIX. ;. Domxe, 1852, T. XXXVII.-XXXIX.
We have thought it worth while to collect into one list below all the tables,
giving log sines &c. to every second. It must be particularly noticed, how-
ever, that in the great majority of cases only the functions for the first few
degrees of the quadrant are given to every second in the tables referred to,
which should in all cases be sought in § 4.
Tables of logarithmic trigonometrical functions to seconds.—GArvInER,
1742 [T. II.], and (Avignon) 1770 [T. II.]; Scuurze, 1778 [T. III.];
Taytor, 1792, T. III. (for the whole quadrant); Vrees, 1794, T. II.; Vxea,
1797, T. IL.; Vues, 1800, T. II.; Ducom, 1820, T. IX.; Kerican, 1821,
T. VIIL.; [Scuumacuer, 1822?] T. VI.; *Satomon, 1827, T. IX.; Bacay,
1829, Appendix (for the whole quadrant); Hassrer, 1830 [T. II.]; Jann,
1837, Vol. II.; [Dz Morean] 1839 [T. IV.]; Hutssr’s Vuca, 1840, T. IT. ;
Mirier, 1844 [T. IV.]; Sworrrepr (Tables), 1844, T. IIT. and 1849,
Vol. IL. (for the whole quadrant); Rarer, 1846, T. II.; Konner, 1848
[T. IV.]; Domxeg, 1852, T. XXXIV. ; Bremrxer, 1852, T. IL.; Canter, 1853
[T. IX.]; Bremrxer’s Veca, 1857, T. II.; Rarer, 1857, T. 66; Hurron,
1858, T. VIIL.; Wackersarra, 1867, T. Il].; Dupuis, 1868, T. VI. and
VII. ; Bruuys, 1870, T. II. ; Inman, 1871 [T. III.] and [T. VIII}.
We have formed the following lists of tables in § 4, which (not only in the
same work, but side by side in the same table) give both natural and
logarithmic functions :—
Tables containing both natural and logarithmic functions (in the same table).
—(To 15 places) Carter, 1853 [T. VII.] (centesimal).
(To 7 places) Sir J. Moore, 1681 [‘I. III.]; Vuace, 1681 [T. I];
Ozanam, 1685 ; Suerwin, 1741 [T. IV.] and [T. V.]; Hentscuen (Vuca),-
1757 [T. I.]; Scuunze, 1778 [T. V.]; Donn, 1789, T. III. ; Lawnert, 1798,
T. XXVI.; Hozerr and Inerer, 1799 [T.1.] (centesimal) ; Wintrcn, 1853,,
T. B; Hurron, 1858, T. IX.
(To 6 places) Ovenrrep, 1657 [T. I.]; Urstnvs, 1827 [T. V.].
(To 5 places) Hotrr, 1858, T. IT.
(To 4 places) Donn, 1789, T. V.
(Mixed) Bares, 1781 [T. II.]. ;
Natural and log versed sines (in the same table).—(To 7 places) Sir J. Moorn,.
1681 [T. IV.] ; [Sir J. Moorr, 1681, versed sines]; Suerwry, 1741 [T. V.];
Dovetas, 1809, T. LY.
Art. 16. Tables of Hyperbolic Logarithms (viz. logarithms to base 2°71828. . .).
The logarithms invented by Napier, and explained in the ‘Descriptio’
(1614) and ‘Constructio’ (1619) (see § 3, art. 17), were not the same as
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 69
those now called hyperbolic (viz. to base ¢) and very frequently also Napierian
logarithms, It is also to be noticed that Napier calculated no logarithms of
numbers. Joun Srrrpetr, 1619 (see below), first published logarithms to
base ¢ both of numbers and sines. The most complete table of hyperbolic
logarithms is Dasr’s, described below, which could be used, though not so
conveniently, as an ordinary seven-figure Briggian table extending from 1000
to 105,000. It would sometimes be useful to have also a complete seven-
place table of hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 100,000, ex-
actly similar to the corresponding’ Briggian tables, as in some cases it is con-
venient to perform calculations in duplicate, first by Briggian, and then by
hyperbolic logarithms ; and such a table would be of use in multiplying five
figures by five figures; but hyperbolic logarithms cannot be rendered conye-
nient for general purposes,
The most elaborate hyperbolic logarithmic table is Worrram’s, which prac-
tically gives the hyperbolic logarithms of all numbers from unity to 10,000
to forty-eight decimal places. It first appeared, we believe, in ScuuLzE (§ 4),
and was reprinted in Vea, folio, 1794 (§ 4).
Wolfram was a Dutch lieutenant of artillery ; and his table represents six
years of very laborious work. Just before its completion he was attacked by
a serious illness ; and a few logarithms were in consequence omitted in ScuuLze
(see Introduction, last page but two, to vol. i. of Scuuzze). The omissions
were supplied in Vrea’s ‘Thesaurus,’ 1794. De Morgan speaks of Wolfram’s
table as one of the most striking additions that have been made in the sub-
ject of logarithms in modern times.
Montuela (‘ Histoire,’ vol. iii. p. 360) states that in 1781 Alexander Jom-
bert proposed to publish by subscription new tables of hyperbolic logarithms
to 21 places for all prime numbers to 100,000, with a table of all odd numbers
of two factors to the same limit. The author was Dom Valleyre, advised by
Dom Robé, benedictine of St. Maur. Only two hundred subscribers were re-
quired before the commencement of the printing, and nothing was asked in
advance; but the project fell through, no doubt for want of subscribers.
We infer from this account that the table was calculated.
The Catalogue of the Royal Society’s Library contains, under the name of
Prony, the title, “ Formules pour calculer l’effet dune machine 2 vapeur 4
detente et & un seul cylindre.....Tables de logarithmes hyperboliques calcu-
lées de 1002 en 100° dunité, fol. lithog.,” but without any reference to the
place where the book is to be found in the library, so that we have not seen it,
Speidell, 1619. Logarithmic sines, tangents, and secants, semiquadrantally
arranged, to every minute, to five places. The logarithms are hyperbolic (viz.
to base ¢), and the first of the kind ever published. When the characteristic
is negative Speidell adds 10 to it, and does not separate the characteristic so
increased from the rest of the figures by any space or mark, Thus he prints
the logarithm of the sine of 21° 30’ as 899625, its true value being 2-99625 ;
but the logarithm of the cotangent is given as 93163; it would now be
written 93163. The Royal Society has “the 5-impression, 1623,” with the
“ Breefe Treatise of Sphericall Triangles” prefixed, and also some ordinary
hyperbolic logarithms of numbers (the first published) &c. On this see De
Morgan’s long account of Speidell’s works, who, however, had never seen the
edition of 1619, in which the canon occurs by itself without the logarithms
of numbers. We cannot enter into the question of Speidell’s fairness here.
The 1619 copy we have seen (Cambridge Univ. Lib.) has an obliteration
where, in the 1623 copy, there occur the words “ the 5-impression.”
70 : REPORT—1873.
Rees’s Cyclopzedia, 1819 (Art. “ Hyperbolic Logarithms,” vol. xviii.).
Hyperbolic logarithms (to 8 places) of all numbers from 1 to 10,000, arranged
in groups of five.
The table was calculated by Bartow, and appears also in his mathema~-
tical tables (1814).
Dase, 1850 (Hyperbolic Logarithms). Hyperbolic logarithms, from
1 to 1000, at intervals of unity, and from 1000-0 to 10500:0 at intervals
of 0-1 to seven places, with differences and proportional parts, arranged
asin an ordinary seven-figure table. The change of figure in the line is de-
noted by an asterisk prefixed to all the numbers affected. The table is a
complete seven-place table, as by adding log 10 to the results the range
-is from 10,000 to 105,000 at intervals of unity. The table appeared in the
34th part (new series, t. xiv.) of the ‘Annals of the Vienna Observatory’
(1851); but separate copies were printed, in the preface to which Dase gave
six errata. This portion of the preface is reproduced in the introduction by
Littrow to the above volume of ‘ Annals.’ The table was calculated to ten
places, and three rejected. It was the author of this table who also com-
puted the factorial tables ($ 3, art. 8), and calculated the value of m cor-
rectly to 200 decimal places (Crelle’s Journal, t. xxvii. p. 198).
Filipowski, 1857. Hyperbolic logarithms, from 1 to 1201, to 7 places,
are appended to Mr. Filipowski’s English edition of Napier’s ‘ Canon
Mirificus.’
The following is a list of references to § 4 :—
Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers.—(To 48 places) Scuunzy, 1778 [T. I1.];
Vuea, 1794 [T. ITI.]; Cater, 1853 [T. ITT.}, L., and I.
(To 25 places) Lamsrrr, 1798, T. XVI.
(To 20 places) Carter, 1853 ['T. IL.], I. and IT.
(To 11 places) Borpa and Detampre, 1800 or 1801 [T. IV.].
(To 10 places) *Sanomon, 1827, T. VIII.
(To 8 places) Vues, 1797, Vol. II. T. I1.; Bartow, 1814, T. VI. ; Hanr-
scuL, 1827, T. VI.; Httssn’s Vues, 1840, T. VI.; Trorrrr, 1841 [T. XI];
Kouter, 1848, T. I.
(To 7 places) Garprner (Avignon), 1770 [T. VII.]; Lamnrrr, 1798,
T. XITI.-XVI.; Wriiticn, 1853, T. A; Hurron, 1858, T. V. and VI.;
Doruis, 1868, T. IIT.
(To 5 places) Ranxrnz, 1866, T. 3; Wackersarrn, 1867, T. Y.
See also *Scutémrmcn [1865 ?].
Art. 17. Napierian Logarithms (not to base 271828... .).
The invention of logarithms has been accorded to Napier of Merchiston
with a unanimity not often met with in reference to scientific discoveries.
The only possible rival is Justus Byrgius, who seems to have constructed a
rude kind of logarithmic table; but there is every reason to believe that
Napier’s system was conceived and perfected before Byrge’s in point of time;
and in date of publication Napier has the advantage by six years. Further,
Byrge’s system is greatly inferior to Napier’s; and to the latter alone is the
whole world indebted for the knowledge of logarithms, as (with the exception
of Kepler, one of the most enthusiastic of the contemporary admirers of
Napier and his system, who does allude to Byrge) no one ever suggested
any one else as having been the author whence they had drawn their
information, or as haying anticipated Napier at all, till the end of the last
century, when Byrge’s claim was first raised, though his warmest advocates
always assigned far the greater part of the credit of the invention to Napier.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 71
On Byrge’s claim see De Morgan’s careful résumé (article « Tables,” under
Justus Byrgius, 1620, in the ‘Eng. Cyclop.,’ where references are given),
and Mr. Mark Napier’s ‘Memoirs of John Napier of Merchiston,’ Edin-
burgh, 1834 (where the question how far Napier received any assistance
from his predecessors in the discovery is fully discussed), We have also seen
‘Justus Byrg als Mathematiker und dessen Einleitung in seine Logarith-
men,’ by Dr. Gieswald, Dantzig, 1856, 4to (pp. 36). Navrur’s ‘ Canonis
Logarithmorum Mirifici Descriptio’ (which contained the first announcement
and the first table of logarithms) was published in 1614; and in 1619 (two
years after his death, which occurred on April 4, 1617) appeared the ‘ Mirifici
logarithmorum Canonis Constructio,’ edited by his son Robert, in which the
method of constructing the canon is explained. The various reprints and
translations of the ‘ Descriptio’ and ‘Constructio’ are described under
Naprer, 1614 and 1619; and the relations between Napier and Briegs with
regard to the invention of decimal logarithms are noticed in § 3, art. 13.
The most elaborate canon of Napierian logarithms is Ursmvs (1624-1625),
described below.
The difference between. the logarithms introduced Napier and hyperbolic
logarithms is explained under Naprmr (1614). We have paid considerable
attention to the early logarithmic tables, and have examined all of them that
were accessible to us; and it is with some regret that we omit to notice them
in detail here: the accounts of the smaller tables that immediately suc-
ceeded Napier would be of only bibliographical or historical interest ; and to
describe them with sufficient detail to render the accounts of value would
occupy too much space. However, as the works of this period are very rare,
it is worth while remarking that there is a copy of Napier’s ‘ Constructio’
in the Cambridge University Library (there is none in the British Museum
or Royal Society’s Library), where also are to be found Ursinus’s ‘ Cursus’ of
‘1618, Spurpett 1619, and Kerrer 1624: we have generally, in describing
works of this date, mentioned the library containing the copy we have seen.
We have found De Morgan to be very accurate (except where he has had to
form his opinions from secondhand or imperfect evidence); and he has
‘devoted much care to the early logarithmic tables, so that we feel the less
reluctance in omitting to notice them further here.
Wapier, 1614. The book consists of 57 pp. explaining the nature of
logarithms &c., and 90 pp. of tabular matter, giving natural sines and their
Napierian logarithms to every minute of the quadrant (semiquadrantally
arranged) to seven or eight figures (seven decimals), Logarithmic tangents
-are also given under the heading differentia (they are the differences between
the sine and cosine, which, though the latter name is not used, are both on
the same line, as a consequence of the semiquadrantal arrangement of the
table).
Thy logarithms introduced by Napier were not hyperbolic or Napierian
logarithms as we now understand these terms, viz. logarithms to the base ¢
(2°71828..), but somewhat different ; the relation between the two being
L
; : é@=10"e 10, or L = 10" log, 107 — 1071,
1 being the logarithm to base ¢, and L the Napiertan logarithm ; the relation
between N (a sine) and L, its Napierian logarithm is therefore
L
_N = 10,000,000 7 10,000,000 ,
72 REPORT—-1878.
the logarithms therefore decrease as the sines increase. A brief explanation
of the principle of Napier’s own method is given by Professor Wackerbarth
in vol. xxxi. p. 263 (1871) of the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society.’ The author of that communication there points out that
the description in most elementary books of Napierian logarithms, as loga-
rithms to the base e¢, is incorrect; but this criticism appears to us irrelevant,
as by calling certain logarithms Napierian it is not asserted that they are
used at present in the exact form in which they were presented by Napier.
A glance at the formula written above shows that all the essential features
of logarithms to the base e are contained in Napier’s system, and that there
is no impropriety in calling the former by his name. De Morgan says that
“‘ Delambre proposed to call them [ Napier’s logarithms | Napierian logarithms,
and to restrict the term hyperbolic to the modern or ¢ logarithms; but
custom has refused,”—and no doubt very properly, as, except in mathematical
histories &c., there is no occasion to distinguish the two systems from one
another. For our own part, we should much prefer to see natural or’
hyperbolic and common logarithms universally called Napierian and Briggian,
after the two great founders of logarithmic tables.
A translation of Napier’s ‘Canon Mirificus’ was made by Edward Wright
(well known in connexion with the history of navigation), and, after his death,
published by his son at London in 1616, under the title “A Description of
the admirable Table of Logarithmes, &c.” (12mo). On account of the rarity
of this work and the ‘ Constructio,’ the full titles of both are given in § 5.
There is a short “ Preface to the Reader” by Briggs, and a description of a
triangular diagram invented by Wright for finding the proportional parts.
Napier’s table, however, is printed to one figure less than in the ‘Canon
Mirificus’ throughout. The edition was revised by Napier himself. On
Wright, see Introduction to Hutton’s ‘Mathematical Tables.’ The ‘Canon
Mirificus’ was also reprinted by Maseres in the sixth volume of the ‘ Scrip-
tores Logarithmici’ (1791-1807); and in 1857 Mr. Fixreowsxr published
at Edinburgh a translation of the same work (full title given in § 5; the tone
of the Introduction renders any comment on it unnecessary).
Both the ‘ Descriptio’ (the ‘Canon Mirificus’) and the ‘ Constructio’
were reprinted by Bartholomew Vincent at Lyons in 1620 (who thus first
published logarithms on the Continent), the title of the former appearing on
the titlepage as ‘‘ Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio, seu Arithmeticarum
supputationum mirabilis abbreviatio. Ejusque usus in utraque Trigonometria
ut etiam in omni Logistica Mathematica, amplissimi, facillimi & expeditissimi
explicatio. Authore ac Inventore Joanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c.,
Scoto. [Printer’s device with word Vincenti.| Lugduni. Apud Barth. Vin-
centium, M.DC.XX. Cum privilegio Caesar. Majest. & Christ. Galliarum
Regis.” The full title of Napier’s original edition of 1614 is given in § 5;
and it will be seen that it is very different from that written above. Very
many writers (including Montucla) give the title of Vincent’s reprint as that
of the original work. There is an imperfect copy of Vincent’s reprint,
containing only the ‘ Descriptio’ (the ‘Constructio’ having been torn out),
in the British Museum ; but the Royal Society has a perfect copy. Wright's
translation of 1616 is in the British Museum.
On the accuracy of Napier’s Canon see Delambre, ‘ Astron. Mod.,’ t. i.
p- 501. Mr. Mark Napier’s ‘Memoirs of John Napier’ gives nearly all that
is known with regard to Napier’s life, MSS., &c.; but it is told in a verbose
and diffuse manner, and written in a partisan spirit as regards Briggs.
A manuscript on arithmetic and algebra, written by Napier and left by
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 73
him to Briggs, was privately printed in 1839, under the title “ De Arte
Logistica Joannis Naperi Merchistonii Baronis libri qui'supersunt,” edited by
Mr. Mark Napier. An historical sketch, mainly derived from the same
author’s ‘ Memoirs,’ is prefixed. In 1787 was also published ‘ An account
of the Life, Writings, and Inventions of John Napier of Merchiston,’ by
Dayid Stewart, Earl of Buchan, and Walter Minto, LL.D. Perth, 4to. See
also Phil. Mag. Suppl. No., December, 1872, “On some early Logarithmic
Tables.” Leslie (‘Philosophy of Arithmetic,’ 2nd edit., 1820, p. 246)
describes Napier’s work as ‘‘a very small duodecimo ;” the last word should
be “quarto.” The page is 7-7 inches by 5:7 inches.
We may remark that Napier’s name is spelt in a variety of ways; we
have seen Neper, Naper, Nepair, and Nepper. He always Latinized his
name into Neperus or Naperus, but spelt it in the vernacular several ways.
The family now write the name Napier; and this spelling is generally
adopted, and with good reason.
Napier, 1619 (‘ Constructio’). This work contains no table, and is there-
fore not properly included in this Report. We have, however, noticed it on
account of its being a sequel to the ‘ Descriptio,’ and also on account of its
rarity (the full title is given in § 5). The only copy we have seen (in the
Cambridge University Library), which belonged to Oughtred, contains two
titlepages, the first running “ Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio....
accesserunt opera posthuma ; primo, Mirifici ipsius canonis constructio....
Edinburgi....1619,” and the second being as given in § 5. From this we
infer that a reprint of the ‘Descriptio’ (1619) was prefixed to the
‘ Constructio,’ but that it was torn out from the copy we have examined.
On the reprints, &c. of the ‘ Constructio,’ see under Narigr, 1614.
Ursinus, 1624-1625. A canon exactly similar to Naprer’s in the
‘Canon Mirificus,’ 1614, only much enlarged. The intervals of the argu-
ments are 10”; and the results are given to eight places: in Naprer’s canon
the intervals are 1’, and the number of places is 7. The logarithms are strictly
Napierian, and the arrangement is identical with that in the canon of 1614,
This is the largest Napierian canon that has been calculated. The copy we
have seen is in the British Museum. In 1618 Ursinus published his
‘Cursus Mathematicus,’ of which there is a copy in the Cambridge Uni-
versity Library.
The only table of Napierian logarithms described in § 4 is Scuunze, 1778
[T. V.] (sines and tangents).
Art. 18. Logistic and Proportional Logarithms,
What are now called fractions or ratios used to be styled logistic numbers ;
and logistic logarithms are logarithms of ratios: thus a table of log “, r)
being the argument and a a constant, would be called a table of logistic or
proportional logarithms ; and since log = = log a — log x, it is clear that the
tabular results only differ from those of an ordinary table of logarithms by the
subtraction of a constant and a change of sign. It appears that Kepner, in
his ‘ Chilias ’ described below, originated tables of this kind ; but the step that
separates logistic from common logarithms is so small that no great interest
attaches to their first appearance. The use of the tabulation of log ; in the
working of proportions in which the third term is a fixed quantity a is evident.
TA . rneport—1873. ;
There seems a tendency to keep the name logistic logarithms for those tables
in which a = 3600" = 1° (so that the table gives log 3600 — log «, # being
expressed in minutes and seconds), and to use the name proportional logarithms
when a has any other value. We have not met with any modern table of
this kind forming a separate work; and such tables are usually of no great
extent. They are 3 to be found, however, i in many collections of tables ; and the
logistic logarithms from Cater were published separately at Nuremberg i in
a tract of 9 pp. in 1843 (see title in § 5).
a
It may be remarked that tables of log — — often extend to values of #
greater than a; and then, in the portion of the table for which this is the
case, the mantisse are rendered positive (by the supposed addition of the
characteristic — 1, which is omitted) before tabulation.
Kepler, 1624. We cannot do better than follow De Morgan’s example,
and give a specimen of the table, which contains five columns :—
53° 36°36 21691:30 | 48°18
5:48 124:15
The sinus or nwmerus absolutus is 805, which (to a radius 1000) is the
sine of 53°36! 36", and the Mapierian logarithm is 2169130. The third and
fifth columns are explained as follows :—if 1000 represent 24", then 805
represents 19"19™12°; and if 1000 represents 60°, then 805 represents
48° 18'; there are interscript differences for the first and fourth columns.
Thus, as De Morgan remarks, Kepler originated logistic logarithms. Kepler’s
tract is reprinted by Maseres in vol. i. of his ‘Scriptores Logarithmici’
(1791); and there is also reprinted there “ Joannis Kepleri....supple-
mentum chiliadis logarithmorum.. ..Marpurgi, 1625,” the original of which
we have not seen, but it contains no table. The copy of the 1624 work we
have described is in the Cambridge University Library. For an account of
Kepler’s ‘ Tabule Rudolphine,’ see De Morgan.
Proportional logarithms for every second, a being 3°, are given almost
invariably in collections of nautical tables, usually to four places, but some-
times to five. T. 74 of Rapsr, so frequently referred to in § 4, is a four-
place table of this kind, and was, as we have seen stated in several places, first
computed by Maskelyne. The reference was made to Raper rather than
to any other of the numerous places where it occurs, as his work on
Navigation is one of the best-known, and has been through numerous
editions. Prof. Everett (Phil. Mag, Nov. 1866) says, quoting Raper, that
proportional logarithms as at present used are a source of perpetual mis-
takes even to expert computers; but this must be intended to apply
rather to practical men, as for the mathematical calculator they are very
convenient.
The following is a list of tables on the subject of this article, which are
described more fully in § 4.
Logistic logarithms for every second to 1°, viz. log 3600 — log w.—(To 4
places) Garprner, 1742 and (Avignon) 177 70, T. III. (to 4800") ; Donson,
1747, T. XXXVI. (to 4800"); Scuurzz, 1778 [T. IV.] (to 3600") ; Vaca,
1797, Vol. IL. T. IV. (to 3600"); Gornon, 1849, T. XXI, (to 3600");
Catter, 1853 [T. XI.] (to 5280”); Hurron, 1858, T. VII. (to paaiety ;
Iyman, 1871 [T. I.] (to 3600", intervals of 2").
Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, viz. log 10,800 — log v.—
(To 5 places) Rios, 1809, T. XIV.; Lax, 1821, 7. XIV. ; -GaLBRaITH,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 75
1827, T. X.; Bacay, 1829, T. XXII.; Coteman, 1846, T. XXIV. ; Inman,
1871 [T. II.]
(To 4 places) (viz. T. 74 of Raper) Croswert, 1791, T. V.; Masxenyyr
(Requisite Tables), 1802, T. XV.; Bownrren, 1802, T. XV.; AnpREw, 1805,
T. XIV.; Mackay, 1810, T. LI.; Moorn, 1814, T. XXV.; Ducom, 1820,
T. VII.; Krriean, 1821, T. XII.; Sranspury, 1822 [T. II.]; Rrpprx,
1824, T. XXIX.; J. Taytor, 1833, T. XXXVI.; Bevertry (1833 ?), T.
XVIII. ; Norte, 1836, T. XXXIV.; Grecory &., 1843, T. VITI.; Grrerin,
1843, T. 41; J. Taynor, 1843, T. 35; Rimxer, 1844, T. XXIV.; Gorvon,
1849, T. X.; Domxz, 1852, T. XL.; THomsoy, 1852, T, XIX.; Raper,
1857, T. 74.
Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440 — log a.—
(To 5 places) Gatprarru, 1827, T. IX.
(To 4 places) Sranspury, 1822, T, G; Lynn, 1827, T. H; Grecory &e,
1843, T. XII.; Gorpon, 1849, T. XIX.; Tomson, 1852, T. X.; Raver,
1857, T. 214.
Art. 19, Tables of Gaussian Logarithms,
Gaussian logarithms have for their object to facilitate the finding of the
logarithms of the sum and difference of two numbers whose logarithms are
known, the numbers being themselves unknown; on this account they are
often called Addition and Subtraction logarithms. The problem is therefore ;
given log « and log 5, find log (a + 6) by the taking out of only one logarithm.
The utility of such logarithms was first pointed out by Leonelli, in a very
searce book printed at Bordeaux in the year XI. (1802 or 1803), under the
title ‘‘ Supplément logarithmique ;” but it met with no success. Leonelli’s idea
was to construct a table to 14 places—an extravagant extent, as Gauss has re-
marked. The first table constructed was calculated by Gauss, and published
by him in yol. xxvi. (p, 498 et seg.) of Zach’s ‘ Monatliche Correspondenz ’
(1812) : it gives B and C for argument A, where A = log 2, B = log (1 + :)
C = log (1 + «),sothatC = A + B; and the use is as follows. We have
identically—
/
log (a + b) = log a + log (1 +3)
=lga+B (for argument log i):
The rule therefore is, to take log a, the larger of the two logarithms,
and to enter the table with log a—log 6 as argument, we then have
log (a + 6) = log a + B, or, if we please, = log 540. For the difference,
the formula is log (a — 6) = log b+ A (argument sought in column C) if
log a — log 6 is greater than 30103, and = log 6 — A (argument sought in
column B) if log a — log 6 is less than *30108 ; there are also other forms.
Gauss remarks that a complete seven-figure table of this kind would be very
useful. Such a table was formed by Marrurzssrn; but the arrangement is
such that very little is gained by the use of it. This Gauss has pointed out
in No. 474 of the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ 1843, and in a letter (1846)
to Schumacher, quoted by De Morgan. Gauss’s papers on logarithms and
reviews of logarithmic tables from the ‘ Géttingische gelehrte Anzeigen,’
‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ &c., are reprinted together on pp. 241-264 of
t, ili. of his ‘ Werke,’ 1866. Of these pp. 244-252 have reference to Gaussian
logarithms and contain reviews of Pasauicu, 1817 (§ 4), and Marratessnn,
76 4 REPORT—1873.
s
1818 (below). The largest tables are Zucu (reprinted from Hixssr’s edition
of Vrea) and Wirrsrern, which answers the purpose Gauss had in view the
best of all:. there is also a good introduction to the latter (in French and
German), explaining the use and objects of the tables.
Whenever in this Report the letters A, B, C are used in the description
of Gaussian logarithms, they are always supposed to have the meanings
assigned to them by Gauss (which are explained aboye), unless the con-
trary is expressly stated. Of course all Gaussian tables have reference to
Briggian (not hyperbolic) logarithms.
Leonelli, 1806. This is the German translation of Leonelli’s work, and
suggested to Gauss the construction of his table in Zach’s ‘ Correspondenz.’
The book consists of two parts: in the first there are 9 pages of tables &e.
wanted in the construction of logarithms, viz. log a, log l-w, log (1‘0w),....
log (100000000002), for x = 1, 2,....9, to 20 places, and the same for
hyperbolic logarithms ; also log -1, -2....(9°9), and log 1:0x, log 1-000z,
log 1:00000x, and log 1-00000002, for # = 01, 02,....99.
The second part is headed “ Theorie der Ergiinzungs- und Verminderungs-
Logarithmen zur Berechnung der Logarithmen der Summen und Differenzen
yon Zahlen aus ihren Logarithmen,” and on pp. 52-54 the specimen table is
given; log a being the argument, it gives log (1 + —) and log (1 4+ 2) as
xv
tabular results to 14 places, for arguments from :00000 to *00104 at
intervals of -00001. [It will be noticed that the above are the same as
Gauss’s A, B, and C.] The middle page of this table (p. 53) is nearly an
inch longer than any of the other pages of the book. ‘he original work,
according to Hoirn, 1858, ‘ Avertissement,’ p. vi, was published at Bordeaux,
An X1., under the title “‘ Supplément logarithmique,” &c.
Gauss, 1812. Bb{ = log (1 + 2) and C(= log(1 + ~)) are given for
argument A(= log w) from A = -000 to 2-000 at intervals of ‘001, thence
to 3:40 at intervals of -01, and to 5:0 at intervals of +1, all to 5 places, with
differences. The table occupies 27 small octavo pages. Gauss’s paper is re-
printed from the ‘ Correspondenz’ in t. iii. pp. 244-246 of his ‘ Werke,’
1866; but the table is not reproduced there.
Matthiessen, 1818. B and C are given to 7 places for argument A,
from A = :0000 to 2:0000 at intervals of :0001, thence to 3-000 at intervals
of -001, to 4:00 at intervals of -01 and to 5-0 at intervals of :1; also for
A = 6 and 7, with proportional parts.
As C =A + B, the last three figures are the same for B and C, so that
the arrangement is, column of A, column of first four figures of B, column of
first four figures of C, column of last three figures of B and C, proportional
parts; the eye has therefore to look in two different columns to take out a
logarithm. ‘There is also another disadvantage, viz. that as there are only
four figures of argument, if it is to be used as a seven-figure table three more
must be interpolated for.
The introduction is both in German and Latin.
Mr. Gray, who recalculated a considerable portion of this table, found that
it contained numerous errors (see Gray, 1849, below). See also the intro-
ductory remarks to this article.
Weidenbach, 1829. Modified Gaussian logarithms. Log a (=A) is
the argument, and log ; + - (= B) is the tabular result, A and B are thus
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. "7
“reciprocal,” the relation between them being, infact, 104+ = 10* + 108 + 1,
so that either A or B may be regarded as the argument. The table gives B to
five places with differences, from A =°382 to A = 2-002 at intervals of -001,
from A = 2-00 to A = 3°60 at intervals of -01, and then to 5:5 at intervals
of -1. The conimencement of the table being at A = 382 does not render it
incomplete, by reason of the reciprocity referred to above, since for arguments
less than ‘382 we can take B as the argument. Thus, at the beginning of
the table A and B are very nearly equal, viz. A = ‘382, B = 0-38305 ;
A = 383, B = ‘38255. There is an introduction of 2 pp. by Gauss.
The use of fi table in the solution of triangles is very apparent, e.g. in
the formula cot © ae B oe é tan Mea =. in Napier’s analogies, &c.
rag 2 P
Gray, 1849. ae Gaussian logarithms. T.I. Log (1+ 2) is the
tabular result for log « as argument ; “and the range is from log # = -0000
to 20000 at intervals of -0001, to 6 places, with proportional parts to
hundredths (viz. 100 proportional parts of each difference).
T. II. Log (1 — 2) is the tabular result for log # as argument; and the
range is from log v = 3:000 to 1-000 at intervals of 001, and from 1-0000
to 1-9000 at intervals of -0001, to 6 places, with complete proportional parts.
The first table might have been copied from Marratessrn by contracting the
7 places of the latter to 6; but it was recalculated by Mr. Gray, and many
errors were thereby found in Matthiessen’s table (Introduction, p. vi); the
second table was also the result of an original calculation. Some remarks
and references on the subject of Gaussian logarithms &c. will be found in
the Introduction to the work.
Since writing the above account, Mr. Gray has sent us a copy of his
‘Addendum to Tables and Formule for the computation of Life Contin-
gencies....Second Issue, comprising a large extension of the principal
table....’ London, 1870, 8vo (26 pp. of tables and an introduction), which is
a continuation of the work under notice, and is intended to be bound up with it,
a new title having reference to the whole work when so augmented being added.
The ‘Addendum’ contains a table of log (1 + x) to 6 places for argument
log x, from log 2 = 3-000 to 1-000 at intervals of -001, and from 1-0000 to
0-0500 at intervals of -0001, the latter portion having proportional parts for
every hundredth of the differences added: the whole of course the result of
an original calculation. Mr. Peter Gray was the first to perceive the utility
of Gaussian logarithms in the calculation of life contingencies, and to him is
due their introduction as wellas the calculation of the necessary tables, which
it is evident are valuable mathematically, apart from the particular subject
for which they were undertaken.
Zech, 1849. Table of seven-figure Gaussian logarithms. Denoting,
as was done by Gauss, log a, log (2 + =) and log (1+ 2), by A, B, C
respectively, then the table gives B to seven places, from A =-0000 to
A = 2-0000 at intervals of -0001, from A = 2-000 to A = 4-000 at intervals of
‘001, and thence to 6-00 at intervals of :01, with proportional parts through-
out; the whole arranged as an ordinary seven-figure logarithm table, and
headed Addition table.
The Subtraction table gives C to 7 places, from B = -0000000 to -0003000
at intervals of -0000001, thence to -050000 at intervals of :000001, and
thence to -30300 at intervals of :00001 to seven places, with proportional
parts.
78 REPORT—1873.
The addition table occupies 45 pp., the subtraction table 156 pp. ‘The
whole is a reprint from Hitssx’s Vuca of 1849, the paging being unaltered,
and running from 636 to 836. The second edition is identical with the first,
except that the 3 pp. of introduction are omitted.
Wittstein, 1866. A fine table of Gaussian logarithms in a modified
form. B (=log (1+ 2)) is given to seven places for the argument A (=log «)
for values of the argument from 3:0 to 4:0 at intervals of +1, from 4:00 to
6:00 at intervals of -01, from 6-000 to 8-000 at intervals of -001, from
8:0000 to 10-0000 at intervals of :0001, and also from -0000 to 4:0000 at the
same intervals. Differences and proportional parts (or rather multiples) are
given, except on one page (p. 5), where they are given for alternate
differences as there is not sufficient space,
The arrangement is similar to that of a seven-figure logarithmic table.
The figures have heads and tails, and are very clear.
On p. 127 there is given a recapitulation to three places, and to hundredths,
of part of the table and the formule, A complete explanation is given in
the introduction to the work:
Gaussian logarithms are very useful in the solution of triangles in such
formule as cot 2 = a ; tan (A —B), in which Werensacn’s table would
also be useful.
The following is a list of tables of Gaussian logarithms contained in
works noticed in § 4,
Tables of Gaussian logarithms.—Pasquicn, 1817, T. III. (5 places) ;
[Encxe, 1828] ['T.III.] (4 places); Kéuter, 1832 [T. III.]; Htzssn’s Vees,
1840, T. XII.; Mizier, 1844 [T, II.]; [Suerpsnanxs, 1844] [T. V.];
Kéurer, 1848 [T. II.]; SHorrrupe, 1849, T. VII. ; Frtreowsxr, 1849, T. II. ;
Hover, 1858, T. II.; Garsrarre and Havenron, 1860 [T. IV.]; Orpoizer,
1866.
Art. 20, Tables to convert Briggian into Hyperbolic Logarithms, and vice versd.
Tables for the conversion of Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms, and vice
versd, are given in nearly all collections of logarithmic tables. Such a table
merely consists of the first hundred (sometimes only the first ten) multiples
of the modulus 43429 44819 03251 82765 11289...., and its reciprocal
2°30258 50929 94045 68401 79914...., to five, six, eight, and ten or even
more places. A list of such tables, contained in works described in § 4, is
given below; tables of this kind, however, rarely exceed a page in extent,
and are very easy to construct. It is not unlikely that the list is far from:
perfect, for in some cases it was not thought worth while noticing such
tables when of small extent and to few places. We mention Drern (§$ 4) as
containing one of the largest.
The following is a list of tables contained in works noticed in § 4.
To convert Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms and vice versd.—-(To more
than 10 places) Scxvuzn, 1778 [T. I.]; Decen, 1824, T. I1.; Suorrrene,
1849, T. VII.; Cazrer, 1853 [T. 1V.]; Parxaurst, 1871, T, Y.
(To 10 places) Scuréy, 1860, T. I. ; Brunys, 1870.
(To 8 places) SHorrrepE (Tables), 1844, T. XXXIX.; Koénter, 1848,
(T. I.]; Hotzr, 1858, T, IIT,
(To 7 places) Bremrxer, 1852, T, I.; Brumixer’s Veea, 1857, T. 1.;
Dupuis, 1868, T. V.
(To 6 places) Dopsoy, 1747, T, XXXVII.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 79
(To 5 places) Dr Prassz, 1814 [T. II.] (?); Gatsrarry and Haveurton,
1860 [T. I.]; WACKERBARTH, 1867, T. V.
See also Trorrer, 1841 [T. I.]; Scuxémiicm [1865?]; Ranking, 1866,
T. 3; and Prvero, 1871 (§ 3, art. 13).
Art, 21. Interpolation Tables.
All the tables of proportional parts (described in § 3, art. 2) are
interpolation tables in one, and that the most usual, sense; and similarly;
multiplication and product tables may be so regarded (see § 3, art. 2). We
may, however, especially refer to Scurén, 1860, as its printed title describes
it as an interpolation table—a designation not common. The only separate
table we have seen for facilitating interpolations, when the second, third, &c.
differences are included, is WootHovse, noticed below. We may also refer
to Gopwarp’s tables (title j in § 5), but they seem of such special application
that we haye not thought it necessary to describe their contents.
Woolhouse, 1865. Papers extracted from vols. xi. and xii. of the
‘ Assurance Magazine.’ There are 9 pp. of interpolation tables (viz. pp.
14-22). The work contains a clear explanation of methods of interpolation,
with developments.
The following are references to tables described in § 4,
Binomial-theorem coefficients.—_Scuvutzn, 1778 [T. XII1.]; Vea, 1797,
Vol. If. [T. VI.]; Bartow, 1814, T. VII.; Hanrsout, 1827, mT IX. ¢
Hitssr’s Veca, 1840, T. XIII. ; Kouter, 1848, T. X.; ; Parxnursr, 1871,
T. XXXII. See also Rouse (§ 3, art. 25).
Other interpolation coefficients. — Perens, 1871 [T. IV.], I. and II. .
Coefficients of series terms.—Vuea, 1797, Vol. II. (T. VI.]; Lampert, 1798,
T. XLIV.; Hitssz’s Veca, 1840, T. VIII. ; Kourer, 1848, T, XI.
Art. 22. Mensuration Tables.
_ We have made no special search for tables on mensuration (such as areas
of circles of given radius, volumes of cones of given base and altitude, &c.),
and have only included those that have fallen in our way in the course of.
seeking for more strictly mathematical tables during the preparation of this
Report. As, however, for several reasons it seems desirable that a complete
list of such tables should be formed, we shall endeavour to render this
Article as nearly perfect as we can in the supplement, ‘ One reason, how-
ever, why such tables are not of very high mathematical value is that the
measures are generally expressed in more or less arbitrary units, such as yards,
feet, inches, &c., or metres &c.
We may especially refer to the large table of circular segments in Suarp,
1717 (§ 4).
Sir Jonas Moore (16607). The table is a very small one, and
scarcely occupies a third of a folio page. It gives the periphery of an
ellipse for one axis as argument (the other axis being supposed equal to,
unity) to 4 places, with differences ; the range of the argument is from -00.
to 1:00 at intervals of ‘01. Thus, to find the | perimeter of an ellipse, axes 1;
and ‘78, we enter the table at 78 and find 2:8038. If one axis is not equal
to unity, a simple proportion of course gives the perimeter. After working,
out four examples, the author proceeds: “I have made above 45,000 arith«.
metical operations for this table, and am now well pleased it is finished,
80 REPORT—1878.
Some perhaps may find shorter ways, as I believed I had myself, till advised
otherwise by the truly Honourable the Lord Bruncker, &c.” This is perhaps
the first tabulation of an elliptic integral.
Bonnycastle, 1831. A table of the areas of segments (pp. 295-300) :
the same as T. XIII. of Hanrscut.
Todd, 1853. T.I. Areas (to 6 places) and circumferences (to 5 places)
of circles for the diameter as argument, the range being from diameter 1;
to diameter 24 at intervals of j1,; the decimal fractions (to 4 places)
equivalent to =, ;7;, &c., are printed at the top of each page.
T. Il. The same from diameter 24 to 100 at intervals of 3 (4 places
only for the circumferences).
_ T. III. The same from diameter 12 to 600 at intervals of unity. Both
areas and circumferences are only given to 4 places.
T. IV. The same from diameter ‘1 to 100 at intervals of -1. Areas to 6
places, circumferences to 5.
T. V. to VII. stand in exactly the same relation to spheres that T. I. to
TV. do to circles, except that T. V. is equivalent to T. I. and IL, the
intervals being 3 from 1 to 100; and T. VI. commences at 1 (not 12). The
volumes and superficies are given to 4 places.
T. VIII. Areas (exact) and diagonals (to 5 places) of squares for side as
argument, from 4 to 100 at intervals of }.
In all cases the arguments are given in inches, and the results in square
and cubic inches; but in T. III. and VI. the corresponding numbers of
linear, square, and cubic feet are also given.
The original work, of which this is the second and greatly augmented
edition, was published in 1826; and the tables were the result of original
calculations. There are besides some specific gravities, &c.
The following tables are more fully described in § 4.
Mensuration tables.—Suare, 1717 [T. II.], areas of segments of circles ;
[T. III.], table for computing the solidity of the upright hyperbolic section
of a cone; Dopson, 1747, T. XXVI., XXVIII., and XXIX.; Gazsrarru,
1827, T. XV. and XVI. (Introd.); Hanrscut, 1827, T. XIII.; Trorrer,
1841 [T. V.] and [T. XII.]; Wiitrcn, 1853, T. C (circumferences and areas
of circles); Brarpmorn, 1862, T. 34 (circumferences and areas of circles) ;
Ranxinz, 1866, T. 4 and 5.
Art. 23. Dual Logarithms.
Dual logarithms were invented, and the tables of them calculated, by Mr.
Oliver Byrne, who, besides the work described below, has published ‘ Dual
Arithmetic’ and the ‘ Young Dual Arithmetician’ on the subject. A dual
number of the ascending scale is a continued product of powers of 1:1, 1-01,
1:001, &c., taken in order, the powers only being expressed. To distinguish
these numbers from ordinary numbers, they are preceded by the sign \|/:
thus, \|/ 6, 9, 7, 6 = (1-1)§(1-01)° (1:001)7 (1:0001)® ; \], 0, 0, 2 = (1-1)°
(1:01)’ (1:001), the numbers following the \j/ being called dual digits.
When all but the last digit of a dual number are zeros, the dual number is
called a dual logarithm ; but the dual logarithms used by Mr. Byrne are “ of
the eighth position,” viz. there are 7 ciphers between the \|,/ and the
logarithm.
A dual number of the descending branch is a continued product of powers
of 9, -99, -999, &c., and the dual number is followed by the symbol /\\;
thus, (-9)8 (-99)? =’3 2 /\\; (-999)° (999999)? =’0’ 0’ 3 0072 7\\._ In the
descending branch also a dual number reduced to the eighth position is
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 81
called a dual logarithm, and is to be considered negative if the ascending
dual logarithm is taken positive, and vice versd.
Byrne, 1867. TT. I. contains all the dual numbers of the ascending
branch of dual arithmetic from \|, 0, 0, 0,1 to \|, 7, 3,1, 9, and their
corresponding dual numbers and natural numbers. The range of the dual
logarithms is from 00000 to 69892175, and of the natural numbers from
100000000 to 2:01167234. Marginal tables are added, by means of which
all dual numbers of 8 digits, and their corresponding dual logarithms and
natural numbers, may be derived: the table occupies 74 pp.
T. If. Dual logarithms and dual numbers of the descending branch of
dual arithmetic from ’0’0’0’1’0’0’0’0 7|\ to 36 ’9’9 007070 7\N, with
corresponding natural numbers. The range of the dual logarithms is from
710001 to ’39633845, and of the natural numbers from -99990000 to
*67277805. Marginal tables are added, by means of which all intermediate
dual numbers of 8 digits and their corresponding dual logarithms and natural
numbers may be derived. This table is printed in red, T. I. and III. being
in black. It occupies 38 pp.
T. III. Natural sines and ares to 7 places for every minute of the
quadrant. The length of the arc is, of course, the circular measure of the
angle, so that we have a table of circular measures to minutes: the arrange-
ment is quadrantal. Proportional parts are given for 10”, 20”....90" for
each difference ; and these occupy two thirds of the page. There are small
proportional-part tables for the arc: the table occupies 90 pp.
The author claims that his tables are incomparably superior to those of
common logarithms, and asserts that “these tables are equal in power to
Babbage’s and Callet’s, and take up less than one eighth of the space ”
(‘Dual Arithmetic,’ part ii. p. ix). Babbage and Callet seems an error
(unless the Canter of 1827 (§ 3, art. 15) is meant), as the latter work con-
tains the table of the logarithms of numbers which is the sole contents of the
former. Mr. Byrne’s works on the subject are :—‘ Dual Arithmetic: a new
Art,’ London, 1863, 8vo (pp. 244); ‘Dual Arithmetic: a new Art. New
Issue, with a complete analysis,’ 1864 (pp. 83) [this work contains a table
of 3 pp., “to facilitate the conversion of dual numbers into common ones, or
the converse”’]; ‘Dual Arithmetic: a new Art. Part the Second’ (pp. 218),
and the work above described. Mr. Byrne has also published ‘The Dual
Doctrine of Angular Magnitude and Functions, &c.,’ and the ‘ Young Dual
Arithmetician,’ neither of which we have seen: the latter contains an
abridgment to 3 dual digits of the tables in the work described above.
. In spite of the somewhat extravagant claims advanced by the author for
his system, dual logarithms have found but little favour as yet either: from
mathematicians or computers.
Art. 24. Mathematical Constants.
In nearly all tables of logarithms there is a page devoted to certain
: : 1 3f/r
frequently used constants and their logarithms, such as 7, = nw, V7; eo
&e., the radius of the circle in degrees, minutes, &c., the modulus &e.
There are not generally more than four or five logarithms involving z given ;
and usually half the page is devoted to constants relating to the conversion
of weights and measures. It is only necessary, therefore, here to refer to
works in which there is a better collection than usual of constants.
1873. @
82 REPORT—1873.
A very good collection is given by Mayyarp (described below), and
also by Byryr, 1849. This portion of the present Report is very far from
complete, as the values of mathematical constants have, as a rule, appeared in
periodical publications, while those only that are most used by the general
computer are to be found in collections of mathematical tables. We refrain,
therefore, from giving references to several periodicals we have met with
containing constants, as they belong properly to a subsequent portion of the
Report; and it is hoped that, after the completion of the examination of
the memoirs, a pretty complete list, either of the constants themselves, or at
all events of the places where they are to be found, will be given.
We may, however, notice a paper of Paucker’s in the first volume of
‘Grunert’s Archiv der Mathematik und Physik,’ in which a number of
constants involving + are given to a great many places, and Gauss’s
memoirs on the lemniscate-functions (‘ Werke,’ t. ili. pp. 426 &c.), where
e—™, e437, e— 87, &e. are calculated to about fifty places. On Euler's con-
stant, see ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ t. xv. p. 429; t. xvi. pp. 154,
299; t. xviii. p. 49 (Shanks) ; t. xix. p. 514 (Glaisher); t. xx. pp. 27, 29
(Shanks). On e, the base of the Napierian logarithms, log,2, log,3 &c., see,
besides the places just referred to, ‘ Roy. Soc. Proc.’ t. vi. p. 897, and ‘ Brit.
Assoc. Report’ (Sections) 1871, p. 16, and also SHanxs 1853 (§ 4). Several
constants are to be found in the different works of Maseres. Mr, Maynard
and Mr. Merrifield have independently calculated log.M and logm (M and m
being the modulus and its reciprocal) to 30 places (‘ Assurance Magazine,’
t. vi. p. 298).
The value of z has been calculated to 500 places of decimals by Shanks
and Richter independently, and to 707 places by the former alone: see
references, ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ December 1872 and July 1873. Mr.
Shanks’s latest value appears in the ‘Roy. Soc. Proc.’ t. xxi. p. 319.
It is proper here to remark that Rutherford’s 208-decimal value of 7, given
in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1841, p. 283, is erroneous after the 152nd place: this
value is reproduced in Byrnz, 1849 (§ 4), and in Maynarp; so that it is
erroneous also in both of these works.
[Maynard.| A good table of constants involving z, such as rA/ 2, 7 ~?,
V7, &c., and some few involving ¢ &c., to a great many (generally 30)
places. There are also other constants not included in the subjects of this
Report.
The copy of these constants that we examined consisted of six leaves
without a cover, and which were evidently extracted from some work. -Mr,
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S., subsequently called our attention to the partict#
larly good collection of constants in ‘ The Millwright and Engineers’ Pocket
Companion;.... By William Templeton.... Corrected by Samuel May-
nard,... Fifteenth edition, carefully revised,’ London, 1871, 8vo, and lent
us a copy; and on examination it appeared that it was to this work that
Maynard’s collection belonged, where it occupies pp. 169-180. There are,
altogether, 58 constants involving 7, and their logarithms, given generally to
30 places, and 13 others that may also be properly styled mathematical. It
is mentioned that part of the table had previously appeared in Keith’s
‘ Measurer’ (twenty-fourth edition, 1846). Templeton’s work contains several
other tables (areas of circles, &c.), and square roots which would have been
included in this Report had we seen the book earlier ; as it is they will be
noticed in the Supplement. On Rutherford’s value of 7, quoted by May-
nard, see introductory remarks to this article.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 83
The following is a list of references to § 4.
Insts of Constants —Dovson, 1747, T. XXVII.; Gatsrarru, 1827, T.
LXIII.; Hawrscnn, 1827, T. XI.; [De Morean], 1839 ['T. V.]; Fantey,
1840 [T. III.]; Murer, 1844 (T. IV.]; Suorrrepz (Tables), 1844, T. IL;
Mitirer, 1844 [T. 1V.]; Raper, 1846, T. V.; Kéuter, 1848 (2 7EEky ;
Byrve, 1849 [T. H1I.]; Bremixer, 1852, T. IL.; Wrixrcu, 1853, T. XX., &c.;
Smanks, 1853 (constants to a great many places); Bremixer’s Vues, 1857;
Howxr, 1858, T. VIII. ; Hurron, 1858, T. XII.; Garprarrn and Haveuton,
1860 [T.IV.]; Wackersarrn, 1867, T. IV., V., and XXI.; Brouuns, 1870.
Note.—Binomial-theorem coefficients and coefficients of series-terms are
noticed under Interpolation Tables in § 3, art. 21.
Art. 25. Miscellaneous Tables, figurate Numbers, &e.
We have placed in this article tables which could not properly be
described under any one of the previous twenty-four heads. The list is not,
however, a long one, as we have frequently placed doubtful tables in the
article which most nearly applied to them.
We may refer especially to Joncourr’s table of triangular numbers (de-
scribed below), which is perhaps unique. ReEIsHamMER’s commercial loga~
rithms and Montrerrrisr’s binary logarithms are described in § 3, art. 13.
Prcarte’s table to facilitate the performance of divisions is described in § 3,
art. 7. We may also particularly notice Duexn’s large table (§ 4) of log
1:2....). There is a table of binomial-theorem coefficients in Rovsz (see
below) ; and other tables of the same kind are referred to under Interpolation
Tables in § 3, art. 21. Tables of endings of squares are noticed in § 3,
art. 4; and tables for the solution of cubic equations, viz. + (w — 2%), in
§ 3, art. 5.
Browne, 1731. Pp. 6 and 7 are occupied by a table headed “ Area of
us
360
it gives a, 2a, 3a....100a, 200a, 300a, and 360a to 7 figures. There are
also three other columns in which the results only differ by a change of
decimal point.
Through a mistake in the printing in the copy before us, all the odd pages
are upside down.
Heilbronner, 1742. On pp. 922-924, the numbers from unity to 140,
72, and 100 are expressed in the scales whose radices are 3, 2, and 12
respectively.
Joncourt, 1762 [T.I.]. A table of triangular numbers up to that of
20,000, ome) for all numbers from n=1 to 20,000 (the table
the circle in degrees and to the 10,000th part of a degree.” Calling iG
occupies 224 pp.).
[T. IL.] Cubes of numbers from 1 to 600.
There are 36 pages of explanation &c., in which it is shown how [T. I.]
may be used in the extraction of square roots, &e. De Morgan refers to this
book as “De la Nature....de Nombres trigonaux,” 1762, so we suppose
some copies with the introduction &c. in French were published. The
Royal Society’s copy has “ Dec. 23, 1762,” written in ink undergeath the
printed date. The book is handsomely printed.
The Babbage Catalogue also gives the same work with an English title.
‘The Nature and Notable Use of the most simple trigonal numbers, with
@ 2
34 REPORT—1873.
two additional tables, &c., translated from the Latin of E. de Joncourt’ by
the author’s self,’ :
Phillips, 1829. This is not properly a table at all. Names and an
abbreviated way of writing them are suggested for all numbers up to 9
followed by 4000 figures, the chief peculiarity of the system being that 1000
is called ten hundred, and 10,000 a thousand, and so on. The only
explanation of the object of the table is contained in the curiously untrue
remark that, by adopting the author’s names, “ we obtain a clearer view of
calculations which are generally called inconceivable only because we have
hitherto adopted no terms to express and limit them.” On Sir R. Phillips,
and the value of his works, see De Morgan’s ‘ Budget of Paradoxes’ (1872),
pp. 143-145.
D. Galbraith, 1838. A piece contains 4,5....56 squares, and the
table is to show the number of dozens in any number of pieces up. to 100,
&e. It contains for #= 4, 5....56; and y= 1, 2, 3....:100;, 200;
300, 400, and 500, the value of « being constant over any one page: thus
x = 15, y = 65, we have given 81:3 for 51; (15 x 65) = 81,4. The table was
calculated to give the number of handkerchiefs in any number of pieces, &c.
De Morgan, 1843. Dexcmn’s table (§ 4) of log (1,2....#) is reprinted
to six places by De Morgan at the end of his article on “ Probabilities ” in
the ‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana.’ The last figure is not corrected: the
table occupies pp. 486-490.
Rouse (no date). The tables, which are neither elaborate nor very nume-
rous, are not of sufficient mathematical value to render it necessary to do more
than give a general idea of their contents. In the body of the work are a num-
ber of small tables of this kind :—A and B (of equal skill) play 21 games; and
the. odds in favour of A’s winning 1,2....20, 21 are given as tabular results.
Similar tables are given for 20, 19....2 games played. Then we have the
same when the odds in favour of A are 6 to 5,5 to 4,5 to 3, &c.,—the
‘maximum number of games, however, being six. On a folding sheet at the
end is given the number of ways in which 1, 2, 3....60 points can be
thrown with 1, 2....10 dice, and also the number of ways in which 52
cards can be combined into 4 hands in any given manner (thus, 5 diamonds,
4 hearts, 3 spades, and 1 club can be obtained in 3421322190 ways); the
factor and the result when the suits are not specified are also given. The
mode of formation of the table is obvious.
On a folding sheet at the beginning of the book is given (a +)” at
full length fora = 1, 2....80. j
The following is a list of miscellaneous tables contained in works that are
described in § 4. For greater convenience a brief description of the contents
of each table is appended to the reference to it.
Figurate Numbers.—Lampert, 1798, T. XX XVII.
Hyperbolic Antilogarithms (viz. powers of e) and their Briggian logarithms.
—Scuuizez, 1778 [T. I.];, Veaa, 1797, Vol. II. T. III.; Lamserr, 1798, T.
XI.;.Hitssr’s Veea, T. VII.; Kourer, 1848, T. ILI.; Suorrrepn, 1844
[T. IT.], III. ; Horron, 1858, T. XII. ; Canrer, 1853 [T. I.], I.
Miscellaneous.—Suarp, 1717 ['T. I.] ( multiples of 3) Dopson, 1747,
T. XX. (combinations), T. XXII. (permutations), T. XXXYV. (seconds in any
number of minutes less than 2°); Scuutzn, 1778 (Pythagorean triangles) ;
Maseres, 1795 (multiples of primes); Vuca, 1797, Vol. II. [T. VII.] and
[T. VIIM.] (piling of shot); Lamwserr, 1798, T. II. (multiples of primes), T.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 85
III. (products of consecutive primes), T. XVII. (numbers of the form
mee og), 1. XXTV.! (4, G*....ftor ¢ = 10,000" m, &e.),°T. XXXTI.
(Functiones hyperbolice circularibus analoge); Borps and Derrampre,
1800 or 1801 [T. V.] (log sin (x + 2)—log sin w, &c. centesimal); Pzarson,
1824 [T. IT.] (1°, 2°....as decimals of the circumference); Dzrcrn, 1824,
T. I. (large table of log (1.2....a)), T. III. (multiples of log 2, log 3, &c.) ;
Ursinvs, 1827 [T. IV.] (length of chords subtending given angles); Hantscut,
1827, T. XI. (multiples of constants); Harrie, 1829 (contents of solids ex-
pressed in Fuss and Zoll) ; [Dz Morean], 1839 ['T. VI.], (log (1.2.3... .x));
Hitssn’s Vuca, 1840, T. IV. (chord table), T. IX. Fand G (w ao &e.) ;
SnortrepE (tables), 1849, T. IV. and V. (for calculating logarithms and anti-
logarithms), and T. VIII. (log (1.2.3....a)); Domwr, 1852, T. XXX.
j 2
({e + x} ); Suanks, 1853 [T. L.} (terms of tan~'1 and tan—,1,);
Scuroy, 1860, T. IIL. (hyp. log 10" and 1+4 Ta, *ScuLomitce [1865 ? ]
(elliptic quadrants); Everrrr, 1866; Wacxrrsarta, 1867, T. I. (log
(12).....%), log (1.3..,.2), log (2.4....a)); Panxuursr, 1871, T. LYV.,
VI-VIII., X., XI., XV.—XVIT., XIX., XXTV., XXIX., XXXVI. See
also Kurrx, 1848, T. 2-10 and 11 (Theory-of-number tables and multiples of
7 and -) (§ 3, art. 4).
Tv
§ 4. Works containing Collections of Tables, arranged in alphabetical order.
[The titles of the works can be found by reference to § 5.]
Académie de Prusse (1776). This collection of tables only contains
two that come within the scope of this Report.
[T. I.] (vol. iii. pp. 172-207). Table of sines, expressed as ares whose
length is equal to that of the sine; viz. for # (expressed in degrees and mi-
nutes) as argument there is given the angle (expressed in degrees, minutes,
seconds, and tenths of a second) whose circular measure is sin x, the argu-
ment « being given to every minute of the quadrant. There are no differ-
ences; and the arrangement of the table is quadrantal (not semiquadrantal).
The table is due to Schulze.
[T. IL.] (Vol. iii. pp. 258-271). Lengths of circular arcs, viz. the circular
measures of 1°, 2°, 3°,....860°, of 1’, 2’,....60’, and of 1”, 2”,....60" to
27 places. This table is by Schulze, in whose collection it also appears : see
Scuvmze (T. VIT.}.
Both these tables are included under the head “ Tables auxiliaires” in the
third volume.
The whole work is attributed in the Royal Society’s Catalogue to Scuutzz,
and, from internal evidence we have little doubt, correctly.
Adams, 1796 [T.I.]. Six-figure logarithms to 10,860, written at length,
with characteristics. Differences are added.
[T. IL.] Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the qua-
drant, to 6 places; with tables at the bottom of the page to facilitate inter-
polations.
['T. IIL.] Log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cosecants for
every quarter point, to 5 places.
86 REPORT—1873.
Andrew, 1805. T. XIII. Squares of natural semichords, viz. sin’ 5
from #=0° to v=120°, at intervals of 10”, to seven places, with differences
and proportional parts for seconds. This valuable table occupies pp. 29-148
of the work.
T. XIV. Proportional logarithms to 3°, at intervals of a second, to four
places; same as T, 74 of Rarmr.
The other tables are nautical.
Anonymous [18607]. Four-figure logarithms of numbers from 100 to
1000, with proportional parts, on a card (about 12 in. by 10 in.). On the
back, numbers (to four figures) to logarithms from -000 to 1-000, at intervals
of :001, with proportional parts. Printed by J. Sittenfeld, published by
Veit and Co., Berlin. Nodate. The Brit.-Mus. copy received April 2, 1860.
Bagay, 1829. T. XXII. Proportional or logistic logarithms for every
second to 3° (or 3°) to five places; same as T. 74 of Rapzr, except to five
instead of four places.
T. XXIII. Seven-figure logarithms, from unity to 21,600 (with the cor-
responding degrees, minutes, and seconds), to seven places, with differences,
but not proportional parts.
T. XXIV. Logarithms cf sexagesimal numbers, viz. logarithms of num-
bers of seconds in all angles from 6° 10’ 0” to 12°, at intervals of 1”, to five
laces.
fs Arprnprx.—Table of log sines and tangents for every second of the qua-
drant to seven places (without differences). The change in the middle of the
column is beautifully clearly marked by a large black nucleus, surrounded by
a circle, printed instead of zero. Only the first logarithm affected is so de-
noted; but the mark is so striking that it readily attracts the eye. The table
was formed by interpolation from Catxzr, corrected by Taytor (see p. ii of
the ‘ Avertissement’); 76 errors were thus found in Taylor. Some errata
are given at the end of the work.
All the other tables are astronomical. This work, which has now become
rare, is much esteemed.
Barlow, 1814. T. 1. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 7 places),
reciprocals (to 9 places as far as 1000, afterwards to 10), and all factors of
numbers from 1 to 10,000. Thus, for the factors of 4932 we have given 2?.
3 897s
T. Il. The first ten powers of numbers from 1 to 100. This table was
taken from Hurron [T. IV.] and Vuea (Tabule), vol. ii. T. IV. The errors
given in this Report in Hutton are not reproduced in this table.
T. III. Fourth and fifth powers of numbers from 100 to 1000.
T. IV. For the solution of the irreducible case in cubic equations ;- viz.
y*°—y is tabulated from y=1-0000 to 1:1549, at intervals of -0001, to 8
places.
T. V. Prime numbers from 1 to 100,103 (this table is incorrectly described
on the titlepage to it as extending to 10,000 only).
T. VI. Hyperbolic logarithms, to 8 places, of numbers from unity to 10,000
(this table is incorrectly described on the titlepage to it as only extending
from 1000 to 10,006)
T. VIL. Differential coefficients, viz. the first six binomial-theorem coeffi-
< n(n—1) mn—1)....(n—5) 4
cients, “Jp +s ae @ 2 from n=-01 to 1:00, at intervals of
‘01, to 7 places,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 87
These tables occupy 256 pp., and are followed by 78 pp. of formule, weights,
and measures, &c.
There is a full introduction, stating whence the tables were derived, or, if
computed, from what formule, &c. The hyperbolic logarithms were taken
from Wotrram’s table in Scuurze; and the reciprocals, factors, square and
cube roots, and several other ,tables were the result of independent cal-
culations.
The squares, cubes, square and cube roots, and reciprocals from this table
were reprinted and stereotyped, at the suggestion of De Morgan, in 1840 (see
Bartow’s tables, 1840, in § 3, art. 4). The reprint thus gives T. I., the
column of factors being omitted. A list of 90 errors in T. I. of the original
work is given in the reprint; and 25 errors in T. VI. are given by Prof.
Wackerbarth in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for
April 1867.
Bates, 1781. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000, without dif-
ferences.
[T. IL.} Log sines and tangents (to 5 places), and natural sines and tan-
gents (to 7 places), for every minute of the quadrant, semiquadrantally
arranged: no differences.
The tables (which have a separate titlepage, bearing the date 1779) are
preceded by 211 pp. of trigonometry, and followed by an Appendix on the
motion of projectiles in a non-resisting medium. The work was intended for
use in the Military Academy, Belmont, near Dublin.
Beardmore, 1862. Only 23 pages (pp. 84-106) of this work contain
tables that come within the scope of this Report.
T. 34. Areas and circumferences of circles, to 3 places, for diameters
“1, -2,....°9, and from 1:00 to 100, at intervals of -25.
T. 35. Squares, cubes, fifth powers, square and cube roots (to 3 places),
and reciprocals (to 9 places) for numbers from 1 to 100, the squares and
square and cube roots being given as far as 1100.
T. 36, Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 100 to 1000.
T. 37. Log sines from 0° to 45° 50’, at intervals of 10’, to 6 places.
T. 38. Natural sines, tangents, and secants for 1°, 2°,....90°, to 6 places.
The other tables relate to hydraulics, rainfall, &c.
The work was first published in 1850 ; and a second edition, in an extended
form, was issued in 1851.
Beverley [1833?] T. VI. (p. 127). Any number of minutes less than
12" expressed as a decimal of 12", to 4 places.
T. VI. (pp. 232-243). Sewagesimal cosecants and cotangents for every
minute from 20° to 90°. A sexagesimal cotangent is the cotangent when
the radius is taken=60' (or 1°); viz. it bears to 60’ the same ratio that the
ordinary cotangent does to unity, and is usually expressed in minutes, seconds,
and decimals of a second. The same, of course, holds for sines, cosines, &c.
Thus the sexagesimal sine of 30° is 30’, cosecant 30°=120', &c.
In this table the quantities tabulated are not sexagesimal functions, but
sexagesimal functions divided by 3 (and are therefore to radius 20'): we thus
have cosec 380°=40', The table is given to two decimal places of a second.
T. XV. Sexagesimal sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines (viz. to rad.
60’) to every degree to 90°, to one decimal place of a second, with differences.
T. XVII. Log sines and tangents, from 18° to 90°, at intervals of 1’, to
4 places.
T. XVII. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places;
same as T. 74 of Rapmr.
88 REPORT—1873.
Mr. Beverley made some improvements in Tayror’s Sexagesimal Table
(§ 3, art. 9), and devised a plan to introduce them into Tayzor’s table without
reprinting it. He accordingly made application to the Board of Admiralty to
be allowed to do so in the copies that remained unsold; but this was refused.
He then offered to purchase all the unsold copies of Hurron’s ‘ Products’
and Tayzor’s tables, in order to introduce his improvements ; but his applica-
tion was refused after the terms had been agreed upon, because he asked for
six months’ credit. In the Appendix he complains that “the immense
labour that the calculation of his tables required him to exert had then ruined
his constitution, and brought him to the verge of a premature grave.” It is
to be presumed that the Admiralty had some grounds for their refusal; but
it is certain that no use has been made of Hutton or Taylor since the time of
Mr. Beverley’s application. No pains at any time seem to have been taken
to circulate or make known any of the books published by the Board of
Longitude, so that none of them have ever come into general use.
Mr. Beverley died in 1834, at the age of 39; and the present work was
‘published after his death, as it contains a notice of his life by “J. B.”, and
evident traces of revision. He often refers to his Taylor’s Sexagesimal Table,
but no doubt it was never published. We have seen ‘The Book of Formule
xc., Cirencester, 1838,’ by the same author; but it contains no tables.
Borda and Delambre, An IX. (1800 or 1801). [T. I.] Seven-figure
logarithms of numbers from 10,000, to 100,000, with differences and pro-
portional parts for all. The line is broken when a change takes place in
the middle of it. It may be remarked that while in all modern tables
of logarithms of numbers three figures are common to the block, and
four only are given in the columns, in this table there are but two leading
figures, and five are found in the columns, so that the lines are broken in
very few instances. ['T. II.] Eleven-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000,
and from 100,000 to 102,000 (the latter with differences).
[T. III.} Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for centesimal argu-
ments, viz. from 0 to 10‘, at intervals of 10", and from 0% to 50%, at in-
tervals of 10‘ to 11 places, without differences (%,‘, being used to denote
centesimal degrees (or grades as they are sometimes called), minutes, and
seconds).
[T. LV.] Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1000 to 11 places.
[T. V.] Log differences of sines for every 19, 29,... 10 throughout the
quadrant, and the same for tangents for 1% and 2%, to 7 places, viz. log
sin 27—log sin 19, log sin 37—log sin 27..... throughout the quadrant of
100”, log sin 47—log sin 29, log sin 67—log sin 49 throughout the quadrant,
&e. It is to be noticed, however, that in this mode of description of the
table log sin 07 must be treated throughout as 0 instead of —ow ; for facing
1” we have given log sin 1/ (not log sin 17— log sin 02) in the first column ;
and facing 2? in the second we have log sin 27 &c.
[T. VI.] A great centesimal table, giving log sines, cosines, tangents, co-
tangents, secants, and cosecants from 0” to 39, at intervals of 10° (with full
proportional parts for every second), thence to 50% at intervals of 1’, with
full proportional parts for every 10").
A page of tables for converting sexagesimals into centesimals &c., com-
pletes the work, which is a thick small-sized quarto, with clearly printed
and not too heavy pages. After the printing of the work Prony asked
Delambre to examine the Tanres pv CAaDAsTRE (which are to every 10”
throughout the quadrant to 12 places ; but see § 3, art. 13); and this gave
Delambre the opportunity of reading them with Borda’s table of sines and
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 89
tangents in this work: the result was the detection of a great number of
last-place errors, which are given on pp. 117-119 (see p. 114, Préface de
Véditeur). There are other errata given on p. 116.
De Morgan remarks that Delambre is wrong in saying that Hoperr and
Iprter’s tables, 1799 (§ 4), subdivided the quadrant as minutely as those
which he and Borda had published ; but this is not the case, as the latter
are as stated above. The mistake is one into which any one accustomed
to describing tables would naturally fall, as the mode of arrangement gives
the impression that the portion of [T. VI.] to 37 is to every second, and that
that from 3? to 409 is to every ten seconds: at first sight it is not easy to see
why this was not the form of table adopted; but the reason for the arrange-
ment being as it is was no doubt that the sine and cosecant, tangent and co-
tangent might be placed exactly on the same footing, as the proportional
parts are the same for each pair. [Mr. Lewis, of Mount Vernon, Ohio, men-
tions that Bremiker has fallen into the same mistake as De Morgan did, thus
giving additional proof of how misleading is the arrangement of the table to
those who have not had occasion to use it: see ‘Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society,’ May 1873, vol. xxxiii. pp. 455-458. ]
Bowditch, 1802. T. XII. For the conversion of arc into time.
T. XIII. Log 3 elapsed time, mid time, and rising; same as T. XVI. of
Masxetyne, 1802. It is stated in the preface that this table was first
published by Mr. Douwes, of Amsterdam, about 1740, and that he re-
ceived £50 for it from the Commissioners of Longitude in England,
1024 (small) errors contained in this table in the second edition of Rreurstre
TaBLus are said to be here corrected.
T. XIV. Natural sines for every minute to 5 places.
T. XV. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 3°; same as T. 74 of
Rarer.
T. XVI. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every quarter point to 5
places, and five-figure logarithms to 10,000.
T. XVII. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the qua-
drant to 5 places: arguments also in time (90°=¢welve hours), and the com-
plement to 12" given also. The other tables are nautical.
On the titlepage it is stated that the tables are “corrected from many
thousand errors of former publications ;” most of them doubtless only affect-
ing the last figure by a unit.
Bremiker, 1852. T. I. Six-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000
to 100,010, with proportional parts; with degrees, minutes, and seconds
corresponding to every tenth number of seconds, and ten times each such
number; the change in the line is denoted by a bar over the 3rd figure
in all the logarithms affected. The table is followed by the first hundred
multiples of the modulus 434... and its reciprocal to 7 places.
T. IL. Log sines (left-hand pages) and tangents (right-hand pages) for
every second to 5° to 6 places, and log sines and tangents for every ten
seconds of the quadrant to 6 places, with differences, and proportional parts
beyond 5°. This is followed by small tables giving the circular measure of
eo. . 1809/22, 2 2. 5 60', 1", 2"... 60" to 6 places; and for the
conversion of arc into time &c. The last page contains a few constants.
There is an introduction of 82 pp., containing, among other things, an in-
vestigation ‘‘ De erroribus, quibus computationes logarithmice afficiuntur.”
Nine errors in this work are pointed out by Prof. Wackerbarth in the
‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society ” for April 1867.
Bremiker’s Vega, 1857. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and
90 REPORT—1873.
from 10,000 to 100,000, with differences and ali the proportional parts on the
page. The change of figure in the line is denoted by a bar placed over the
fourth figures of all the logarithms affected. S and T (see § 3, art. 13) are
given at the bottom of the page, as also are the numbers of degrees, minutes,
and seconds corresponding to every tenth number in the number-column of
the table. At the end of this table is a table containing the first hundred
multiples of the modulus 434... and its reciprocal 2-302 . . . to 7 places.
T. Il. Log sines and tangents from 0° to 5° to every second, to seven
places: no differences. At the end of this table is given a page of circular
arcs, containing the circular measure of 1°, 2°, ... 180°; 1', 2',... 60'; 1”,
2',... 60" to seven places.
T. III. Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds of the quadrant, to
seven places, with differences: proportional parts are added after 5°.
T. ILI. is followed by a page containing tables for the conversion of arc
into time: the other tables are astronomical. On p. 547 are a few con-
stants. The tables are stereotyped.
An edition with an English Introduction, edited by Prof. W. L. F.
Fischer, was published in 1857 (title in § 5); the contents are the same as
in the above work, the tables being printed from the same plates.
Bruhns, 1870. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000, and
from 10,000 to 100,000, with differences, and all the proportional parts.
The all is printed in italics, because in Bassacu, Cater, &c. only every other
table of proportional parts near the beginning of the table is given, for want
of space.
In this work there is no inconvenient crowding, as even where the side-tables
are very numerous, the type, though small, is still very clear. The constants
S and T, for the calculation of sines and tangents (§ 3, art. 13), are added,
and placed at the bottom of the page, as also are the numbers of degrees,
minutes, and seconds in every tenth number of the number-column (regarded
as that number of seconds), and the same for each of these numbers multi-
plied by 10.
T. IL. Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents to every second from
0° to 6°, to seven places, with differences throughout, and proportional parts,
except in the portion of the table from 10’ to 1° 20’, where the size of the
page would not admit of their insertion.
T. III. Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents from 6° to 45° to
every ten seconds, to seven places, with differences and proportional parts.
Of course room could not be found for the proportional. parts of all the dif-
ferences ; but throughout all the table on no page are there less than six
proportional-part tables.
On p. 186 the first hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal
are given, to ten places ; and at the end of the book are tables of circular ares,
viz. the circular measure of 1°, 2°, .. . 180°, 1’, 2',... 40’, 1”, 2”,... 60",
to ten places, a page for the conversion of arc into time, and some constants.
In T. I. the change in the line is denoted by a bar placed over the fourth
figure of all the logarithms affected, the similar change when the third figure
isdecreased being denoted in the other tables by an asterisk; a final 5 in-
creased has a bar superscript. It is incorrectly stated in the preface that the
practice of marking all the last figures that have been increased was intro-
duced by Scurén; for this innovation was due to Bassacs (see his preface,
p- x). Dr. Bruhns may, however, merely mean that the mark (viz. a bar sub-
script) introduced by Scuréy (1860) fatigues the eye and is of next to no
use; and if so, we entirely agree with him. In Bansacy the increase is
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 91
denoted by a point subscript, which the reader scarcely notices; but in
Schrén the bar catches the eye at once and is confusing. The cases also
in which it is necessary to know whether the last figure (unless a 5) has been
increased are excessively rare ; and in fact any one who wants such accuracy
should use a ten-figure table.
On the whole, this is one of the most convenient and complete (considering
the number of proportional-part tables) logarithmic tables for the general com-
puter that we have met with; the figures have heads and tails; and the pages
are light and clear. Further, we believe it is published at a low price.
Byrne, 1849 (Practical . .. method of calculating &c.). [T.I.] Primes
to 5000, pp. xiii and xiv.
[T. II.] A very small table to convert degrees dc. into circular measure,
KV
[T. III.} List of constants (69 in number), chiefly relating to + (which
Mr. Byrne denotes by p), such as 27, 367, <5 7,772, ¥ 7, &e. (pp. xviii
to xxiii): the value of w is inaccurate; see § 3, art. 24.
[T. IV.] Logarithms of numbers from unity to 222, to 50 places (pp. 77-82).
Callet, 1853. [T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 1200, and from 10,200
to 108,000 (the last 8000 being to 8 places). Differences and proportional
parts are added; but near the beginning of the table, where the differences
change very rapidly, only the proportional parts of alternate differences are
given, through want of room on the page (this is also done by Bappage and
others). The constants S and T (see § 3, art. 13) for calculating the log
sines and tangents of angles less than 3°, as also V the variation for 10”,
are given in a line at the top of the page (see p. 113 of the Introduction).
To the left of each number in the number-column are placed not only the
degrees, minutes, &c. corresponding to that number of seconds, but also, in
another column, those corresponding to ten times that number. When the
change of figure occurs in the middle of the block of figures the line is broken
—the best theoretical way of overcoming the difficulty. De Morgan and
others, however, have expressed a strong dislike to it; and we agree with
them.
[T. I1.] I. Common and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1200
to 20 places, the former being on the left and the latter on the right-hand
pages. JI. Common and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 101,000 to
101,179 to 20 places, with first, second, and third differences, the hyper-
bolic logarithms being on the right-hand pages. (Note. All the common
‘logarithms from 101,143 to 101,179, with one exception, contain errors. )
Iii. Common and hyperbolic antilogarithms from :00001 to :00179 at
intervals of -00001, and from -000001 to -000179 at intervals of -000001,
respectively, to 20 places, with first, second, and third differences.
[T. ILI.| I. Common logarithms (to 61 places) and hyperbolic logarithms
(to 48 places) of all numbers to 100, and of primes from 100 to 1097; and
(II.) from 999,980 to 1,000,021: the hyperbolic logarithms occupy the right-
hand pages as before.
[T. IV.] The first hundred multiples to 24 places, and the first ten mul-
tiples to 70 places, of the modulus -434 . . . and its reciprocal 2:302...
[T. V.] Ratios of the lengths of degree &c. (ancient and modern) to the
radius as unit, viz. the circular measure of 1°, 2°,... 100°, 1’, 2',...60',
1”, 2”, ... 60", and of the corresponding quantities in the centesimal divi-
sion of the right angle (1%... 100%; 1‘... 100°; 1°. . .100") to 25 places.
[T. VI.] Log sines and tangents for minutes (centes¢mal) throughout the
quadrant (to seven places), viz. from 0% to 50’, at intervals of 1‘, with differences.
92 meron 873.
The order of the columns is sine, tangent, difference for sine, difference for
tangent, cosine; but this arrangement only holds up to 5’, when differences
are added for the cosine also. A change in the figure at the top of the
column is denoted in the column by a line subscript under all the figures of
the first logarithm affected, which arrests the eye at once.
[T. VII.| Natural and log sines (to 15 places) for every 10° (ten minutes
centesimal) of the quadrant. It is as well here to note that in the log sine
and cosine columns only nine figures are given, as the preceding figures are
obtainable from [T. VI.]; two, however, are common to both: thus from
[T. VI.] we find log sin 10‘=7-1961197, and in [T. VII.] we have given,
corresponding to log sin 10°, 969843372; so that log sin 10‘=7-19611969
843372. It will therefore be noticed that the log sines are in strictness
given to 14 (and not 15) places. Further, it appears that the last figure
has not been, or at all events not been always, corrected; for log sin 509=
log j= 8494850021 6800940. ..-, and the logarithm in [T. VII.] ends
with the figures 6800. This is the only one we have examined.
At the end of [T. VII.] is given a page of tables to connect decimals of a
right angle with degrees, minutes, and seconds, &c.
[T. VIII.] consists of proportional-part tables, and occupies 10 pp.: by
means of them any number less than 10,000 can be multiplied by a single
digit with great ease; the use of this in interpolation is evident. A full
explanation is given on pp. 32-36 of the Introduction to the work.
[T. LX.] Log sines and tangents for every second of the first five degrees,
to seven places, without differences (sexagesimal).
[T. X.] Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds of the quadrant, to
seven places, with differences (sexagesimal),
(T. XI.]| Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600" — log #” from «= 0" to
v = 5280" =1° 28'; 3600"=1°.
The other tables have reference to Borda’s method for the determination
of the longitude at sea.
On the whole, this is the most complete and practically useful collection
of logarithms for the general computer that has been published. In one not
very thick octavo volume, 11 important tables are given; the type is very
clear and distinct, though rather small. In the logarithms of numbers an
attempt has been made to give rather too much on the page; but for general
usefulness this collection of tables is almost unique.
The introduction, of 118 pp., is the worst portion of the work; it is badly
arranged, confused, and, worst of all, has no index ; so that it is very hard to
find the explanation of any table required, if it is explained at all. On
p- 112 the value of ¢ is given; but the figures after the 8th group of five
are erroneous, and should be 47093 69995 95749 66967 6....(see Brit.
Assoc. Report, 1871, Transactions of Sections, p. 16).
On pp. 12 and 18 of the introduction are two tables that deserve notice:
the first gives the square, 4th, 16th... . 2°°th roots of 10 to about 28 significant
figures (leaving out of consideration the ciphers that follow the 1 in the
higher powers). The second gives powers of °5 as far as the 60th.
With regard to errors, an important list is given by Lefort in the ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ vol. xliv. p. 1100 (1857); and these of course apply to the later
tirages. Many errors of importance, as also some information as to the
sources whence Callet derived his tables, are given. See also Gauss in Zach’s
‘ Monatliche Correspondenz,’ November 1802 (or ‘Werke,’ t. iti. p. 241), for
four errata, and Gernerth’s paper (referred to at the end of the introductory
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 93
remarks in §3, art. 13), and also Hurron’s tables (editions 1783-1822).
Gernerth remarks (p. 25) that errors pointed out by Hutton in 1822 still re-
mained uncorrected in the tirage of 1846. We may also refer to a paper by
Herrmann, entitled ‘ Verbesserung der II. Callet’schen Tafel der gemeinen
Logarithmen mit 20 Decimalen, nebst Vorschligen fiir die weitere Forde-
rung dieses Zweckes,” printed in the ‘ Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften,’ Vienna, 1848, part ii. pp. 175-190.
On p. lii of their work, Hosrrr and Ineter (1799) remark that they
found that in general the natural sines of Callet were calculated accurately,
but that in the log sines the last two figures were generally doubtful; they
mention also that they found many other faults in the work, but, being un-
certain how far these are corrected in the stereotype edition, they only give
one: viz., on p. 117 of the introduction, in the eighth place in the value of f
there is a 2 for a 3; and this fault renders erroneous the multiples of f. A
list of 380 errors is given on pp. 348 and 349 of the book, in all of which
the error is + 1 in the last place, and also an error in a natural sine is given.
The above error in f is corrected in the tirage of 1853.
On p. 120 of Borpsa and Detampre there are given six errors in the ste-
reotyped tables of Callet. A good many errors are also given at the end of
Vuea’s Manual (1800).
Many other errata are noted in other books ; but it seems useless to give
references without at the same time examining whether the errors have been
subsequently corrected, and, if so, in what tirages.
Hobert and Ideler consider that Callet obtained his log sines most pro-
bably by interpolation from the ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis’ of Vlacq.
The number of tirages of this work has been very great: it was first
published in 1783, we believe ; but the type from which the earlier tirages
were printed was subsequently reset, as the size of the page in the editions
published in this century is larger than that of the first, which had therefore
more right to the title “Tables portatives.” The tirage we have described
above is that of 1853 ; and we have seen one of 1862, “ revue par J. Dupuis ”
(Dupuis was himself subsequently the editor of a set of logarithmic tables,
described in this section). There is also a still more recent edition, edited
by M. Saigey. We have an impression that the Catzer of 1793 was the first
logarithmic table stereotyped; but we have not investigated the matter.
Coleman, 1846. T. XIX. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every
quarter point, to 6 places.
T. XX. Six-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged in decades, with pro-
portional parts above 1000.
T. XXI. Logarithms for finding the apparent time or horary angle, viz.
; : 1—cos # ‘
log semi- versed sines ( = log oa from 0" to 9", at intervals of 5%, to
5 places, with proportional parts.
T. XXII. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the
quadrant, to 6 places.
T. XXIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°; same as T. 74
of Raver, only to 5 instead of 4 places. It must be observed that on the
first page (extending to 10’) the logarithms are not given completely, the
last figure, two figures, or three figures being printed as ciphers. This
is done, we presume, because in the cases to which the table is intended to
be applied accuracy in these places is not required. The same is done in
several other copies of this table occurring in other nautical collections.
Opposite 0 is given 4,88., instead of —o, The other tables are nautical.
94. REPORT—1873.
Croswell, 1791. T.1I. Log secants, half log secants, and half log sines, viz.
log sec x, 3 log sec w# and 3 log sin a, to every minute of the quadrant, to seven
places, the last two being separated by a comma for the convenience of those
who only require five places; semiquadrantally arranged: no differences. The
table, as headed in the book, implies that the tabular results are natural ;
but they are as above.
T. V. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places: the
same as I. 74 of Raper.
T. XIII. Small table to convert are into time. The other tables are
nautical.
De Decker, 1626. T. I. Ten-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000,
with characteristics and differences.
T. II. Logarithmic sines and tangents, to seven decimals, for every minute,
from Gunter 1620 (§ 3, art. 15).
These tables were always assigned to Vrace till, in the course of the pre-
paration of this Report, it came to light that De Decker was the author, Vlacq
having only rendered some assistance. For the history of them, as well as
for their connexion with ‘Tables des Logarithmes pour les nombres d’un 4
10,000 composés par Henry Brigge,’ Gouda, 1626, and the tables in Wells’s
‘ Sciographia,’ 1635, see Phil. Mag., October and December (Supp. No.), 1872,
and May, 1873.
Degen, 1824. T.I. Log,,(1.2.3....7) is given from #=1 to v=1200,
to 18 places. The complement of the logarithms from 100 is also added if the
characteristic be less than 100—if not, the complement from 1000 or 10,000 ;
thus log (1. 2....69)=98-233...., and the complement is 1°766....; log
(1.2....70)=100-078...., and the complement is 899-921..... The first
portion of this table is reprinted by Du Moreay, to 6 places, in the ‘ Eney-
clopedia Metropolitana’ (§ 3, art. 25).
T. 11. The first hundred multiples of the modulus *434 .. . , to 30 places.
J. III. The first nine multiples of log 2, log 3, log 5, log 6, log 7, log 11,
log 12, log 13, log 14, log 15, log 17, log 18, log 19, log 21, log 22, log 23, log 24,
log 26, log 28, and log 29 (Briggian).
The other tables consist of formule &c. There is a full introduction.
[De Morgan] 1839. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000 (arranged
consecutively, and not as in seven-figure tables), with differences, and degrees
corresponding to the first number in each column.
[T. IL.] Logarithms from 1001 to 1100, to 7 places.
[T. III.] Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents to every minute, to
5 places, with differences.
[T. IV.] Log sines for every second of the first nine minutes, and also for
every tenth of a minute in the first degree.
T. V.] A small table of constants ; most of them taken from BaBBaAcer.
[T. VI.] Log (1.2.3....«), from w=6 to v=25, at intervals of unity,
and thence to 265, at intervals of 5, these last three tables being also to 5
laces.
The tables are beautifully printed, and are practically free from error.
Prof. Wackerbarth states (‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society,’ April 1867) that he finds the only error in the work to be among
the constants on p. 213, line 5, where 2°718281829 should be 2-718281828,
the following figure being 4.
There is no name on the titlepage; but it is well known that the tables
were prepared by De Morgan, and they are always spoken of by his name.
They were examined by Mr. Farley of the Nautical-Almanac Office,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 95
De Prasse, 1814. [T.I.] Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 339
(with characteristics), and thence to 10,000, arranged as is usual in seven-
figure tables. When the fifth figure has been increased it is printed in different
type. The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the third
figure of all the logarithms affected.
[T. I1.] Log sines and tangents for every minute to 5°, and thence for every
ten minutes to 85°, when the intervals are again one minute to 90°, to 5
places. 7 and e, and nine multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal are
given on the last page. The price is one franc.
A short review of this work, reprinted from the ‘ Géttingische gelehrte
Anzeigen,’ Dec. 19, 1814, will be found on p. 243 of t. iii. of Gauss’s
‘Werke.’ On pp. 241-243 is also reprinted a review of the original edition
(Leipzig), from the same ‘ Anzeigen’ for May 25, 1811.
Dodson, 1747. T. XVII. Least divisors of numbers to 10,000 (mul-
tiples of 2 and 5 omitted).
T. XVIII. Primes from 10,000 to 15,000.
T. XIX. Square and cube roots (to 6 places) of numbers to 180.
T. XX. Combinations up to the combination of 34 things, 29 together :
a table of double entry.
T. XXI. Powers of 2 to 2” &e.
T. XXII. The first 20 powers of the 9 digits.
T. XXIII. Permutations, viz. 1.2....2, to x=30.
T. XXV. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°; of 1', 2’,....60'; of 1”
ge 00" ;,and of 1"... .60" » to, 7 places.
T. XXVI. Versed sines of ares, and the areas of the segments included
by those ares and their chords to every 15’ of the quadrant, to 7 places, with
differences.
T. XXVIL. The first 9 multiples of 12 constants (viz. ve
Tv
to 7 places.
T. XXVIII. Table of polygons, giving any three of the four quantities,
length of side, radius of inscribed circle, radius of circumscribed circle, area,
when the fourth is given=1, for polygons of less than 13 sides, to 7 places.
T. XXIX. Table of regular solids, giving any four of the five quantities,
side, radius of circumscribed sphere, radius of inscribed sphere, superficies,
solidity, when the fifth is given=1, to 7 places, for the 5 regular solids,
T. XXXII. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, with differences.
T, XXXIII. Antilogarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from -0001 to
-9999 at intervals of -0001, to 7 places.
T. XXXIV. Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to
7 places, with differences ; but between 0° and 2° the differences between the
logarithms of the arcs and the logarithms of the sines and tangents of those
ares are given instead.
T. XXXY. The number of seconds contained in any number of minutes
less than 2°.
T. XXXVI. Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600°—log w from x=1 to
x= 4800* (=80") (argument expressed in minutes and seconds), to 4 places,
T. XXXVII. Weper’s logarithms. The table, however, is really one to con-
vert common into hyperbolic logarithms, and is in fact, when so regarded, the
first 1000 multiples of the reciprocal of the modulus, viz. 2-302..., to 6 places.
T. XXXVIIL. Products to 9 x 9999.
There are, besides, very many other tables of all kinds, astronomical, com-
mercial, &c. ; we have described all the mathematical ones.
96 REPORT—1878.
Domke, 1852. T. XXX. Quadrate der Minuten des Stundenwinkels, viz.
2
(~+¢) from v=1 to a=15, and from y=1 to y=60, to one decimal
place; thus corresponding to 8' 20" the table has 69-4; for 8’ 20”=84=
8-33 ..., and its square, retaining one decimal place, is 69-4.
T. XXXII. Six-figure logarithms to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with
differences: all the logarithms written at full length.
T. XXXIIT. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to
6 places.
T. XXXIV. Log sines and tangents for every second, for the first two
degrees, to 6 places: all the logarithms written at length.
T. XXXY. Log sines, tangents, and secants, to every minute of the
quadrant (arguments also expressed in time), with differences, arranged semi-
quadrantally : all the logarithms written at length.
T. XXXVI. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places,
arranged quadrantally.
T. XXXVIT. Logarithmen der halbverflossenden Zeit, viz. log cosee x from
«=0" to «=3" 59™ 55° at intervals of 5°, to 5 places, with proportional parts
for seconds.
T. XXXVIII. Logarithmen der Mittelzeit, viz. log 2 sin x, from a=0h
to w=3" 59™ 55° at intervals of 5°, to 5 places, with proportional parts for
seconds.
T. XXXIX. Logarithmen des Stundenwinkels, viz. log versed sine a, from
a2=0" to e=7" 59™ 55° at intervals of 5°, to 5 places, with proportional parts
for seconds.
T. XL. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; the
same as T, 74 of Rapmr.
T. XLVII. and XLVIII. occupy one page, and are for the conversion of
are into time, and vice versd.
The other tables are nautical.
In all the tables the logarithms are written at full length ; the type is thin
and very clear, the figures having heads and tails.
T. XXX. was calculated from this work; T. XXXIJ., XXXIII., and
XXXYV.—-XL. were taken from Norie’s ‘Epitome of Navigation,’ (they are
Masxrtynr’s tables; but see Bowprren, 1802, T. XIII.) and T. XXXIV.
from Cater.
On the accuracy of this work see the tract of Gernerth’s referred to in
§ 3, art. 13 (p. 55). There was a second edition in 1855 (Gernerth).
Donn, 1789. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, with differences.
T. II. Log sines and cosecants to every quarter point, to 7 places.
T. III. Log sines and tangents and natural sines for every minute of the
quadrant, to 7 places.
T. IV. Log 3 elap. time, mid time, and rising (see explanation of the
terms under T. XVI. of Masxetynn, 1802), for every half minute to 6", to
5 places.
T. V. Log versed sines and natural tangents and secants for every 10’ of
the quadrant, to 4 places.
The other tables are nautical.
We have also ‘The British Mariner’s Assistant, containing forty Tables. .”
London, 1774, 8vo (352 pp. of tables), the tables of which are the same as
those described above.
Douglas, 1809, [T.I.] and T. I. Supplement, and T. II. Supplement.
Logarithms of numbers to 10,999, and from 100,000 to 101,009, to 7 places
(without differences).
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 97
[T. IL.] Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant,
to 7 places (without differences).
[T. ILI.] Natural sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the
- quadrant, to 7 places (without differences).
[T. IV.] Natural and log versed sines to every minute, from 0° to 180°, to
7 places (without differences).
T. III. Supplement. Table to convert sexagesimals into decimals. It
paved ty2"/4 5.1558", VU 1", 1) 2", 0 40, 21 58", 2". ..2° 58", &e. to
60’, expressed as decimals of 60’, to.4 places.
T. LV. Supplement. Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 180, to 15 places.
Ducom, 1820. T. VII. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°,
to 4 places; same as T. 74 of Rarrr.
T. IX. Log sines and tangents for every second to 2°; then follow log
cosines and cotangents for every 10” to 2°; and then log sines, cosines,
tangents, and cotangents from 2° to 45°, at intervals of 10", to 6 places.
Proportional parts are added for the portion where the intervals are 10”,
T. XIX. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places.
T. XX. Parties proportionnelles for interpolating when the tabular result
A s . : L,Y é F
is given for intervals of 24°, viz. ait (expressed in hours, minutes, and
seconds), where w is 1, 2™,....60™, and, in the first table, y is 1",2",....
24", and in the second 1”, 2™,....60™.
T. XXI. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,800, with corresponding
minutes and seconds: logarithms printed at full length; no differences.
The other tables are nautical &c.
The tables form the second part of the work. It may be noticed that, in
the remarks on T’. XIX. (p. xiv), the versed sine of w is erroneously defined
as if it were 1—sin a.
Dunn, 1784. [T.I.] Six-figure logarithms to 10,000. The arrangement
is the same as is usual in seven-figure tables ; only instead of the numbers
0,1,2,....9running along the top line, they are printed 0-00, 1:00, 2°00,....
9-00, which gives the table the appearance of being arranged differently.
(T. II.] Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant,
to 6 places. At the foot of each page is a small table, giving the differences
(for the sine and tangent) for an interval of 60” in the middle of the page,
and their proportional parts for 50”, 40", 30”, 20”, 10", 9", 8", 7", 6",5", 4",
3”,2",1". At the end is a table of the differences of the log sines, tangents,
and secants for every 10’.
Dupuis, 1868. T. I. & II. Seven-figure logarithms from 1 to 1000, and
from 10,000 to 100,000. Proportional parts éo tenths, viz. multiples with
the last figure separated by a comma, are added. (The separation of the last
figure is an improvement on the simple multiples given in Sane, 1871, and
others, as the table can be more readily used by those accustomed only to
proportional parts true to the nearest unit.) S and T ($3, art. 13) are given
at the bottom of the pages at intervals of 10". Dupuis states in the preface
that his intention had been that the table should extend to 120,000, and
that accordingly he had calculated the last 12,000 logarithms by differences,
but at the request of a number of professors he stopped at 100,000. We
venture to think he would have acted more wisely if he had not listened to
the professors*; but the matter is of no consequence now, as Sine, 1871,
extends to 200,000,
- * Several of the ordinary seven-figure tables (BanBace, Cartet, Husse’s Vaca, and
aris a extend to 108,000, and the last 8000 logarithms are given to eight places.
873. H
98 REPORT—1873.
T. III. Hyperbolic logarithms to 1000, to 7 places.
T. IV. & V. First hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal, to
7 places.
"?. VI. & VII. Log sines and tangents for every second to 5°, to 7 places,
with negative characteristics (viz. 10 not added).
T. VIII. Log sines, tangents, cotangents, and cosines (arranged in this
order) from 0° to 45° at intervals of 10", with negative characteristics,
to 7 places; with differences and proportional parts, as before, to tenths.
T. IX. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,...,180°, 1'....60', 1"....60", to 7
places.
T. X. (réduction des parties de ’équateur en temps); hours and minutes
(or minutes and seconds) of time in 1°, 2°,....360° (or 1'..,. 360’), and
seconds of time in 1", 2",.,..60", to 7 places; then follows an explanation
of the use of the tables.
This is the only work we can call to mind in which negative characteristics
(with the — sign printed over the figure) are given throughout; and to the
mathematical computer such are preferable to the ordinary characteristics
increased by 10. Also the edges of the pages of T, VI.-VIII. are red (the
rest being grey), which facilitates the use of the tables. It is curious that
it never should have occurred to any editor or publisher of a collection of tables
to colour the edges of the pages of the separate tables differently, and print
thereon also their titles, as is done with the different businesses &c. in the
London Post-Office Directory.
Dupuis was also the editor of the 1862 edition of Cater; and the titles of
several small tables of logarithms that we have not seen are advertised in
this work, viz. :—(1) an edition of Lalande’s five-figure tables, with Gaussian
logarithms added, &c.; (2) an 18mo book of four-figure tables; and (3)
logarithmic and antilogarithmic tables to 4 places, for the use of physicists,
giving log (1+ at) for the calculation of dilatations &c.
[Encke, 1828.] [T. I.] Four-figure logarithms to 100 (with characteris-
tics and differences), and from 100 to 1009.
(T. IL.] Log sines, tangents, cotangents, and cosines for every 4’ from
0° to 10°, and thence to 45° at intervals of 10', to 4 places, with dif-
ferences.
[T. ILI.] Gaussian logarithms; B and C are to 4 places, for argument
A, from A='00 to 1:80 at intervals of -01, and thence to 4-0 at intervals of +1,
with differences,
Encke’s name is written on the Royal Society’s copy of these tables; and
they are also spoken of as Encke’s by De Morgan. They are reprinted in
Warnsrorre’s Scuumacunr, 1845 (§ 4).
Everett [1866]. Two cards (one of which, unfolded, is equal in size to three
folio pages, the other, which is equal in size to one, being perforated), in a cover.
This very frequently gives rise to errors, as the computer who is accustomed to three
leading figures common to the block of figures is liable to fail to notice that in this part
of the table there are four; and on this account a figure (the fourth) is sometimes
omitted in taking out the logarithm. It is therefore often desirable to ignore. the con-
tinuation of the table and only use the portion below 100,000. The extra logarithms
are thus not always an advantage}; and it is on the face of it inconvenient that some of the
tabular results should be given to 7 and others to 8 places. When tables of logarithms
are placed in the hands of common computers, it is as a rule better to forbid the use of
the portion beyond 100,000; and it may have been some considerations of this nature
that induced M. Dupuis to take this number as his limit. But there is no objection that
we can see against giving the logarithms beyond 100,000 to 7 places (as in Sana, 1871);
and whenever this is done, the continuation is found very useful.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 99
These cards cortespond to the fixed and movable portions of a slide-rule
160 inches long. A few small tables of cube roots, sines, &c. are printed on
‘one of the cards. Prof. Everett (to whom we applied for information with re-
gard to the date of the table) gives the following brief description—‘‘ Two
cards, one of them cut like a grating, equivalent to the two pieces of a slide-
rule;” and adds “that in the first edition [which is the one we have
described] one of the cards had a pair of folding leaves attached to it,
but these merely contained subsidiary tables and directions, and were quite
unessential. In the next impression the two essential cards and the two
cards with subsidiary tables and directions were all detached from each
other.” <A description of the table is given in the Phil. Mag. for November
1866.
Farley, 1840. [T. I.] Six-figure logarithms to 10,000 (the line is
broken when the change occurs in the third figure) ; followed by the loga-
rithms of numbers from 1001 to 1200, to 7 places.
(T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 6
places, with differences for 100”.
[T. IIL.] Log sines from 0° to 2° at intervals of 6”,
There are also a few constants and some formule.
Farley, 1856. This very fine table of versed sine’ contains :—[T. I.]
Natural versed sines from 0° to 125° at intervals of 10”, to 7 places, with
proportional parts throughout.
[T. IL.] Log versed sines from 0° to 135° at intervals of 15", to 7 places,
with differences throughout. The arguments are also given in time, the
range being from 0" to 9" to every second.
A short preface by Mr. Hind states that the table was prepared by Mr,
Farley, of the Nautical-Almanac Office, in 1831, and the manuscript pre-
sented by him to Lieut. Stratford, the then superintendent. The manuscript
having been in use for 25 years, and having become dilapidated, it was
«deemed the most economical course to print it.” It is added that the last
figure cannot be relied on, though it is probably very rarely in error by more
than a unit.
These, the most complete tables of versed sines we have seen, are beauti-
fully printed, in the same type as the Nautical Almanac.
Faulhaber, 1630 (‘Ingenieurs-Schul’). The copy we have seen of this
book (viz. that in the British Museum) contains no logarithms, though it must
evidently have been intended to accompany some tables. In the Brit-Mus.
copy the work is bound up (in a volume containing four tracts) after the two
described below and attributed by us to Faulhaber. Murhard gives the
full titles of this work and of the next two, and marks them as having come
under his eye; he does not, however, assign the two tables to Faulhaber.
Rogg, who also gives the titles of the three works, attributes them all to Faul-
haber. He adds, speaking of the tables, that they are also contained in the
‘Ingenieurs-Schul.’ This is no doubt correct; for, as noted below, some errors
in the latter work are given at the end of the Canon. It scems therefore
certain that Faulhaber was the editor of the tables. It may be mentioned
that both Rogge and Murhard agree in describing the ‘ Logarithmi’ and the
‘Canon’ as parts of the same work, so that most likely they were never issued
separately. Rogge gives the date of the ‘ Ingenieurs-Schul’ as 1731, which
must be a misprint for 1631; the copy before us is dated 1630, agree-
ing with Murhard. A lengthy account of Faulhaber and his works will
be found in Kiistner’s ‘ Geschichte.’ See also Scheibel, ‘ Math. Biicherk,’ B. 2,
p. 39.
H2
100 REPoRT—1873.
[Faulhaber] 1631 (‘Logarithmi’). Seven-figure logarithms of numbers
from 1 to 10,000, arranged in columns (three to the page), with charac-
teristics. As there are 3 columns, there are 99 logarithms on each page. The
printing is imperfect, the types having here and there become displaced,
so as to leave no mark. ‘here are some errata on the last page, headed
“‘Typographus Lectori 8.” See above, Fauruaner, 1630 (‘ Ingenieurs-
Schul’).
[Faulhaber] 1631 (‘Canon’). Logarithmic sines, tangents, and secants
for every minute of the quadrant, to 10 places (semiquadrantally arranged) ;
no differences. Taken from Vrace, 1628. » The table is followed by 8 pages of
errata inthe Frankfort ‘ Ingenieurs-Schul,’ in the logarithms of numbers, andin
the ‘Canon.’ Except perhaps Norwoop, 1631, this is the first reprint of
Vuace’s corrected ‘Canon’ (1628), the previous writers having copied
Gunter (1620). Rogg gives place and date as Nuremberg, 1637; but
the copy before us is not so. See above, Fauvirmaser, 1630 (‘ Ingenieurs-
Schul’).
Filipowski, 1849. T.I. Antilogarithms. The numbers (to 7 figures)
are given answering to the logarithms as arguments, the range being from
00000 to 1:00000 at intervals of -00001. The arrangement is exactly the
same as in ordinary seven-figure tables of logarithms; and the table occupies
201 pages. The proportional parts are given to hundredths (viz. 100 pro-
portional parts of each difference are given); and the change of figure in the
middle of the line is denoted by two dots (thus, 0) placed over the fourth
figure of all numbers affected ; and when a final 5 has been increased it is
printed V. The first 3 figures in the number are always separated by a
space from the block of figures.
T. II. Gaussian logarithms, arranged ina new way. Let A=log w and
A=log (w+1)(so that 10*=104 + 1), then on the first page of the table (p. 208
of the book) we have A given to 3 places for argument from }=-00000 to
00449 (which last corresponds to A=8-017), at intervals of 00001. On
the succeeding 16 pages we have \ as a tabular result for argument A from
A=8:000 to 13-999, at intervals of -001, to 5 places.
Since log (a+6)=log 6 +log (; + 1), and
log (a—b) =log 6+ log (5- ),
it is clear that the rules are very simple and uniform, viz. log a and log b
being given (b<a@ suppose), we take log a—log 6 as argument, and enter
the table at the A or \ column, according as we want log a+b or log a—d,
and add the tabular result to log 4. In this table also the notations 0,
V, &c. are used, as well as another in which a wavy line runs down by the
side of the logarithms whose leading figures have changed. This method of
marking is only possible when the tabular results appear one under the other.
The figures are throughout neat and clear, having heads and tails; and the
copy before us is printed on green paper, of a pleasant colour. In many
places there is a parsimony of figures, which we dislike extremely ; thus there
occur 44, 5, 6 as headings for 44, 45, 46, and 0 or 0 for 10 &e. A list of 36
errors affecting the first 8 figures of Dopson’s Canon (1742) is given, and in-
troduced by the remark, “ The following is a list of errors as detected, by
means of our table, in the first 8 places of Dodson’s Anti-Logarithmic Canon,
in addition to those corrected with the author’s own hand.” These words im-
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 101
ply that Mr. Filipowski’s table was the result of an independent calculation ; or
at all events they ought not to have been written unless such had been the case.
It is, however, nowhere stated in the preface that the table was calculated
anew; and we may therefore assume that it was copied from Dodson, after
examination (which would not have been difficult, as a mere verification by
differences would have sufficed). In a letter by Mr. Peter Gray, in the
‘Insurance Record’ for June 9, 1871, there are given two errors in Dodson
which also occur in Filipowski, affording additional evidence that the tables of
the latter were not calculated independently ; and, this being so, Dodson
has not been treated fairly, as Mr. Filipowski should have acknowledged the
obligations he was under to his table. In the same letter Mr. Gray
gives three other errors in Filipowski (1st edit.) ; and it is to be in-
ferred from other passages in the letter that a second and a third edition,
*“‘corrected,” have been published. Mr. Gray proceeds :—“ but he [Fuili-
powski] has never, so far as I know, given a list of the errors contained in the
first and second, and corrected in the third,” an omission on which he strongly
(and most justly) animadverts. See SHorrrepr (1849).
De Morgan has stated that no antilogarithmic table was published from
Donson (1742) till 1849 ; but this is only true if SHorrrepe’s tables of 1844
be ignored ; for which there is no sufficient reason, as they were published
and sold in that year, and copies of the 1844 edition are contained in all good
libraries.
Galbraith, 1827. T. II. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000,
with proportional parts on the left-hand side of the page. This table is
headed “ Logarithms of numbers to 100,000.”
T. LY. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to 6 places.
meV Log § sines, ‘tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant
(arguments expressed also i in time, the intervals being 4°), with differences,
to 6 places.
T. VI. Natural sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines to every degree
of the quadrant, to 6 places.
T. IX. Diurnal logarithms: proportional logarithms for every minute
to 24" (viz. log 1440—log x) from «=1 to == 1440 (expressed in hours and
minutes), to 5 places.
T. X. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 5 places. Same
as T, 74 of Raper, except that 5 instead of 4 places are given.
T. LXIII. A few constants. The other tables are nautical.
There are a few small tables in the introduction that may be noticed, viz. :—
T. XI. and XII. (p. 113), to express hours as decimals of a day, convert
time into arc, &e.; T. XY. (p. 141), of the areas of circular segments
(same as in T. XIII. of Hantscun, but to hundredths only, and to 5 places) ;
and T. XVI., table of polygons (as far as a dodecegon), giving area, and radius
of circumscribing circle for side=unity, and factors for sides, viz. length of side
for radius= unity ; there are also one or two small tables for the mensuration
of solids.
Galbraith and Haughton, 1860. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to
1000, arranged in columns. This is followed by a small table to convert
common into hyperbolic logarithms, and vice versa.
['T. Il.] Five-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional
parts.
[T. III.] Log sines and tangents to every minute of the quadrant, to 5
places, with differences.
[T. IV.] Gaussian logarithms. B and C are given for argument A, from
102 rEPort-—1873.
A= +000 to A=2:000 at intervals of -001, thence to 3-40 at intervals of -01
and to 5 at intervals of +1 to 5 places, with differences. This table is followed
by a page of constants.
Gardiner, 1742. [T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from
10,000 to 100,100, with proportional parts; the change of the fourth figure
in the line is not marked; the first three figures of the logarithm are sepa
rated from the block of figures by a point, which is very clear.
[T. IL.] Log sines to every second to 1’ 12", to 7 places, without differ-
ences; and log sines and tangents throughout the quadrant at intervals of 10",
to 7 places, with differences.
[T. III.] Four-figure logistic logarithms, viz. log. 3600" —log # from «=0
to v=4800" (=80') at intervals of 1".
[T. IV.] Twenty-figure logarithms to 1000, thence of odd numbers to
1069, and of primes &c. to 1143.
[T. V.] Twenty-figure logarithms of numbers from 101,000 to 101,139,
with first, second, and third differences.
_ [T. VI.] Anti-logarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from -00000 to
‘00139 at intervals of -00001, to 20 places, with first, second, and third dif-
ferences.
A list of errata is given in the French reprint described below; and €9
errors are pointed out by Hurron on p. 342 of the edition of 1794 (and
no doubt in other editions) of his mathematical tables, The list given in the
edition of 1822 (the last published in Hutton’s lifetime) is much fuller. De
Morgan speaks of Gardiner as “rare, and much esteemed for accuracy;”’ and
its rarity in 1770 is the reason assigned by the French editors for the neces-
sity of reprinting it.
Gardiner (Avignon Reprint, 1770). The reprint is so similar to the ori-
ginal edition that it is only necessary to point out the differences.
[T. I.] is the same; but in [T. II.] the log sines are given at intervals of
1" as far as 4°, and a similar table of log tangents is added; they were taken
from a manuscript calculated by Mouton, bequeathed by him to the Academy
of Sciences, and lent to the editors by Lalande. Also in the original edition,
in the second portion of this table, viz. that giving the functions at intervals
of 10", the parts common to both are repeated; but this is not done in the
reprint, in which therefore there is a table of log cosines and cotangents only,
from 0° to 4°, at intervals of 10", the sines and tangents being given in the
previous portion.
[T. IIL., V.,and VI.] are unaltered; but [T. IV.] proceeds by odd numbers
to 1161. One fresh table is added, viz. [T. VII.], giving hyperbolic loga-
rithms from 1:00 to 10-00 at intervals of :01, to 7 places, and also log, 10’,...10°.
Mouton’s manuscript also gave log cotangents and cosines to every second
of the first four degrees ; but the former are so easily deducible from the tan-
gents, and the latter vary so slowly, that their publication in ewtenso seemed un-
necessary. A page of errata at the end of the book contains errors in Vuace
(1628), in Garpiner (1742), and in the French reprint itself (1770), the last
having been published in the ‘Connaissance des Temps’ for 1775. As the
‘ Connaissance des Temps’ could not have been published as much as five
years in advance, it is clear either that some copies of the French reprint were
published subsequently to 1770, although retaining that date on the titlepage,
or that this page was circulated separately and bound up afterwards with the
work. We have examined two copies, in one only of which this errata-page
appears.
No editors’ names appear in the work ; but Lalande (Bibliog. Astron. p.516)
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 103
says that this edition was edited by Pére Pezenas, Pére Dumas, and Pére
Blanchard, and adds that he has given an errata-list in the ‘ Connaissance
des Temps’ for 1775. On Dumas, mathematician of Lyons, who was La-
lande’s first master, he gives a reference to the ‘Journal des Savants,’ No-
vember 1770.
The edition is very commonly known by the name of Pezenas, A good
deal about Pezenas will be found in Delambre’s ‘ Histoire de l’Astronomie,’
pp. 868-386. He was born at Avignon in 1692, and died in 1776
The French edition is even better printed than the original, but is not
quite so accurate. A list of 85 errors is given by Hutton on p. 343 of his
mathematical tables in the edition of 1794, while he discovered only 69
in the original edition; more complete lists are to be found in the later
editions.
Graesse (‘Trésor’) says that there was a reprint of Gardiner in octayo at
Florence by Canovai and Ricco.
*Gardiner (Paris edition, 1773). Rogg gives the title of a Paris edition
of Gardiner, viz. ‘Tables des Logarithmes de Gardiner, fol., Par. Chez Sail-
lard et Nyon, 1773,’ which he takes from the ‘ Journal litteraire de Berlin,’
t. vu. p. 318; but the fact that Lalande does not mention it seems to him
very suspicious: we have seen no other reference to it, and agree with Rogg.
Garrard, 1789. This work contains only traverse and meridional part
tables. It is referred to here, as its title would imply that it was included
in the subject of the Report.
Gordon, 1849. T. IX. Log sines, tangents, and cosecants for eyery
minute from 6° to 90°, to 4 places.
T. X. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places: same
as T. 74 of Raprr. ;
T. XI. Small table to convert space into time.
T. XVII. Half-sines and half-cosines, viz. haiyes of natural sines for
every minute of the quadrant to four places, reckoned as seconds for the
purpose of adapting them to the table of proportional logarithms: thus. cor-
responding to 12° 40' we find as tabular result 18’ 16”; for the number of
seconds in this angle=1096, and } sin 12° 40'’=-1096 .
T. XVIII. Logar ithms of the meridian distance, viz. log (4 vers sin «),
from a=0" to e=7> 59™ 55% at intervals of 5%, to 4 places.
T. XIX. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440
—log w from w=1 to v=1440, to 4 places (arguments expressed in hours
and minutes).
T. XXI. Proportional logarithms for one hour, viz, log 3600—log a
from w=1 to w=3600, to 4 places (arguments expressed in mmutes and
seconds).
The other tables are nautical.
Gregory, Woolhouse, and Hann, 1843. T. VIII. Proportional
logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T, 74 of Rarer,
T. IX. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant,
to 5 places.
T. X. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places.
T. XI. Five-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional
arts.
: J. XII. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", to 4 places, viz.
log 1440—log w# from v=1 to 1440 at intervals of unity (arguments ex-
pressed in hours and minutes). :
The other tables are nautical.
104 é REPORT-——1873.
Griffin, 1843. 1.16. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter
- point, to 6 places.
- T. 17. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000,
to 6 places, with differences.
T. 18. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant
(arguments expressed also in time), to 6 places, with differences for the sines
and tangents; arranged semiquadrantally.
T. 19. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places,
without differences.
T. 41. Proportional logarithms to every second to 3°, to 4 places ; same as
T. 74 of Raprr.
The logarithms are in all the tables printed at full length. The other
tables are nautical.
Gruson, 1832. T.I. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000: no differences.
The change in the line is marked by a difference of type in all the logarithms
affected. In three or four parts of the book this table is stated to extend to
10,100, but the limit is as above; and there is no possibility of a page having
been torn out, as the next table is printed on the back of the page ending
with the number 9999.
T. If. & III. Squares and cubes of all numbers from 1 to 1000.
T. IV. & V. Square and cube roots of all numbers from 1 to 1000, to 7
laces.
: T, VI. Circular measure of 1°, 2°, 8°... 360°, of 1’, 2’,... 60', and of
1",.2",... 60", to 7 places.
T. VII. Natural and log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and
cosecants, to 7 places, with differences from 0° to 5° at intervals of 1’, and
thence to 45° at intervals of 10’.
The book was intended for schools.
Hantschl, 1827. TT. I. Five-figure logarithms (written at full length)
of numbers from 1000 to 10,000.
T. II. Log sines for every 10 seconds from 0° to 90°, to 6 places.
T. III. Log tangents for every 10 seconds from 0° to 90°, to 6 places.
T. IV. Ten-figure logarithms of primes to 15,391.
T. V. Natural sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every minute
of the quadrant, to 7 places; arranged semiquadrantally.
T, VI. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 11,273, to 8 places.
T. VIL. Least divisors of numbers to 18,277 (multiples of 2, 3,5, and
11 excluded).
T. VIII. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 7 places) to 1200.
n(n—1)...(n—5) 38 wie
oe from n=0 to n=1-:00 at
- n(n—1)
a EK. = i ea
intervals of :01, to 7 places.
T. X. Circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°, ... 180°, of 1’, 2’... 60’, and of
1", 2"... 60", to 15 places.
T. XI. The first nine multiples o
1 Seely ae treet nie Lealiicd 1\3 /x\3 m\—-3
ind etn eee Sate ID 8 et
Ne ae ae Ie (=) ; (;) bead (5)
to 24 or 21 places.
: T. XII. Small table to express minutes and seconds as decimals of a
egree.
T. XIII. Areas of segments of circles for diameter unity to 6 places; the
®
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 105
versed sines are the arguments ; and the table proceeds from ‘001 to +500 (of
the diameter). The table may therefore be described as giving 3(20—sin 20)
from 3(1—cos 0)=-001 to ‘500 at intervals of -001.
A few constants are then given to a great many places; and the last page
(T. XIV.) is for the calculation of logarithms to 20 places.
The work is clearly printed.
Hartig, 1829. ‘The tables are of so commercial a kind that only one or
two deserve notice here.
The first (T.I.) is for computing the contents of planks &c., the thickness and
breadth being given in Zolle and the length in Fusse, and may be described
as a sort of duodecimal table, as the Kubik-Zoll = 74, Kubik-Fuss, and the
Kubik-Linie = =, Kubik-Zoll. Thus for arguments 3 Zoll, 18 Zoll, and
5 Fuss we have 1 F. 4 Z. 3 L.as result; for 3, x1$x5=195=14-4473).
The arguments are :—(thickness) 1 Zoll to 9 Zoll at intervals of 3 Zoll;
(breadth) 1 Zoll to 18 Zoll at intervals of 1 Zoll; (length) 1 Fuss to 60
Fuss at intervals of 1 Fuss.
Another table (T. IT.) is of the same kind, only intended for blocks &e. ;
so that the thickness is greater, and the result is only given in fractions of
a Kubik-Fuss.
T. III. contains volumes of cylinders for diameter (or circumference) of
section and length as arguments ; expressed as in T. I. and II. The money-
tables can have no mathematical value, as the Thaler = 30, 24, or 90
Groschen, &c.
T. X. is for the calculation of interest. The simple-interest tables (T. A)
are too meagre to be worth description. T. B and C may be described as
giving the compound interest and present value of £1 for any number of
years up to 100 at 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent. per annum, viz.
x n x —n
(1+ i0) ead (1 +355)
to 6 decimal places.
Other tables of this kind that we met with have not been noticed; the
title of one such is given under Jann, 1837.
Hassler, 1830. [T.I.] Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 10,000
to 100,000, with proportional parts. The line is broken for the change in
the third figure, as in Cater.
[T. I1.| Log sines and tangents for every second of the first degree, to 7
laces.
3 [T. III.] Log cosines and cotangents for every 30” of the first degree, to
7 places,. with differences,
(T. IV.] Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 1° to 3°, at
‘intervals of 10’, with differences, and from 3° to 45°, at intervals of 30”, with
differences for 10", to 7 places.
[T. V.] Natural sines for every 30” of the quadrant, with differences for
10", to 7 places.
Copies of this book were published with Latin, English, French, German,
and Spanish introductions and titlepages (the titles will be found in the list
at the end of the Report). The tables are the same in all; and the special
titlepages for each table have the headings in the five languages. ‘lhe
Royal Society’s library contains the Latin copy perfect, and the introduc-
tions in the four modern languages bound together in another volume, pre-
sented to the Society by the author. At the end of the latter volume is
pasted-in a specimen page of the table, set up with the usual even figures ;
106 REPORT—1873.
and the author has written on the back, “This sheet proves that, with
the usual form of figures of the same size as those used in the tables, they
would not have been distinctly legible.” The figures actually used are very
thin, and have large heads and tails, resembling somewhat figures made in
writing ; and a comparison of the specimen and a page of the tables shows
very clearly the superiority of the latter in point of distinctness, The words
in minima forma are quite justified, as we do not think it would be possible
to make the tables occupy less room without serious loss of clearness, All
that is usually given in a page of seven-figure logarithms is here contained
in a space about 3 in. by 5in.; and yet, owing to the shape of the figures,
every thing is very distinct. The author says on the titlepage, “ purgate
ab erroribus precedentium tabularum ;”’ but the last figure of log 52943
is printed 6 instead of 5. There is also another last-figure error. See
‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’ March 1873.
A short review of this work by Gauss appeared in the ‘ Géttingische ge-
lehrte Anzeigen,’ March 31, 1831 (reprinted ‘ Werke,’ t. iii. p, 255),
Henrion, 1626. [T. I.] Logarithms to 20,001, to 10 places, with
interscript differences (characteristics not separated from the mantiss),
copied from Briees, 1624,
[T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute, to 7 places (charac-
teristics unseparated from the mantissa), taken from Gunter, 1620. Hay-
rion had calculated some logarithms himself when he received Brieas’s work
(see Phil. Mag., Supp. No. Dec. 1872). The copy of Hrnrion we have
seen is in the Brit. Mus. The full titlepage is given in § 5,
Hentschen (Vlacq), 1757. [T.I.] Natural sines, tangents, and secants,
and log sines and tangents to every minute, to 7 places (arranged on what De
Morgan calls the Gellibrand model) (180 pp.), and ['T. II.] logarithms of
numbers to 10,000, to 7 places, arranged in columns (100 pp.).
A former edition of 1748 is spoken of in the preface; and it is stated that
the tables were compared with the editions of Vlacq, Leyden, 1651, the Hague,
1665, and Amsterdam, 16738. The type is very bold and clear, much easier
to read than in most modern tables.
This is one of the numerous series of small tables known by the name of
Viacq, and is described here because it is not mentioned by De Morgan ;
small editions like the present are so difficult to meet with that it is desirable
to notice them whenever any are found.
Hiobert and Ideler, 1799. [T.I.] Natural and log sines, cosines, tan-
gents, and cotangents for the quadrant, divided centesimally; viz. these func-
tions are given for arguments from ‘00001 to :03000 of a right angle at in-
tervals of -00001 of a right angle, and from -0300 to 5000 of a right angle
at intervals of ‘0001, to 7 places, with differences, Expressed in grades (cen-
tesimal degrees) &c., the arguments proceed to 3? at intervals of 10‘, and
thence to 50% at intervals of 1. The manner of calculation of the table
is fully explained in the introduction ; and this adds much to the yalue of the
work. Several of the fundamenta were calculated to a great many places,
Two or three constants are given on p. 310.
B. Table of natural sines and tangents for the first hundred ten-thousandths
(viz. for 0001, :0002 &e.) of a right angle, to 10 places.
C. Four tables, expressing (I.) 1°, 2°, 3°,....89°, (II.) 1’, 2',....59',
(HIL.) 1", 2",....59", (IV.) 1, 2"",....59"", all as decimals of 90°, to 14
places.
D. Three tables to express (I.) hundredths, (II.) thousandths, (ITI.) ten-
thousandths of 90°, in degrees, minutes, and seconds (sexagesimal),
SS
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 107
E. Four tables to express (I,) hours, (1I.) minutes, (III.) seconds, (IY.)
thirds, as decimals of a day.
F, Small table to express decimals of a day, in hours, minutes, and
seconds.
G. Circular measure of :1, -2,..,.°9, 1:0, of a right angle, to 44 places.
[T, ILI.] Logarithms of numbers to 1100, and from 999,980 to 1,000,021,
to 36 places.
The work concludes with two remarkable lists of errata found in the course
of the calculations, yiz. 381 errors in the trigonometrical tables of Cattzr, all
of which, with one exception, affect only the last figure by a unit, and 138
similar errors in Vzca’s ‘ Thesaurus,’ 1794. The errors in Callet have, we
presume, been corrected in the later tirages.
Hlowel, 1858. T. I. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,800 with
the corresponding degrees, minutes and seconds, and proportional parts.
The constants § and T (see § 3, art. 13) are given at the top of the page;
then follows a page of small tables for the conversion of degrees, minutes, &c.
T. II, Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the
quadrant, to 5 places, with proportional parts.
T. III. Gaussian logarithms. The addition and subtraction tables are sepa-
rated, as in Zucu (§ 4). In the first B is given for argument A, from A=-000
to 1-650 at intervals of -001, thence to 3-00 at intervals of ‘01, and thence
to 5:0 at intervals of ‘1. In the second B is given for argument C, from
C=-3000 to -4800 at intervals of :0001, thence to 1-500 at intervals of -001,
thence to 3:10 at intervals of -01, and to 5:0 at intervals of *1, with pro-
portional parts: all to 5 places. These tables are followed by the first hun-
dred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal, to 8 places.
T. LY. Tables to calculate logarithms to 8 places &e.
T. Y. (one page). To calculate logarithms to 20 places.
T. VI. A page of four-figure logarithms to 600, and of three-figure auth
logarithms.
T. VII. Least factors of composite numbers (not divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 11)
up to 10,841,
T. VIII, A page of constants. [We have since obtained a “ nouvelle
édition, revue et augmentée,” Paris, 1871, pp. 118 and introduction xlvi.]
Hiilsse’s Vega, 1840. T. I. Sev en-figure logarithms to 1900, and from
10,000 to 108,000, with proportional parts ; the change in the line is denoted
by a small asterisk prefixed to the fourth fig ure of all the logarithms affected.
The portion from 100,000 to 108,000 is given to 8 places. One page at
_ the end is devoted to a small table to convert common into hyperbolic seven-
figure logarithms, and vice versa,
“T. II. Log sines, tangents, and ares (all equal) to every tenth of asecond
to 1'; log sines and tangents from 0° 0’ to 1° 32’ to every second ; log sines,
cosines, tangents and cotangents for every ten seconds from 0° to 6°, and
for every minute to 45°; all to 7 places. When the intervals are 10” or 1’,
differences for.a second are added: the logarithms are written at length,
The table is followed by a page anne the circular measure of ee 10°,
and thence by tens to 360°, of 1’, 2',,.,,60', and of 1”, 2",, 60", to 11
places.
JT. III. Natural sines and tangents to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 |
places, with differences for 1”.
T. IV. Chord-table to radius 500, viz. lengths of semichords of arcs
(« é, sin 5) from 0° to 125° at intervals of 5', to 6 laces, for radius unity.
108 REPORT—1873.
This table is followed by 2 pages of tables for the conversion of centesimals
into sexagesimals &c.
T. Y. All prime divisors of numbers to 102,000 (multiples of 2, 3, and 5
excluded), and primes from 102,000 to 400,313.
T. VI. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000, and of primes from
1000 to 10,000, to 8 places. This is followed by powers of 2, 3, and 5 to the
45th, 36th, and 27th respectively.
T. VII. Powers of ¢ and their logarithms, viz. e* and log ,,e”, from «=-01
to «=10 at intervals of :01, to 7 figures and "7 places respectively.
T. VIII. Square and cube roots of numbers to 10,000, to 12 and 7 places
; : , 1
respectively. The table is followed by a page of coefficients, such as a4
1 a
24.6 2. = 9.4.5? &e., to 10 places, and their logarithms to 7 places.
Ppl bb. Boner: tables. A, the first 11 powers of numbers from :01 to 1:00
at intervals of ‘01, to 8 places. B, the first 9 powers of numbers from 1 to 100.
C, squares and cubes from 1 to 1000. D, the first hundred powers of 1:01, 1:02,
1-025, 1:0275, 1:03, 1:0325, 1:035, 10375, 1-04, 1-045, 1-05, 1-06, to 6 places.
E, the first hundred powers of the reciprocals of these numbers, to 7 places.
F, the sums of the powers in D: this table therefore gives w+a?+....a”
for the values of 2 written down under D, and forn=1, 2,3,....
=
100. G stands in the same relation to E that F does to D. The tables from
D to G were calculated for their use in computing interest &c.
T. XII. An extended table of Gaussian logarithms. It gives B from A=
-000 to A=2-000at intervals of -001, from A=2-00 to A=3:39 at intervals of
-Ol,and thence to A =5-0 at intervals of +1, to 5 places. Therearealso given, be-
sides, other quantities for the same arguments, viz. C(=A-+B), D(=B+0),
E (=A+C), and F (=B—A), all to 5 places, with differences and propor-
tional parts (of two kinds) for B and C.
T. XIII. Interpolation table, viz. = 4) BS els Se — =) , from
«='01 to e=1°00 at intervals of -01, to 7 places; then Silla a page of
constants. There are, besides, mortality tables, very complete tables of mea-
sures and weights of different countries, &c. The table of 12-place square
roots was published here for the first time: it was calculated by Hensel in
1804. The seven-place cube roots, the chord-table, and the new columns of
the Gaussian table were calculated by Dr. Michaelis, of Leipzig. The author
draws attention to the fact that the last figures in T. VITI. and XII. are given
correctly.
Itisamatterof sufficient interest to note here that, though the work is called
an edition of Vrea, it contains one error from which the other tables known by
the name of Vega and published subsequently to his folio of 1794 were free.
In Vrace (1628), log 52943 was printed 7238085868 instead of 7238085468,
and the error was first pointed out and corrected by Vuea in his folio of 1794.
All the seven-figure tables, therefore, from 1628 to 1794 (and several of the
subsequent tables also), have 7238086 instead of 7238085; but Vuea’s small
editions (the ‘ Manuale’ and ‘ Tabule ’) have the logarithms correctly printed.
In Hitssr’s edition, however, the error is reproduced afresh, and the last figure
is printed 6. It follows therefore cither that Hiilsse did not reprint Vega’s
table, or that, if he did, he noticed the discrepancy, and decided in favour of
the erroneous value. Theslight suspicion thus cast on these tables is unfor-
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 109
tunate, as they form a most valuable collection, and are supplemental to
Cater. We have scen advertised a second edition (1849) ; and Zxcu’s tables
(see Zeon, 1849, § 3, art. 19) are extracted from it. The last-figure error
noticed above is the only one of the hereditary Vuace’s errors that appears
in the table of the logarithms of numbers; so that but for this curious
plunder the present work would have been, we believe, the first to
be free from errors of this class (see ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ March, 1873). Some remarks by Gauss on T. XII. appear in t. iil.
pp. 255-257 of his ‘ Werke.’
Hutton, 1781 (products and powers of numbers). [T. I.] Products to
1000 x 100 (pp. 51).
[T’. IL.] Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 10,000 (pp. 54-78).
[T. IL1.] Squares of numbers from 10,000 to 25,400 (pp. 78-100).
[T. 1V.] Table of the first ten powers of numbers from | to 100. Two
errors (viz. the last three figures of 81° should be 401, not 101, and the last
three of 987 should be 672, not 662) are pointed out by the reporter in the
Philosophical Transactions, 1870, p. 370.
The remaining three pages of the book are devoted to weights and mea-
sures &c. The table is closely printed; and some of the pages contain a great
many figures, as there are a hundred lines to the page. De Morgan states
that the table has not the reputation of correctness; and the charge is no
doubt true, as, besides the two errors noted above (both of which we found
on the only page we have used), it is to be inferred from Bartow’s intro-
duction to his tables that he found errors; he did not, however, publish any
account of them.
Hutton, 1858. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000
to 108,000, with proportional parts for all the differences. The change in the
line is denoted by a bar placed over the fourth figure of all the logarithms
affected.
T, II. Logarithms to 1000, and thence for odd numbers to 1199, to 20
laces.
T, III. Logarithms from 101,000 to 101,149, to 20 places, with first,
second, and third differences,
T, IV. Antilogarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from -00000 to
00149 at intervals of -00001, to 20 places, with first, second, and third
differences.
T. V. Hyperbolic logarithms from 1-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01, and
for 10?.. ..10°, to seven places.
T. VI. Hyperbolic logarithms to 1200, to seven places.
T. VIL. Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600" —log w, from w=1" tow=
5280" (=88') at intervals of 1”, to four places, the arguments being ex-
pressed in minutes and seconds.
T. VIII. Log sines and tangents to every second of the first two degrees,
to seven places; no differences.
_. IX. Natural and log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines for every
minute of the quadrant, with differences, to seven places, semiquadrantally
arranged. The natural functions occupy the left-hand pages, and the loga-
rithmic the right-hand. In both these last two tables the logarithms are all
written at full length.
T. XI. Circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, of 1’, 2’
....60', of 1....60", and of 1'" to 60'", to seven places.
{. XII. Proportional parts to hundredths of 2:302...., the reciprocal of
the modulus.
110 REPORT—1873.
Some constants are given in T. XX.; the other tables consist of a traverse
table, formule, &e. ;
The edition described above | is one of those edited by Olinthus Gregory,
and is the last we have met with. ‘The first edition was published in 1785,
the second in 1794, the third in 1801, the fifth in 1811, and the sixth, the
last published in Hutton’s lifetime (he died 1823), in 1822.
We have compared the first, second, and sixth editions, and that of 1858
described above. The first two are nearly identical, so that we need only
notice the differences between the tables of 1785, 1822, and 1858. -In both
the two former of these editions T. I. only extends to 100,000 ; and while in
that of 1785 the change of figure in the line is not marked at all, in that of
1822 the fourth figure in the first logarithm affected only is marked. T. II. is
the same in the 1822 edition, but it ends at 1161 instead of 1199 in that of
1785. TT. III. in 1785 ended at 101,139, and is extended to 101,149 in both
the other editions, as also did T. IV. originally end at -00139. In the edi-
tions of 1785 and 1822 occur two tables that were left out by Gregory in
1830 and in succeeding editions, viz. T. 5, giving logarithms of all numbers
to 100, and of primes from 100 to 1100, to 61 places, and T. 6, giving the
logarithms of the numbers from 999,980 to 1,000,020, to 61 places, with first,
second, third, and fourth differences. T. VI., of hyperbolic logarithms, ap-
pears in the edition of 1822, but notin that of 1785. T. VII. extended only
to 80' in 1785.
To all the first six editions is prefixed Hutton’s introduction, containing a
history of logarithms, the different ways in which they may be constructed,
&e. This very valuable essay was omitted by Gregory in the seventh (1830)
and subsequent editions (on account of its being rather out of place in a col-
lection of tables), and with some reason. In the 1785 edition it occupied
180 pp., 55 pp. of which are the “ Description and Use of the Tables.” This
portion Gregory retained; and in the 1858 edition it occupied 68 pp.
The whole work was reset in the later editions, published in Hutton’s
lifetime, the chief additions, as we infer from the preface, having been made
in the fifth (1811) edition. On the last page of the 1822 edition are some
errata found in Carrer (1783, 1795, and 1801), and also in Taytor (1792);
the lists of errors in Garprnrr (London and Avignon) are also more complete
than in the earlier editions. Hurron’s tables were the legitimate successors
of Surrwrn’s, and bring down to the present time one of the main lines of
descent from Viace (see Suerwiy, § 4).
Inman, 1871. [T. I.] Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600'—log # from w
=2 to e=3600* (=60”) at intervals of 25, to 5 places. “Arguments « expressed
in minutes and seconds.
[T. II.] Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800"—log # to every second
to 3° (same as T. 74 of Raver, only to 5 places instead of 4), preceded by a
page giving the same for every tenth of a second to 1’.
[T. I1.] Log sines at intervals of 1” to 50’, to 6 places.
pre rv] Log sines, tangents, and secants at intervals of 1° to 3 (argu-
ments also given in arc, the intervals being 15"), to 6 places; the table is
followed by a page of proportional parts for use with it.
[T. V.] 4 log haversines, viz. $ log semi- versed sines = log sin oy from
x=0° to 15° at intervals of 15”, thence to 60° at intervals of 30”, and
thence to 180° at intervals of 1’, to 6 places (arguments also in time).
Note.—In several instances in this table ' is misprinted for ".
[T. VI.] Log haversines, Same as previous table, except that 2 log sin
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 111
; 5 is the function tabulated; so that all the results are double those in [T. Y.],
and that the intervals are 15" up to 135°, and then 1’ to 180°.
[T. VII.] Six-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 1000 to 10,000 in de-
eades, with proportional parts.
[T. VILI.| Natural versed sines to every second (of time) to 36”, to 6
places.
[T. IX.] Natural versed sines to every minute (of arc) to 180°, to 6 places,
with complete proportional parts for every second up to 60”. The other
tables are nautical.
The paging of the book runs at the top of the pages to 216, and thence at
the bottom to 275; it then recommences at the top at p. 217. This is no
doubt caused by [T. V., VI.] having been introduced in this edition only.
We have seen the original work, ‘ Nautical Tables designed for the use of
British Seamen, by James Inman, D.D. London, 1830’ (400 pp. of tables),
but have not compared the two together: except for the “ haversines,” how-
ever, the tables seem to be nearly identical in the two editions,
Inman’s ‘ Navigation and Nautical Astronomy’ (2nd edit.), Portsea, 1826,
contains no tables. -
Irsengarth, 1810, These are merely land tables, and the units (Ruthe,
Fuss, &c.) are so special that they do not appear to possess any mathema-
tical value.
Jahn, 1837. Vol. I. Six-figure logarithms to 100,000; the change in
the line is denoted by a dagger (f) prefixed to the fourth figure of all loga-
rithms affected. There are no proportional parts on the page; but they are
given in a separate table at the end.
Vol. II. Logarithmic sines and tangents for every second of the first
degree ; log sines and tangents for every third second of the quadrant (semi-
quadrantally arranged): all to 6 places. Proportional parts are given in the
extreme right and left columns of the double page for every twentieth of the
three-second interval.
The introductory matter is both in German and Latin.
We rather like the paper on which the second volume is printed ; though
not of a good quality, it is thick and stiff, and of a brownish colour, so that
the book could be, we think, used for a long time at once without injury to
the eye: the first volume (in the copy before us), however, is printed on
paper of the soft, flaccid kind common in German books.
The author was led to publish his tables by observing that nearly all those
in use were either five- or seven-figure tables.
We have seen, by the same author, ‘Tafeln zur Berechnung fiir Kubik-
Tnhalt &c.,’ 2nd edit., Leipzig, 1847; but the tables are commercial (argu-
ments expressed in Zolle, Ellen, &c.), and do not need notice here.
Kerigan, 1821. TT. VIII. Log sines for every second to 2°, and thence,
at intervals of 5”, to 90°, to six places; in this latter part of the table pro-
portional parts for seconds are added, so that the table practically gives log
sines to every second; arranged quadrantally. The logarithms are all printed
at length.
T. IX. Natural sines from 0° to 90° at intervals of 10", to six places ;
no differences; the sines written at length.
T. X. Six-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts ;
arranged as is usual in seven-figure tables; the change in the line is
marked by the ciphers after the change in the third place being filled in,
so as to render them black circles, -
112 REPORT—1873.
T. XI. Logarithmic Rising, viz. log yersed sines from 0” to 8 at inter- _
vals of 5°, with proportional parts to seconds, to 5 places: the logarithms are
written at length.
T. XII. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to four places ;
same as I’. 74 of Raper.
T. XIII. Small table to convert arc into time: the other tables are
nautical,
Kohler, 1832. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged con-
secutively in columns, with differences and characteristics ; the degrees, min-
utes, &e. for every thirtieth number are added.
(T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to five
places, with differences.
[T. III.] Gavss’s table (§ 3, art. 19); viz. B and C are given for argument A
from -000 to 2-000 at intervals of :001, thence to 3: 40 at intervals of #01,
and to 5 at intervals of -1, to five places, with differences.
There are besides a few constants; the introduction is in French and
German.
Kohler, 1848. [T.I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000
to 108,000 (this last 8000 being to 8 places), with differences and proportional
parts ; the change in the line is denoted by a bar placed over the fourth figure of
all the logarithms affected. The constants 8 and T (§ 3, art. 13) and the
variation are given at the top of the page, asalso is the number of degrees,
minutes, &c. corresponding to every tenth number. At the end are the first
hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal to 8 places, and a small
table to convert arc into time.
(T. IL.] Gaussian logarithms : B and C are given to5 places (with differences)
for A =:000 to 2: 000 at intervals of -001, thence to 3°40 at intervals of -01,
and to 5:0 at intervals of :1 (same as Gauss’ s table 1812, § 3, art 19).
[T. III.] Briggian logarithms of primes from 2 to 1811, to 11 places, fol-
lowed by 2 pages of constants, some weights and measures, &e.
[T. IV.] Log sines, tangents, and ares (all equal) for every second to 1';
and log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for intervals of 10” to 10°,
and thence for intervals of 1’ to 45°, to 7 places, with differences for one
second.
(T. V.] Circular measure of 1°, 2°....100°, 110°... .300°, 330°, 360°,
of 1', 2'....60', and of 1”, 2" 60", to 11 places. Then follow some for-
mule, and we come to the second part of the work, ‘ Mathematische Tafeln,
die oft gebraucht werden,’ containing :—
T. I. Hyperbolic logarithms (to 8 places) of numbers from 1 to 1000,
and of primes from 1000 to 10,000.
T. IL. The first 45, 36, and 27 powers of 2, 3, and 5 respectively.
T. Ill. e from w=-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01 to 7 figures.
T. IV. The first ten powers of numbers from 1 to 100,
T. V. Squares of numbers from 1 to 1000.
JT. VI. Cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000.
T. VIL. Square and cube roots (to 7 places) of all numbers from 1
to 1000.
T. VIII. Factor tables, giving all divisors of all numbers not prime or
divisible by 2, 3, or 5, from unity to 21,524.
T. IX. To express minutes and seconds as decimals of a degree &e.
T. X. Binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. x etext) Re, ee
; t poh ee teqs? 45 2
from v='01 to 1:00 at intervals of -01, to 6 places.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 118
us Ie il
ALC. 7 Q4 5"
&e., with their logarithms, There are 40 in all; and the table
T. XI. Decimal values of certain coefficients, such as
1.3
2.4.6.7
occupies one page.
A reward of a louis d’or was offered for every error found in the first
edition ; all the errors so found are corrected in the second, here described.
Lalande, 1805. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to
10,000, arranged consecutively in columns, with differences.
[T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 5
places. An explanation of 34 pp. is prefixed.
Lalande, 1829. [T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged in
columns with characteristics and differences ; the number of degrees, minutes,
&c. for the first number in each column (viz. for every thirtieth number) is
given at the top.
[T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to 7
places, with differences. :
Lambert, 1798. TT. I. Divisors of all numbers up to 102,000 not diyi-
sible by 2, 3, or 5. If the number is the produét of only two prime factors,
then the least only is given; but if of more than two, the others are given,
except the largest. The table therefore gives all the simple factors except
the greatest. The letters f, g, h, &c. are used for 11, 13, 17, &c. (as explained
on p. xviii of the introduction), not only because they occupy less room, but
also because they can be placed in contact without risk of mistake; the
least factor, however, is always written at length.
T. IL. Abacus numerorum primorum, viz. first 10 multiples of all the
primes up to 313.
T. III. Seven products, cach of seven consecutive primes, from 7 to 173.
T. IV. List of the three-figure endings that squares of odd numbers
admit of.
T. VI. Primes from 1 to 101,977.
T. VIL.-IX. Powers of 2 to 2", of 3 to 3%, of 5 to 5”,
Booting * (to, places) for'a==-1,\-2) 9.951) 2.0. Lo 10:
T. XUI. & XV. Hyperbolic logarithms (to’7 places) of numbers from
1 to 100, and from 1-01 to 10-00 at intervals of -01, respectively.
T. XIV. & XVI. contain log, 16, 10° ...10", to 7 places, and log, 2
oe “9
1
3...10, and log, 10? to 25 places,
T. XVII. Tables of numbers of the form 2", 3", 5, 7% arranged in order
up to 11,200.
T. XXIII. Circular measure of 1°, 2°. . .100°, 120°, 150°, 180°. . 360°,
of 1’, 2’. ..10', 20'.. .60', and of 1”, 2”... .10", 20". . .60", to 27 places.
T. XXIV. ¢=10000'm; ¢, ¢°.. .6"° expressed in terms of m (in circular
measure), to 16 places, and sin ¢, cos ¢ expressed in terms of m with decimal
; 1
coefficients, to 18 places. Also x, log z, Fa) ¥ x, &e, to a good many places.
T. XXY. Natural sines to every degree and their first 9 multiples, to 5
places.
T. XXVI. Sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents to
every degree, to 7 places.
T. XXIX. Table for facilitating the solution of cubic equations, viz.
a= +(v—2") from w=-001 to 1-155 at intervals of 001, to 7 places,
1873. I
114 REPORT—1878.
T. XXXII. Functiones hyperbolice circularibus analoge. Q q being a
rectangular hyperbola, centre C, P C Q is the so-called angulus transcendens
= @ say, q CQ the angulus communis = say; p gis the hyperbolic sine,
C p the hyperbolic cosine, and C q Q the sector ; so that if the hyperbola be
xv’ —y=1, w=sec ¢ and y=tan ¢.
LE y |
@ £L
The argument is , and proceeds from 0° to 90° at intervals of 1°; and
the table gives the sector, ¥, x, log y, log a, tan Ww, log tan W and y, all ex-
cept the last to 7 places, and the last to one decimal of a second. :
J. XXXV. & XXXVI. Squares and cubes of numbers from 1 to 1000.
: 1
T. XXXVII. Figurate numbers (first 12 series), viz. 2, a(x+1)
i232
a(e+l)\(@+2) ax(w+1)..(#+11 :
oe a a 123...12 from w=1 to 30.
T. XL. First 11 powers of 01, -02, -03...1:00, to 8 places.
1 1
T. XLIV. Coefficients of the first 16 termsin (14+«)* and (1+) , their
accurate values being given as decimals.
Besides the above, T. XIX. gives sin 8°, 6°. . .89° in radicals, and T. XLII.
the first 6 or 9 convergents to f2, 73, 75...712 as vulgar fractions.
The other tables contain formule &e.
The work is edited by Felkel, who has prefixed a Prefatio Interpretis of
Xl pp., giving a description of his (Felkel’s) tables of divisors &e.; and there
is also added at the end an account of his proposed scheme of tables in rela-
tion to the theory of numbers. About Felkel, see Frrxen, 1776, § 3, art. 8.
The titlepage states that this is a translation from a German edition. The
original was entitled ‘“ Zusitze zu den logarithmischen und trigonometrischen
Tabellen,’’ and was published in 1770 ; or, at all events, De Morgan’s deserip-
tion of the contents of this latter work, which we have not seen, agrees,
as far as it goes, almost entirely with the ‘Supplementa’ &c., which De Morgan
had heard of, but not seen. The introduction to the latter shows signs of
having been amplified by Felkel.
hax, 1821. JT. XIV. Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800" —log a
from w=0" to w=10800" (=8°) at intervals of 1” (the arguments being
expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds), to five places. On the first page,
however, which extends to 10’, only two, three, or four places are given cor-
rectly, the number being filled up to five by adding ciphers; facing 0° 0' 0”
there is given 4:88.. instead of —a.
T, XVII. Natural versed, suversed, coversed, and sucoversed sines, viz.
1—cos w and 1+ cos w for every minute of the quadrant, to six places, with
proportional parts for 1, 2",..60", so that the tabular results can be taken
out very easily to seconds. It may be observed that of the double columns
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 115
headed ' and " the first refers to the argument and the second to the propor-
tional parts. This table occupies pp. 57-80 of the book.
T. XVIII. six-figure logarithms to 15,500, with proportional parts at
the foot of the page to twentieths for the portion beyond 1000. The table is
so arranged that all the logarithms are given at full length, though this is
not the case with the numbers ; for example, to find the logarithm of 15184
we seek 15150 at the head of the column, and line 34 in the column: this
defect might have been partially remedied by the introduction of another.
column at the right-hand side of the page containing the numbers 50,
51...99. The other tables, 22 in number, are nautical.
Esynn, 1827. TT. Z. (pp. 244-283). A sexagesimal proportional table,
exhibiting at sight, in minutes, seconds, and tenths of a second, the fourth
term in any proportion in which the first term is 60 minutes, the second term
any number of minutes under 60 minutes, and the third term any number of
minutes and seconds under 10 minutes. Ifthe second term is not an exact
number of minutes the table can still be used, though two operations are
4 , ‘ cee Lae
required. The table may be described as giving ai in minutes, seconds, &c.,
w (running down the column) being 1’, 2’... 60’, and y (running along the
top lines) extending to 10’ at intervals of 1".
T. E. (pp. 288, 289). Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24",
viz. log 1440” —log w, from v=1™ to c=1860" (=31") at intervals of unity,
the arguments being expressed in hours (or degrees) and minutes, to four
places; the other tables are nautical.
Mackay, 1810 (vol. ii.). T. XLI, Natural versed sines for every ten
seconds to 180°, to six places.
T. XLY. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to
10,000, with differences; the logarithms written at length.
T. XLVI. Log sines to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to six places.
T. XLVIT. Log tangents to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to six places.
T. XLVIII-L. Yo find the latitude by double altitudes of the sun or stars
and the elapsed time. The first and second of these tables give log cosec #
and log (2 sin v) from #=0" to v=3" 59™ 50% at intervals of 10°; and the
third gives log versed sines to 7" 59™ 50° at intervals of 105, all to five places,
the logarithms being written at length. These tables were copied, according
to the author (see note, vol. ii. p. 31), from the second edition (1801). of this
work without acknowledgment into Norre’s ‘ Epitome of Navigation.’
T. LI. Proportional logarithms to every second to 8°, to four } places ; same
as T. 74 of Rarer ; the other tables are nautical.
The table of natural versed sines was calculated for this work, and ap-.
peared in the first edition (1793) ; it has since, the author states, been fre-
quently copied (see note, vol. ii. p. 13).
Hiaseres, 1795. This is a collection of reprints of tracts, and, among
others, of “An Appendix to the English Translation of Rhonius’s German
Treatise of Algebra, made by Mr. Thomas Brancker, M.A.,...At London, in
the year 1668..... ” And on pp. 867-416 is given “Thomas Brancker’s Table
of Incomposit or prime Numbers, less than 100,000,” viz. least factors of all
numbers up to 100,000 not divisible by 2 or 5. On p. 366 is arather long list
of errors in the table (we suppose Maseres reprinted verbatim from his copy,
as some of the errata are corrected and some are not), and also some errors
in Guldinus, Schooten, and Rhonius. The table is preceded (pp. 364, 365)
nyt A Tarriffo, or Table, of all Incomposit or prime numbers loss than
100,000, multiplied by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.”
12
116 REPORT—1873.
On pp. 591, 592, T. XIX. of Dopson’s ‘ Calculator,’ 1747 (viz. square and
cube roots of numbers less than 180, to 6 places), is reprinted; and on pp.
595-604 are reciprocals (to 9 places) and square roots (to 10 places) of
numbers from 1 to 1000, reprinted (as Maseres states in the preface) from
vol. iv. of Hutton’s ‘ Miscellanea Mathematica’ (1775, 4 vols. 12mo).
Maskelyne (Requisite Tables), 1802. T. XV. Proportional logarithms
for every second to 3°, to 4 places; same as T. 74 of Rarer.
_ I. XVI. For computing the latitude of a ship at sea, &c. The arguments run
from 0" to 6" at intervals of 10°; and there are three columns of tabular results
headed Log 3 Elap. time, Log Mid. time, Log rising, which give respectively
log cosec w, log (2 sin #), and log vers sin w, to 5 places; the log rising is
also continued for arguments from 6" to 9" at the same intervals. This table,
modified in form &e., is reproduced in Mackay, Douxn, &e. (see § 3, art. 15,
p. 68, and Bownrrcn, 1802), and is sometimes called by Maskelyne’s name.
T. XVII. Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places,
T. XVIII. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000.
T. XIX. Log sines, secants, and tangents to every minute of the qua-
drant, to 5 places; the sines are given to 6 places, the last being separated
from the rest by a point; the other tables are nautical.
Maskelyne’s name does not appear on the titlepage to these tables; but
the preface is signed by him.
Appenpix To THE Tutrp Eprrion. TI. Natural sines to every minute
of the quadrant, with proportional parts for seconds,
T. II. Natural versed sines for every minute to 120°, with proportional
parts for seconds.
T. III. Logarithms of numbers to 1000, arranged consecutively, and
printed in groups of five; and thence to 100,000 grouped in decades, with
proportional parts for each decade by its side. All the tables in the Appen-
dix are to six places. Copies of the Appendix were circulated separately.
Minsinger, 1845. [T. I.] Scven-figure logarithms to 100 and from
1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts at the foot of the page; the sixth
place is separated by a comma from the seventh, for convenience if the table
is to be used tosix places. The change in the line is denoted by an asterisk
attached to all the logarithms affected.
[T. II.} Squares, cubes, and square and cube roots (to 6 places) of all
numbers from 1 to 100, and squares and cubes only of numbers from 100 to
1000. Then follow a few constants and [T.IV.] primes to 1000.
Moore, Sir Jonas, 1681. ['T. I.] Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000
(arranged as is now usual), with differences: the proportional parts ['T. II. ]
are given by themselves at the end, and occupy 22 pp. This may be regarded
as a separate table, containing proportional parts (to tenths) of numbers
from 44 to 4320—the interval being 2 to 900, 3 to 999, 4 to 1415, 5 to 2000,
and 10 to 4320.
(T. III.] Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of
the quadrant, to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged), without differences,
It may be remarked that many of the N’s at the top of the columns are
imperfectly printed, and appear like V’s; thus N. tangent is often printed
Y. tangent,
[T. IV.] (pp. 262-351). Natural and log versed sines from 0° to 90° to
evcry minute, to 7 places. De Morgan says that this is the first appearance of
this table in England. The other tables relate to navigation, geography, &e.
[Moore, Sir Jonas, 1681] (Versed sines). Natural and log versed sines
to every minute of the quadrant, to 7 places, semiquadrantally arranged,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, pk
The copy of this tract before us (which is bound up in a volume with
several others, and belongs to the Cambridge University Library) is clearly .
either a separate reprint or merely a table torn out from some larger
work. The paging runs from 262 to 351: at the beginning there is a plate,
the size of the page, of a person observing with a sextant, and the words
* between page 248 and 249” below in the left hand-corner, and at the end
a diagram with a movable circle and pointer, headed ‘‘ The fore part of the
Nocturnall or side held next the face in time of observation,” and “ between
page 254 and 255” below. On examination we find the table is [T. IV.] of
Sir Jonas Moorn’s ‘Systeme of the Mathematicks,’ 1681, just described.
The engravings do not, however, appear to be taken from either volume
of this work. It is very likely that this table was merely torn out
from the work, and was never published separately ; still as, according to
De Morgan, this is the first appearance of such a2 table in England, it is not
improbable that copies may have been in request, and therefore issued
separately.
J.H. Moore, 1814. T. III. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every
quarter-point, to 5 places.
T. IV. Five-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000.
T. V. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to
© places,
T. XXIII. Log 3 elapsed time, mid. time, and rising (for explanation of
these terms see IT, XVI. of Masxetynen, § 4) for every 10° to 6", except
the last, which is to 9", to 5 places. The tables are separated as in Mackay.
T. XXIV. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places.
T. XXY. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places ; same
as.T. 74 of Rapmr.
We have seen the 18th edition (1810), which is identical with that above
described, an edition of 1793, and the 9th edition (1791) (the last two not
edited by Dessiou). All contain the tables described in this account (though
the order is different), except that the tables in T. XXIII. are not separated;
the log rising is only given to 6°, and the intervals also 30%, in the two
earlier editions.
Three out of the four editions contain different portraits of the author.
Muller, 1844. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to
1500, and four-figure logarithms from 100 to 1000.
[T. II.] Table of Gaussian logarithms in a somewhat modified form,
viz. S and U to 4 places, from A=-0000 to -0300 at intervals of -0001,
thence to 230 at intervals of 001, and from -20 to 2-00 at intervals of -01,
and thence to 4-0 at intervals of -1, with differences ; where
pe
2
[T. III.] Squares of numbers from 0 to 1 at intervals of -0001, to 4 places,
and quarter squares of numbers from 0 to 2 at the same intervals, also to 4
places (intended for use in the method of least squares).
[T. IV.] Four-place log sines and tangents for every second to 10’, thence at
intervals of 10’ to 1°, thence at intervals of 1' to 4°, and to 90° at intervals
of 10’.
There are given also:—the circular measure (to 12 places) of 1°, 2°...
10°, 1’... 10’ and 1”... 10"; 12 constants involving x; natural sines and
tangents to every half degree ; and a few three-figure logarithms,
A=loegew, S= log (1 + ‘) and U = log
ve
118 REPORT—18708.
John Newton, 1658. [T. I.] Logarithms to 1000, to 8 places, and
logarithms from 10,000 to 100,000, also to 8 places. A column is added to
_ each page containing the logarithms of the differences, to 5 places.
[T.I1.] Log sines and tangents (semiquadrantally arranged) for every
centesimal minute (viz. nine-thousandth part of aright angle), to 8 places,
with differences.
[T. I1T.] Log sines and tangents for the first three degrees of the quadrant,
to 5 places, the interval being the one thousandth part of a degree. Loga~-
rithms of the differences to 8 places are added.
_ The trigonometrical tables are thus of the kind introduced by Brrees, and
are partly centesimal (see § 3, art. 15, p. 64), This is the only extensive
eight-figure table that has been published; and it is also remarkable on
account of the logarithms of the differences, instead of the differences, being
given. It seems worth consideration whether, in the event of a republication
of Vuace, 1628, it would not be advantageous to replace the differences by
their logarithms. It is usually most convenient, if many logarithms are to
be taken out at one time, to interpolate for the last five figures in a ten-
figure table by means of an ordinary seven-figure table; but in other cases
recourse is generally had to simple division, and the natural differences are
best. The table would occupy too much space if both the differences and
their logarithms were added; and there is not much chance of two publi-
cations ever being made, one with natural, and the other with logarithmic,
differences. If the choice had to be made, the decision would probably be in
favour of the simple differences as they are, though a good deal might be
urged on the other side.
A few errata are given at the end of the address to the reader, and a great
many more on the last page; the tables, however, reproduce nearly all.
- Vxaca’s errors, which affect the first 8 places (see ‘Monthly Notices of the
Roy. Ast. Soc.’ March 1873). This was the first table in which the arrange-
ment, now universal in seven-figure tables (viz. with the fifth figures run-
ning horizontally along the top line of the page), was used. The change of
the third figure in the line is not noted.
The title of this work being the ‘Trigonometria Britannica’ (printed
‘ Britanica’ on the titlepage), it is often confounded with Briaas’s work of
this name, Gouda, 1633 (§ 3, art. 15), from which it is derived. Also, as
Gellibrand’s name appears on the titlepage it is sometimes attributed to
him in catalogues.
In the Cambridge University Library is a copy of this book, in which the
titlepage and introduction are absent, the first page being the titlepage to
the tables, so that the work is anonymous. Whether some copies of the tables
ee were published, or whether the copy in question is imperfect, we do not
now.
Worie, 1836. T. XXIII. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quar-
ter-point, to 7 places,
T. XXIV. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000, with differences.
T. XXYV. Log sines and tangents to every ten seconds to 2°, and log sines,
tangents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with
differences, |
T. XXVI. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places.
T. XXVIT=XXIX. 7% Jind the latitude by double altitudes and the
elapsed time. Log 3 elap. time, middle time, and rising (for explanation of
these terms see I’. XVI. of Maskrzyns, § 4) are given at intervals of 5%,
the two former to 6",.and the last to 9", to 5 places, with proportional
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 119
-parts. The three tables are separated, as is now usual (see Mackay, § 4,
T, XLVIITI.).
T. XXXI. Logarithms for finding the apparent time or horary angle,
viz. log 1— 5" =
= 2 log sin 5) from v = 0" tow = 9" at intervals of
58, to 5 places, with proportional parts for seconds.
T. XXXIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°; same as
T. 74 of Rarer.
T. XXXVI. Natural versed sines to every minute of the quadrant, with
proportional parts for every second of the minute-interval, to 6 places.
The other tables are nautical. These tables also appear in Norre’s ‘ Epi-
tome of Navigation.’
Worie (Epitome), 1844. The tables are the same as in Norte’s Nautical
‘Tables just described; they: are added after the explanatory portion, which
occupies 328 pp,
On the different editions, see Nortn’s Epitome in § 5.
NWorwoed, 1631. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,000, and log sines and
tangents to every minute, to 7 places, semiquadrantally arranged: of the
latter we have seen separate copies under the title, “A triangular canon
logarithmicall” (the title it has also in the work). The editions we have
seen are :—first, 1631; second, 1641; third, 1656; seventh, 1678.
This was one of the first small tables in which the trigonometrical canon
was derived from Vuace, 1628, and not Gunter, 1620,
Oppolzer, 1866. Four-figure logarithms, with proportional parts to
1000, A page of Gaussian logarithms, after Fimrrowsk1, and a page of pro-
portional parts. Log sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents to 10° at intervals
of 1’, with differences, and from 10° to 45° at intervals of 10’, with differ-
‘ences and proportional parts, all to 4 places.
Oughtred, 1657. [(T.1.] Sines, tangents, and secants (to 7 places) and
log sines and tangents (to 6 places) for every centesimal minute (= 5,55 of a
‘right angle) of the quadrant. Sines, tangents, and secants on the left-hand
page of the opening, and cosines, cotangents, and cosecants, &c, (though not
80 called or denoted) on the right-hand page.
_ [T. IL.] Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10,000, followed
by a ‘ Tabula differentiarum ’ for the sines and tangents,
Tn an appendix at the end of the book it is explained that the logarithmic
sines and tangents were intended by the author to consist of seven figures
after the index, but that “the seventh figure was unhappily left out.” This
is also referred to in the dedication.
Ozanam, 1685. Natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and
tangents, and logarithms of numbers to 10,000, all to 7 places. There are
120 pp. of trigonometry &c. De Morgan points out that the tables are really
Viacq’s, though his name is not mentioned, and takes occasion very truly to
remark how many authors have considered that the merit of their books con-
sisted in the trigonometry, and that the tables (which usually form by far the
greater part of the work) were accessories of which no notice need be taken.
. Parkhurst, 1871, This little book contains forty-two tables, with the
last two of which this Report is not concerned. In describing briefly their
contents, it will be convenient to mention first the tables which contain
results most common in other works, such as logarithms &e., viz.:—
T. IL., II1., and IX. Logarithms from 1 to 109, to 102 places.
_T. V. Multiples of the modulus -43429...from 10 to 96, to 35 places.
T. XII, Logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 2199 at intervals of unity,
120 REPORT—1878.
from 2200 to 2998 at intervals of 2, from 3000 to 4995 at intervals of 5;
all to 10 places (from Vuiace).
T. XIII. Logarithms of numbers from 200 to 1199, to 20 places (from
CALurt).
T. XIV. (continuation of T. XIII.). Logarithms of numbers from 1200
to 1399 at intervals of unity, from 1400 to 2998 at intervals of 2, from
3005 to 4995 at intervals of 10; all to 20 places.
T. XVIII. Logarithms of primes from 113 to 1129, to 61 places (from
CaLier).
T. XX., XXI., XXII. A table of least divisors of numbers to 10,190,
and, for certain divisors, to 100,000. Multiples of 2, 3, 5, 7, aud 11 are
excluded; it is very inconveniently arranged, and is moreover imperfect.
T. XXIII. Primes to 12,239.
T. XXV. Reciprocals from 300 to 3299, to 7: places, arranged like an ordi-
nary table of seven-figure logarithms.
T. XXVI. Products of the numbers from 200 to 399 by the digits 1,2...9,
and squares from 200? to 3997,
T. XXVII., XXVIII. A few logarithms and antilogarithms, to 3 places,
and a similar small table to 4 places.
T. XXX., XXXI. Natural and log sines and tangents &e., to 4 places.
T. XXXII. Binomial-theorem coefficients (the first six for indices from
unity to 40), and squares from 1? to 200%, y :
T. XXXII, XXXIV. Multiplication table from 16 x 13 to 99 x 98,
and multiplication table of squares from 16? x 13 to 99? x 98.
T. XXXYV., XXXVII., XXXVIII. Antilogarithms, logarithms to 8 places,
and log sines. :
The other tables are :—
T. IV. Logarithms of factors, 102 decimals. T. VI. Secondary multi-
ples. T. VII. Factors to 3 decimals. T. VIII. Logarithms of factors, 31
decimals. ‘I. X. Factors to 61 decimals. T. XI. Log F, for logarithms to
10 decimals. T. XV., XVI., XVII. Logarithms to 20 decimals of factors.
T. XTX. Constants derived from the modulus. T. XXIV. Log p, for addition
and subtraction. T. XXIX. Subtraction logarithms. T. XXXVI. Factors.
T. XXXIX., XL. Interpolations, Bessel’s coefficients.
Most of these tables are tabulated for their use in the calculation of
logarithms by well-known methods. The arrangement of the work is most
confused; and it would be very difficult to understand from the author’s
description the objects of his tables. The paging of the book runs from 1
to 176; and this portion includes all the tables. Then Part 2 commences,
and the pages are numbered afresh from 1 to 88. In Part 3 the pages pro-
ceed from 1 to 27. Parts 2 and 3 are occupied with a description of the
tables ; and the reader who wishes to understand the meaning of the nota-
tion (which is often needlessly complex and confusing, to save the space of
a few figures), &c., is recommended to begin at Part 3, p. 5. It would take too
much room, even if it were worth while, to explain the tables in detail; but it
may be stated that the tables (for the construction of logarithms of factors) give
the yalues of log (1+ sp.)ona log ¢ —i9 for different values of m and n
‘to a great many places, as required in Weddle’s and similar methods.
It will save the reader some trouble to mention that by 2m in the
) Generally
book is meant log (1 +i) and by — ny in, — log oe
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 121
the m is left out, where it is thought the context prevents risk of mistake ;
and instead of —n Sm there is sometimes written ns m, and the heading
*“cologarithm.” The last page of the book, headed (wrongly) Table XXXIIT.,
contains a very imperfect list of the abbreviations used.
It is to be inferred from the Preface &c., that the book was set up and
electrotyped by the author himself, who states that ‘it is probable that there
is not now a single error in the whole table.” The reward of a copy of the book
is also offered to the first finder of any important error under certain condi-
tions. Parts of the book, in the copy before us, are very badly printed, so
badly in fact that one or two pages are wholly illegible ; and the tables are so
crowded that we should think no one would use them who could procure any
others that could be made todo as well. In fact the author’s object seems to
have been to crowd the greatest possible amount of tabular matter into the
smallest space, without any regard to clearness. It is stated in the work that
in the course of the printing, incomplete copies (some containing proofs almost
illegible) were distributed to the author’s friends ; and an advertisement on the
cover states that copies containing proofs rejected in the printing may be had
at different prices according to their completeness and the order of the tables.
The book is printed phonetically ; and this adds to the awkwardness of the
most confused, badly printed, and ill-explained series of tables we have met
with in the preparation of this Report. By issuing his tables in the form
and manner he has adopted, the author has not done justice to himself, as
several are the results of original calculation and are not to be met with
elsewhere.
Pasquich, 1817. T. I. Five-figure logarithms to 10,000 (arranged
consecutively im columns), without differences.
_ T. IL. Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0’ to 56’ at in-
tervals of 10”, thence to 1° at intervals of 20”, and thence to 45° at intervals
of 1',.with differences for 1". Also squares of natural sines, cosines, tangents,
and cotangents from 1° to 45° at intervals of 1’, all to 5 places. De Morgan
says, ‘This trigonometrical canon in squares is, we suppose, almost unique.”
T. III. Gaussian logarithms. B and C (same notation as in Gauss), to 5
places, with differences, for argument A, from A=-000 to A=2-000 at
intervals of -001, from A=2-00 to A=3-40 at intervals of ‘01, and from
A=3-4 to A=5 at intervals of -1. This table is the same as that originally
given by Gauss, 1812 (§ 3, art. 19).
A few constants &c. are added in an Appendix.
A lengthy review of this work by Gauss appeared in the ‘ Gottingische
gelehrte Anzeigen’ for Oct. 4, 1817. It is reprinted on pp. 246-250 of
t. iii. of his ‘ Werke.’
Pearson, 1824. Vol. I. contains 296 large quarto pages of tables; but
only three pages come within the range of this Report, viz.:—[T.I.], p. 109,
a one-page table to convert space into time, and vice versd. [T. II.], p. 261,
which expresses 1°, 2°, 3°... .360°, and 1’, 2’... .60' as decimals of the cir-
cumference of the circle to 4 and 5 places respectively ; and [T. III.], p. 262,
which gives the circular measure of 1°, 2°.,..180°, of 1’, 2'....60! and of
1", 2"... .60", to 8 places.
The other tables are nautical, astronomical &e.
Peters, 1871. [T. I.] pp. 16, 17. Hundredths, thousandths, ten-thou-
sandths, hundred-thousandths and millionths of a day expressed in minutes
and seconds.
[(T. II.] pp. 18, 19. For the conversion of are into time, and vice versd.
122 REPORT—1873.
[T. III.] pp. 20, 21. Lengths of circular arcs, viz, 1°, 2°, 3°..,.96°,
thence to 115° at intervals of 5°, and to 360° at intervals of 10°, 1', 2’... .60',
and 1”, 2",,..60", expressed in circular measure, to 7 places.
wa — 1)
[T. IV.]. Interpolation tables. Table I. (p. 103) gives ary
Gan ae dh: ange ee? ie 2) from v=00 to v=1-00 at
45
intervals of -01—the first function to 5 places (with differences), and the
second and third to 4 places (without differences). It will be noticed that on
writing 1 — w for w, the first and third functions are unaltered, while only
a change of sign is produced in the second. It is thus sufficient to tabulate
them only from 0 to -50, and to write the arguments down the column from 0:00
to ‘50, and upwards from ‘50 to 1:00, attending to the sign of the second fune-
tion ; and this is accordingly the arrangement in the table. Table II. (pp. 104,
, and
rate — 1) oa? — 1) x(a? — 1)\(2? — 4) 2
Be, Aa). tah Ba OMNES E adr
105) contains ie
2 = 0:00 tov = 1:00 at intervals of -01, the first to 5 and the others to 4
places, The first two have differences added.
[T. V.] (pp. 106-150). Natural sines, tangents, and secants throughout
the quadrant to every minute, to 5 places, without differetices.
[T. VI.] (pp. 151-169). Table of squares to 10,000, arranged as in a
table of logarithms, the last figures of the squares (which must be 0, 1, 4, 5,
6 or 9) being printed once for all at the bottom of the columns.
The other tables are either astronomical or meteorological. There are 13 pp.
of formule.
Rankine, 1866. TT. I. Squares, cubes, reciprocals (to 9 places) and five-
figure logarithms of numbers from 100 to 1000.
T. 14. Square and cube roots (to 7 places), and reciprocals (to 9 places) of
primes from 2 to 97.
T, 2. Squares and fifth powers of numbers from 10 to 99.
T, 2 a. Prime factors of numbers up to 256.
T. 38. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 100, to 5 places.
T. 3 a. Ten multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal.
T. 4. Multipliers for the conversion of circular lengths and areas, viz. a
few multiples of z and its reciprocal, square roots, &c.
2
T. 5. Circumferences and areas of circles, viz. rd (to 2 places), and ps
(to the nearest integer), from d=101 to d= 1000.
T. 6. Ares, sines, and tangents for every degree, to 5 places.
Raper, 1846. TT. I. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100 and ~
from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional parts at the foot of the page.
T. I. Log sines for every second from 0° to 1° 30!, to five places.
T. III. Log sines for every ten seconds from 1° 30’ to 4°31’, to 6 places,
with proportional parts.
T. IV. Log sines, tangents, and secants for every half minute of the qua-
drant, to 6 places, with proportional parts. . ~ ;
T. V. A page of constants. r
Raper, 1857. T. 21.4. Logarithms for reducing daily variations, viz. log
1440" = log w, from « = 1™ to w = 1440™ (= 24") at intervals of a
minute, to 4 places, the arguments being expressed in hours and minutes.
T. 64. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000,
arranged as is usual in seven-figure tables, except that the logarithms are
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 123
‘printed at full length; the proportional parts are given at the foot of the
age.
3 T. 65. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to six
places.
T. 66, Log sines of small arcs, viz. for each second to 1° 30’, thence (T.
67) for every ten seconds to 4°31', to 6 places, the logarithms being printed
at length; T’. 67 has proportional parts.
T. 68. Log sines, tangents, and secants (printed at full length) for every
half minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences and proportional
parts for 1”, 2”....30" (= half a minute) beyond 38°, semiquadrantally
arranged; arguments also expressed in time.
T. 69, Log sin? = from # = 0 to a = 180° at intervals of 15” (arguments
expressed also in time), to 6 places; all the logarithms printed at fulllength ;
no differences,
T. 74. Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800" — log w from # = 1 to
a@ = 10800" ( = 3° or 3") to every second, the arguments being expressed in
degrees (or hours), minutes, and seconds, to 4 places ; the other tables are
nautical &c.
Reynaud, 1818: The trigonometry occupies 182 pages; and after the
diagrams are inserted Lananpr’s logarithms, which are quite disconnected
from the work.
r [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 10,000, arranged in columns, with cha-
racteristics and differences ; the number of degrees, minutes, &c. for the first
number in each column (viz. for every thirtieth number) is given at the top.
[T. II.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant, to
5 places, with | differences.
Riddle, 1824. T.IV. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every point
and quarter point of the compass, to 6 places.
T. V. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000,
with differences, arranged as usual,
T. VI. Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant, to
6 places, with differences, semiquadrantally arranged. [The heading of this
table in the book is inaccurate. |
' T. XXVIII. Natural versed and suversed sines, viz. 1—cos v and 1+-cos w,
for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with proportional parts for
1”, 2"... 60", so that the tabular results can be taken out very easily to
seconds. The extreme left- and right-hand columns serve both for minutes
im the arguments and for multiples in the proportional parts. The first
figure of the versed sine and the first two of the suversed sine are generally
omitted throughout.
T. XXIX. ‘Proportional logarithms, viz. log 10800” — log w from a = 0
to x = 10800" (= 3° or 3°), the arguments expressed i in degrees or hours,
minutes, and seconds at intervals of 1”, to 4 places.
The book contains 34 tables, the rest of which are nautical. The navi-
gation &c. occupies 299 pages.
Rios, 1809. The first edition was published in 1806; and this is the
second. The tables are identical with those in the Spanish reprint of 1850
described below, so that the description of the latter will suffice. The
numbers both of the tables and the pages are the same in both; and the only
difference is that the headings of the tables &c. in the 1809 edition are in
English. A list of errors in this edition is given in the reprint of 1850.
Although the title of the Spanish reprint is given in the listin § 5, we have
:
124 REPORT—1873.
thought it would be more conyenient to give the work the date of 1809, as
this more properly represents the time of appearance than does 1850. |
T. XIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 5 places.
This table only differs from T. 74 of Raprr in there being 5 instead of
4 places given.
T. XV. Five-figure logarithms of numbers from 10 to 10,200, with the
corresponding degrees, minutes, and seconds.
T. XVI. (pp. 382-472). Log sines, cosines, secants, cosecants, versed, co-
versed, suversed, and sucoversed from 0° to 45° at intervals of 15” (with
arguments also in time), to 5 places. The term “ versed” (versos) is used
for semiversed sine for brévity, and so for the others; the table thus gives
log 3 (1 + cosa) and log3(1 + sinw). The log sines, cosines, &e. are on
the left-hand pages, and the log versed &c. on the right-hand pages. - The
table, altered in arrangement so as to make it quadrantal, is reproduced in
Sranspury, 1822. There are also given some small tables to convert are
into time, and vice versd, on p. 472.
These tables are all included under the heading ‘ Tablas logaritmicas y
tablas para conyertir partes de circulo en tiempo y viceversa.’
A list of errata in the London edition of 1809 is given at the beginning
of the edition of 1850.
Roe. TT. I. Seven-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000,
with characteristics unseparated from the mantissee. All the figures of the
number are given at the heads of the columns, except the last two, which
run down the extreme columns; 1... 50 on the left hand, and 50...100 on
the right-hand side. The first four figures (counting the characteristics) are
printed at the top of the columns. There is thus an advance halfway to-
wards the modern arrangement, and the final step was made by Joun Newton
(1658). This is the first complete seven-figure table that was published. It
is formed from Vrace by leaving out the last three figures, without increasing
the seventh when they are greater than 500.
T. II. Logarithmic sines and tangents for every hundredth part of a
degree (viz. ggg part) of the quadrant, semiquadrantally arranged, to
10 places, with characteristics, which, however, are separated by a comma.
The work is very rare: the copy we have seen belongs to the Royal Society.
Rumker, 1844. T. I. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to
10,000, arranged consecutively in columns and divided into decades, with the
proportional parts for each decade by the side of it.
JY. IL. Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds to 2°, and log sines,
tangents, and secants for every minute from 0° to 45°, with differences, to
6 places ; the logarithms written at length.
T. III. Natural versed sines to every minute to 180°, with proportional
parts for the seconds, to 6 places.
T. IV. Logarithmen-Steigezcit, viz. log versed sines for every minute to 12",
to 6 places, with differences for one second (corresponding to 0" 0™: the
table gives 0 instead of — o).
T. XXIV. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places;
same as T. 74 of Rapzr.
In all cases the logarithms are written at length. The other tables are
nautical.
*Salomon, 1827. This work we have not seen; but as Rogg has given
a description of several of the tables, and we see no likelihood of meeting
with the book, we here give his account. There are 13 tables, of which
the most noteworthy are the following :—
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 125
T. I. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to how many places is not
stated) of all numbers from 1 to 10,000 conveniently arranged.
T. Il, Factors (except 2, 3, 5,and 11) of numbers from 1 to 102,011.
T. VII. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,800 (the last 800 to
7 places).
T. VIII. Briggian and hyperbolie logarithms of all numbers from 1 to
1000, and of primes from 1009 to 10,333, to 10 places.
_'D. IX. Logarithmic canon for every second of the first two degrees, and
then for every ten seconds of the rest of the quadrant (to 6 or 7 places, we
suppose).
T. XII. Natural sines and tangents for every minute, with differences. Rogg
adds that the printing and paper are good for Germany, but that he has made no
comparison to determine the correctness of the table; the two pages of errata,
however, show (he remarks) that there was not so much care taken as with
Suerwin, Garviner, Carter, Hurroy, Taytor, or Veca. Rogg’s account is to
be found on pp. 254 and 399 of his ‘ Bibliotheca.’ See also Gernerth’s tract.
- *Schlomilch [1865?)]. Five-figure logarithms to 10,909; table for the
conversion of Briggian into hyperbolic logarithms ; logarithms of constants ;
circular measure of degrees, minutes, and seconds ; natural functions for every
ten minutes of the quadrant; log functions for every minute; reciprocals,
square and cube roots, and hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 100; elliptic
quadrants ; physical and chemical constants.
The above description is taken from an advertisement.
Schmidt, 1821. [T. I.] Five-figure logarithms to 100, and from 1000
to 10,000, with proportional parts.
[T. Il.] Log sines and tangents for every minute of the quadrant (semi-
quadrantally arranged), to 5 places, with differences,
[T. III.] Natural sines (to 5 places) and tangents (to 5 places when less
than unity, above that to 6 figures) for every minute of the quadrant.
[T. IV.] Cireular arcs, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°... 90°, 120°...
300°, 360°, of 1’, 2’... 60!, and of 1", 2"... 60", to 12 places.
[T. V.] Squares and cubes of all numbers from unity to 1000, with two
subsidiary tables to extend the table to 10,000; the latter are of double
entry, and contain :—(i) (2 a+ ¢) ¢ for c=1, 2... 9 anda=10, 11... 99,
and 6c and 2 be for the same values of ¢ and forb =1, 2... 9; and (ii)
(3 @+ 3ac+c)cfore=1,2...9,anda=10,11...99.
There are a few other small tables for the solution of triangles, refrac-
tions, &c. :
Schron, 1860. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000
to 108,000 (the last 8000 being to 8 places), with proportional parts to one
place of decimals, so that they are in fact multiples. The change in the line
is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the fourth figure of all the logarithms
affected. ‘The degrees, minutes, &c. corresponding to every number (regarded
as that number of seconds) in the left-hand column, and also corresponding
to these numbers divided by 10, are given. At the bottom of the page also S
and T (and also the log sine and tangent) are added for every 10" ($3,
art. 13, p. 54), When the last figure has been increased there is a bar
subscript, which, being more obtrusive, is not so good as BapBaGr’s point.
The table is followed by the first 100 multiples of the modulus and its reci-
procal, to 10 places.
T. II. Log sines and tangents for every ten seconds of the quadrant, to
7 places, with very complete proportional-part tables (or more properly mul-
tiples of the differences), The increase of the last figure is noted as in T. I.
T. IL. Interpolation table, viz. the first 100 multiples of all numbers
126 ‘REPORT—1878.
from 40 to 410. The table occupies 75 pages; and on-each double page are
given the proportional parts to hundredths of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (viz. the first.
100 multiples divided by 100 and contracted to one decimal place), The
last page of the book is devoted to a table for the calculation of logarithms,
and contains common and hyperbolic logarithms of n, 1:0n, 1:00n, &e., 7,
being any single digit (or in other words, of 1 + a from « =lto“z#=9
and n = 1 ton = 10), to 16 places. The figures are beautifully clear, and
the paper very good. The tables are of their kind very complete indeed.
We have seen errata in this work advertised in different numbers of
Grunert’s ‘ Archiv der Mathematik und Physik.’ See Scuréy, 1865, below.
Schron (London edition), 1865. De Morgan remarked that in England,
though there existed minute- and second-tables of trigonometrical functions,
there was no good ten-second table; and on learning from the publishers
that an English edition of Scurén was contemplated, he offered to write a
short preface, as, accuracy being taken for granted, these appeared to him to
be the most powerful and best ten-second tables he had seen : his offer, how-
ever, Was accompanied by the condition that a careful examination should be
made by Mr. Farley, sufficient to judge of the accuracy of the work, and that
the result should be satisfactory. Mr. Farley accordingly examined 24 pages
selected at hazard, wholly by differences and partly by comparison with ~
Cater; and the pages were found to be totally free from error; so that the
general accuracy of the tables was assured. They are printed from the
same plates as in the German edition described above ; and the tabular matter
in the two seems identical in all respects. ;
Schulze, 1778. |[T. I.| Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and from
10,000 to 101,000, with differences and proportional parts. The proportional
parts at the beginning of the table, which are very numerous, are printed on
a folding sheet.
. A page at the end of this table contains the first nine multiples of the
modulus and its reciprocal, to 48 places; also ¢ to 27 places, and its square,
cube....to its 25th power, also its 30th and 60th powers, the number of
decimals decreasing as the integral portion increases. Log x (hyperbolic and
Briggian) is also given.
[T. IL. ] Wolfram’s hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 48 places. The
numbers run from unity to 2200 at intervals of unity, and thence to 10,009,
only not for all numbers; “von 2200 bis 10,000 ist sie hingegen nur fiir die
Prim- und etwas stark componirte Zahlen berechnet, weil das Uebrige durch
leichtes Addiren kann gefunden werden” (Preface). De Morgan says “ for
all numbers not divisible by a single digit ;” but this is incorrect, as 2219,
2225, &e. are divisible by single digits, while 9809 (least factor 17), 9847
(least factor 47) do not occur. In fact, at first a great many composite
numbers are tabulated, and near the end very few, if any. All the primes,
however, seem to be given; and by the aid of Wolfram’s tables we may
regard all hyperbolic logarithms of numbers below 10,060 as known. Space
is left for six logarithms, which Wolfram had been prevented from computing
by a serious illness. These were supplied in the ¢ Berliner Jahrbuch,’ 1783,
p- 191. Mr. Gray points out an error in Wolfram’s table; viz. in log 1409,
....1666....should be....1696....(* Tables for the formation &c.,’ 1865,
p- 38).
On Wolfram, see § 8, art. 16.
[T. I11.| Log sines and tangents for every second from 0° to 2°, to seven
places: the sines are on the left-hand pages, the tangents on the right-hand;
no differences, :
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 127
[T. IV.] Logistic logarithms to every second to one degree, to four places,
The pages in [T. III.] and [T. IV.] are not numbered.
[T. V.] is the first table in the second volume. It contains :—natural sincs,
tangents, and secants to seven places, with differences ; log sines and tangents
to seven places, with differences (from 0° to 4° the simple difference, and from
4° to 45° one sixth part of the difference, is given); and Napicrian (see § 3,
art. 17) log sines and tangents to eight places, without differences ; all for
every ten seconds for the first four degrees, and thence for every minute to 45°.
The Napierian logarithms (see first page of Preface to the second yolume) are
taken from the ‘Canon Mirificus’ of Narrer, augmented by Ursrnus. The
arrangement of the table is not very convenient, but perhaps the best
possible.
[f. VI.] (pp. 262, 263). First nine multiples of the sines of 1°, 2°, 3°
....90°. One or two constants are given on p. 264.
[T. VII.] Circular measure of all angles from 1° to 360° at intervals of
1°. This is followed by similar tables for minutes from 1' to 60’ at intervals
of 1’, and for seconds from 1” to 60" at intervals of 1”, all to 27 places.
[T. VIII.] Powers, as far as the eleventh, of decimal fractions from ‘0 to
1-00 at intervals of 01, to eight places.
[T. IX.] Squares of numbers to 1000.
[T. X.] Cubes of numbers to 1000.
[T. XI.] Square roots of numbers to 1000, to seven places.
[T. XII.] Cube roots of numbers to 1600, to seven places.
[T. XII.) The first six binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. «, - At Si taal i viele
ae zat oi i a for «= :01 to e=1-00, at intervals of -01, to seven
places.
The other tables connect the height and velocity of falling bodies, and
contain specific gravities &e. A table on the last page is for the conversion
of minutes and seconds of arc into decimals of an hour.
A table headed Rationale Trigonometrie occupies pp. 308— 311, and is very
interesting. It gives right-angled triangles whose sides are rational and
such that tan me (w being one of the acute angles of the triangle) is
greater than ,. Such triangles (though not so called here) are often known
as Pythagorean. Those with sides 3, 4, and 5; and 5, 12, and 13 are the
best-known cases; and 8,15, and 17, 9, 40, and 41, 20, 21, and 29, &c. are
among the next in point of simplicity. This table contains 100 such tri-
angles; but some occur twice. It gives in fact a table of integer values of
a, b, ¢, satisfying a°+b°=c*, subject to the condition mentioned above:
tan 4w, expressed both as a vulgar fraction and as a decimal, is given, as also
are » and 90°—w. For a larger table of the same kind, see Sang, ‘Edinburgh
Transactions,’ t. xxiii. p. 757, 1864. On the whole, this collection of tables
is very useful and valuable.
{[Schumacher, 1822?]. T. V. Five-figure logarithms of numbers for
every second to 10,890” (3°), arguments expressed in degrees, minutes, and
seconds.
- T’. VI. Log sines for every second to 3°, to five places. There is no name
at all on the table; but it is assigned (and no doubt correctly) to Schumacher
in the Royal Society’s Library ; and De Morgan, speaking of Warnstorrr’s
Scmumacner (1845), says that the original publication was Altona, 1822 ;
but there was an earlier edition, we believe, at Copenhagen, in 1820.
Shanks, 1853. The bulk of this work ({T. I.] pp. 2-85) consists of the
. values of the terms in Mr, Shanks’s calculation of the value of x by Machin’s
12 REPORT—1873.
formula, 7=16 tan~! 1—4 tan -1,1,. The terms in the expansion both of
BY 5 239°
tan ~! 1} and tan “1515 are given separately to 530 places. The former
occupy 60 pp. and extend to and the latter occupy 24 pp. and ex-
747-5" ,
1 : :
tend to 919-3957 * While the work was passing through the press Mr.
Shanks extended his value of z to 607 decimals; and to this number of
places it is given on pp. 86 and 87 of the book.
[T. II.] (pp. 90-95) gives every twelfth power of 2 (viz. 2", 2°, &c.) as far
as 2”! (which contains 212 figures). e
_ On p. 89 are given the values of ¢, log, 2, log, 3, log. 5, and log, 10, to 137
places, and the modulus to 136. Values of these quantities were given also
by Mr. Shanks to 205 places (Proc. Roy. Soe. vol. vi. p. 397). The value of ¢
was verified by the reporter to 137 places by calculation from a continued
fraction (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, pp. 16-18, sectional proceedings).
The same writer also showed in vol. xix. p. 521 of the ‘ Proceedings of the
Royal Society,’ that Mr. Shanks’s values of log 2, 3, 5, and 10 were inaccurate
after the 59th place (all owing to one error ina series on which they depended),
and deduced the correct values to 100 places. These results were verified by
Mr. Shanks, who has recalculated the values of these logarithms, as well as
that of the modulus, to 205 places: they are published in vol. xx. p. 27 of
the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ (1871).
Mr. Shanks’s 607-place value is given in Knight’s ‘ English Cyclopzedia,’
(Art. «Quadrature of the Circle”) copied from the work under notice ; and it
has been verified by a subsequent calculation of Richter to 500 places. A
list of the calculators of +, the number of places, &c. to which they have
extended their calculations, with references to the places where they are
to be found, is given by Bierens de Haan on a page at the beginning of his
“Tables dIntégrales Définies” in t. iv. of the Amsterdam Transactions.
This page, however, does not appear in the separate copies of the tables
(the ‘ Nouvelles Tables,’ Leyden, 1867). Foran extended and corrected copy
of this list, see ‘ Messenger of Mathematics,’ December 1872, and some addi-
tional corrections in the same Journal for July 1873 (t. iii. pp. 45, 46).
Some years ago Mr. Shanks calculated the reciprocal of the prime number
17389 so as to exhibit the complete circulating period, consisting of 17388
figures, and placed a copy of it in the Archives of the Royal Society. Quite
recently he has extended his calculation of + to 707 decimal places (Proc.
Roy. Soc. vol. xxi. p.318). Mr. Shanks has sent us three corrections to this
paper: viz. the 459th, 460th, and 461st decimals in x should be 962 instead
of 834, and the 513th, 514th, and 515th decimals should be 065 instead of
193; also the 75th decimal of tan-'1 should be 8 instead of 7. The two
corrections in 7 apply also to the work under notice.
Sharp, 1717. ['T.I.](p.40). The first hundred multiples of 37, to 21 places.
[T. II.| Areas of segments of circles. The area of the whole circle is
taken as unity; and the argument is the versed sine (or height of the
segment), the diameter being taken as unity. The table then gives areas to
17 places for arguments ‘0001 to -5000 at intervals of -0001, with differences.
Thus, strictly, the argument is the ratio of the height of the segment to the
diameter, and the tabular result the ratio of the area of the segment to that
of the whole circle. The table occupies 50 pp., and is the largest of the kind
we have seen.
[T. III.] Zable for computing the solidity of the upright hyperbolic section
of « cone, viz. for facilitating the calculation of the yolumes of segments of
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 129
right circular cones, the segment being contained by the base of the cone (a
segment of a circle), a hyperbolic section perpendicular to the base, and the
curved surface. The use of the table (which contains 500 values of the
argument and occupies 5 pp.) is explained on pp. 24—26 of the work.
_ {T. IV.) Briggian logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100, and of primes
from 100 to 1100, to 61 places; also of numbers from 999,990 to 1,000,010,
to 63 places, these last having first, second. ...tenth differences added. The
logarithms in this table were copied into the later editions of Saerwry and
other works.
The portion of the work which contains the tables is followed by a
* Concise treatise of Polyedra, or solid bodies of many bases” (pp. 32).
The work is universally attributed to Abraham Sharp, and no doubt exists
as to his haying been the author.
[Sheepshanks, 1844.] [T. I.] Four-figure logarithms from 100 to
1000, arranged as in seven-figure tables, with proportional parts.
[T. I1.] Log sines and cosines (the arguments being expressed in time) to
24" at intervals of 1™, to four places, with proportional parts for multiples of
10* (to 60°). Also log sines to 1” for every 10°, with differences for 1°.
[T. III.]| Log sines, cosines, tangents, and secants from 0° to 6° at
intervals of 1’, thence to 84° at intervals of 10’, and then at intervals of 1' to
90°, to four places. In the parts of the table where the interyals are 10’,
differences for 1' are given.
[T. IV.] Natural secants and tangents from 0° to 80° at intervals of 10’,
with differences for 1', and then to 86° at intervals of 1’, with differences for
10", to four. places.
(T. Y.] Modified Gaussian logarithms. There are two tables. The first
gives log (1 + 3 as tabular result for argument log w, the range of log «
being from -000 to -909 at intervals of 001, from -90 to 2°00 at intervals of
“01, and thence to 4:0 at intervals of -1.. The second table gives log (1 — =)
as tabular result, corresponding to the argument log wv, the range being from
‘000 to 1-000 at intervals of -001, from 16 00. to 3-00 at intervals of Ol, and
from 3-0 to 6-0 at intervals of ‘1: both tables to four places, with propor-
tional parts.
[T. VI.] Log sin? (4 hour angle) from 0" to 9® at intervals of 1", to four
places, with proportional parts for multiples of 10° (from Rapmr).
. (T. VIL.] Antilogarithms, for logarithms from -000 to 1:000 at intervals
of 001, to four places, with proportional parts.
There are also two or three astronomical tables.
De Morgan states that the work was issued under the title given in $5 in
1846, and two years previously without name or titlepage. It is from one of
these earlier copies that the above description has been written; we have
seen no copy bearing either author’s name or date.
Sherwin, 1741. [T. I.] (which follows p. 35 of the introduction) gives
Briggian logarithms to 61 places of all numbers to 99, and the logarithms of
primes from 100 to 1097, calculated by Abraham Sharp (see Smarr, 1717,
7. LY .]).
, (T. iP Briggian logarithms of thirty-five other numbers (viz. 999,981
—1,000,015), to 61 places, with first, second, third, and fourth differences,
to 30 places (Suarp [T. IY.]).
. ai III.| Seyen-figure logarithms of numbers to 1000, and from 10,000
73, K
130 REPORT—1878.
to 101,000, with proportional parts. The proportional parts near the begin-
ning of the table, being too voluminous for insertion on the page, are printed
on a fly-sheet, and bound up facing the introductory page of the table.
[T. IV.] Natural and log sines, tangents, and secants for every minute, to
seven places. Differences for the logarithmic functions are added, but not
for the natural ones. ;
[T. V.] Natural and log versed sines from 0° to 90° at intervals of a
minute, to seven places. Part of a page at the end of [T. V.] is occupied by
a small table to convert sexagesimals into decimals, &c., and vice versd.
The remaining table (of difference of latitude and departure) is not in-
cluded in this Report (see § 2, art. 12).
Sherwin went through five editions; but as none were stereotyped, some of
the later are less accurate than the earlier. De Morgan remarks, “Second
edition, 1717; third revised by Gardiner, and the best, 1742; fifth and last,
1771, very erroneous—the most inaccurate table Hutton ever met with.”
In speaking of the third edition we at first thought that De Morgan should
probably have written 1741 instead of 1742, as the edition we have described
bears the former date, but we have since seen a copy of 1742.
We possess an edition (1726) which contains a list of “ Errata for the
second edition of Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables” by Gardiner. In this edi.
tion, in place of [T. I.] and ['T. IT.] there are given two pages (pp. 28 and 29)
headed “ M. Brigg’s (sic) Logarithms for all Numbers, from 1 to 100, and for
all Prime Numbers from 100 to 200, calculated by that Ingenious Gentleman
and Indefatigable Mathematician, Mr. Abr. Sharp, at Little Horton, near
Bradford in Yorkshire.” The logarithms are given to from 50 to 60 places
(not all to the same extent).
We have also before us an edition of 1706; and the dedication, which is
the same in all the editions we have seen, is dated July 12,1705. ‘The table
on pp. 27 and 28 is the same as in the edition of 1726; but at the end of the
introduction is a table of errata, which are corrected in this latter edition.
The titlepage of the editions of 1705, 1706, and 1726, and perhaps other
dates, runs, “ Mathematical Tables....with their Construction and Use by
Mr. Briggs, Mr. Wallis, Mr. Halley, Savilian Professors of Geometry in the
University of Oxford, Mr. Abr. Sharp” (the names of the authors being
placed one under the other); and in the edition of 1706 is added, The
whole being more correct and complete than any Tables extant.” Sherwin’s
name does not, therefore, occur on the titlepage at all; but the preface is
signed and the tables were prepared by him, so that the work is universally
known as “Sherwin’s Tables.” In library catalogues, however, it will gene-
rally be found entered under the name of Briggs, Wallis, Halley, or Sharp.
In the edition of 1741, the names of Briggs, Wallis, Halley, and Sharp do
not appear on the titlepage, but we have “The third edition, carefully
revised and corrected by William Gardiner ” instead.
It will be seen that there is some confusion in the editions, as, if De
Morgan is correct in saying that the second edition was published in 1717,
the edition of 1726 would be the third, and that of 1741 the fourth.
The Royal Society’s Library contains a copy with “1705” on the title-
page, while the edition of 1706 (which is in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge) has the date printed in Roman characters, MDCCVI.
We have seen (in the Graves Library) the fourth edition, 1761; and the
British Museum contains, besides the editions of 1717 and 1742, the fifth
edition, “revised and improved by S. Clark” (1772), while the Cambridge
University Library has the same edition with the date 1771.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 131
_ The editions we have seen are 1705 and 1706, 1717, 1726; the third
edition 1741 and 1742, the fourth 1761, and the fifth 1771 and 1772. It
thus appears that it was not at all an uncommon thing (probably as the
impression was being made up from time to time) to advance the date by one
year. The first four dates we may distribute among the first two editions as
-we please ; most likely 1705, 1706, and 1717 for the first, and 1726 for the
second.
Rogg (p. 401) gives the editions as 1706, 1742, 1763, and 1771; but else-
where (p. 262) he speaks of the fifth as of 1785, which must be incorrect.
De Haan (‘ Iets over Logarithmentafels, p.57) gives the dates of the
editions as 1706, 1717, 1726, second 1742, 1751, 1763, fifth 1771. The
subject of the dates of the editions of Sherwin is discussed at some length in
the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society’ for March and
May 1873 (vol. xxxili. pp. 344, 454, 455, 457). Mr. Lewis, in bis letter
to the reporter, printed in the second of these papers, mentions 1717, 1742,
1761, and 1771 as the dates of the editions he had seen, agreeing perfectly
with those mentioned by De Morgan, Lalande (‘ Bibliog. Astron.’), and the
results of our own observation. He remarks that Barlow gives 1704 and
Callet 1724 as dates of editions, of which the former may bo dismissed at
once as an obyious blunder. The editions therefore that we have not seen,
but which may exist, are those of 1724, 1751, and 1763. About any of
these or any others we should be glad to receive information.
Rogg mentions that Sumrwiy has often been confounded with Garpixmr,
even by Kistner and Bugge.
With regard to the accuracy of the tables, Hurron writes (we quote from
p- 40 of the Introduction to his tables, 3rd edit. 1801) :—*“ The first edition
was in 1706; but the third edition, in 1742, which was revised by Gardiner,
is esteemed the most correct of any, though containing many thousands of
errors in the final figures: as to the last or fifth edition, in 1771, it is so erro-
neously printed that no dependence can be placed in it, being the most in-
accurate book of tables I ever knew; I have a list of several thousand errors
which I have corrected in it, as well as in Gardiner’s octavo edition.”
De Haan (‘Iets’ &c., p. 26), speaking of the 1742 edition, says that it
contains the logarithms of the numbers from 999,980 to 1,000,020 to 61
places ; but on examination we find that the above description of ['T. II.] is
correct. The advertisement to the book itself is no doubt the source of the
error; for it is there said to contain the logarithms of the 41 numbers from
999,980 to 1,000,020, whereas it really contains the logarithms of the 35
numbers from 999,981 to 1,000,015.
_ Sherwin’s tables are of historical interest as forming part of the main line
of descent from Briees; and the different editions cover the greater part of
the last century. The chief succession (considering only logarithms cf num-
bers) is Brices, Vuaca, Ror, Jonn Newton, Suerwin, Garprver; and ther
there are two branches, viz. Hurron founded on Suerwin, and Catrer on
Garprner, the editions of Vuea forming an offshoot.
. Shortrede (Compendious logarithmic tables), 1844. Small tables of
common logarithms with sexagesimal arguments, logarithms to 12,600, anti-+
logarithms from 0 to ‘999, log sines and tangents to 5’, also from 0° to 3°,
and from 8° to 5° for every two minutes; all to five or six places. The
tract only contains 10 pp.
Shortrede (Tables), 1844. T. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 10,800 with
characteristics, but without differences, and from 10,800 to 120,000, with
differences, and their first nine multiples at thé bottom of the page: the num-
K2
132 REPORT—1873.
ber of degrees, minutes, and seconds corresponding to the numbers in the
number-column multiplied by 10 is given throughout ; and at the top of every
page are printed, to seven places, the logarithms of certain constants, viz.
of 360°, 180°, 90°, 1°, 24", 12", 3°, 15, and radius (all expressed in seconds)
of are 1", 7 and M the modulus. The change of figure in the line is
denoted by a “nokta,” the same as that employed subsequently by Mr. Sang
(see Sane, § 3, art. 13); and its use is open to the same objections here as
‘there.
T. II. Antilogarithms, viz. numbers to logarithms from :00000 to 1-00000
at intervals of -00001, to 7 places, with differences and multiples at the
bottom of the page. The same logarithms of constants are given on the top
of the page as in T, I.; and the change in the line is denoted in the same
way. At the end of this table (p. 195), under the head “ Useful Numbers,”
the logarithms of some constants are given.
T. ILI. (pp. 598). Log sines and tangents to every second of the circum-
ference, to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged), the arguments throughout
being also given in time. The use of the word circumference instead of
quadrant in this description is justified by the fact that the signs are given
for the different quadrants at the top and bottom of the page: thus we have on
the first page, at the top, 0° Sin +, 90° Cos—, 180° Sin —, 270° Cos +, and
at the bottom 89° Cos +, 179° Sin +, 269° Cos —, 359° Cos —, and the same
for the tangent and cotangent, the arguments being also expressed in
time. Complete proportional parts are given throughout for tenths of a
second of space, and for the first six hundredths of a second of time, both
for the sine and tangent; but near the beginning of the tables coefficients of
correction for first and (sometimes) second differences are added instead. The
arguments, as before stated, are given also in time; so that corresponding to
1", 2", 3", &. we have -06%, 13°, -208, &c. This table is the most complete of
the kind we know of, and is unique; the figures are clear; and the objection
to the ‘‘nokta” does not apply here; in one column (p. 142) there are two
changes on the page.
T. VY. Seven-place log sines, tangents, and secants to every point and
quarter point of the compass.
T. XXXVIII. Lengths of circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°
s. 1 180°, of 1, 2, 022601) of 1”, 2”,....60"; andof 1!" 2 2 GOT aiieun
laces.
T. XXXIX. Proportional parts to hundredths of the reciprocal of the
modulus, viz. 2°302 ..., to 8 places.
There are thirty-nine tables in the book (T. XLI. is the last; but XXXYV.
and XXXVI. are accidentally omitted), the others being astronomical or me-
teorological &e.
The paging recommences with T. III. and proceeds to p.634, See Sorr
REDE, 1849 (next below).
Shortrede, 1849. This is a second edition of the work of 1844, and is
in 2 vols. There is a preface of xxv pages to vol. i. T. I. and II. are the
same as T. I. and II. in the 1844 edition; T. III. is a small ten-
place table of the lengths of circular arcs. T. IV. and V. are for finding
logarithms and antilogarithms to many places; viz. colog (1 + ‘01n)
+. -colog (1 + 01° n), &e. are given for n = 1, 2,...100, to 16 places, and
colog (1 + ‘01n)...colog (1 + -01"n) for n = 1, 2,...10, to 25 places
(initial ciphers being omitted). There are added small auxiliary tables
for facilitating the resolution of numbers into convenient factors. ‘T.
VI. The first hundred multiples of the modulus and its reciprocal to 32
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 133
places. T. VII. (which occupies six closely printed pages). Modified Gaus-
a
za+1 g
ment A (=log x), to 5 places, from A=5 to 3 at intervals of ‘1; from A=3
to 2-7 at intervals of -01; from A=2-7 to 1:3 at intervals of 001; and
from A=1:3 to 3-0 at intervals of 01, and thence to A=5 at intervals of -1.
T. VII. Log (1.2.3..x) from c=1 to ~=1000, to 5 and (for the argu-
ments ending in 0) to 8 places.
Then follow 2 or 8 pp. of barometric &c. tables, and a page of constants
(including a small table of log ie
The second volume contains T. III. of the 1844 edition, followed by some
spherical-trigonometry formule, and the same page of constants as in vol. 1.
In the advertisement to the second (1849) edition, Shortrede says “a
small edition of this work was published in 1844, before I had an opportu-
nity of seeing it complete, which in several respects was such as I did not
like. In the present edition many alterations have been made to conform it
more to my views; and for the convenience of purchasers it is now published
in two separate volumes.” The prices of the two volumes are, Vol. I. 12s., and
Vol. IL. 30s. ; it is worth noting this, as we have seen it stated that the price
of Shortrede’s logarithms (by which some might understand the whole work)
is 12s. De Morgan says, “ They [Shortrede’s tables] first appeared in
1844; but some defects and errors having been found, the edition of 184+
was cancelled; and a new edition from corrected plates issued in 1849.”
This may be true; but although we have seen four copies of ‘the 1844 edi-
tion in different libraries, we were not able to obtain a sight of the 1849
edition anywhere till we bought it. Our copy of Vol. i. is dated 1849; and of
Vol. ii. 1858. There are few tables in which, relatively to the number of
figures, the pages are so clear, and the logarithmic canon to seconds is much
the most complete we have seen. Every one must agree with De Morgan
that the work shows extraordinary energy and public spirit. This is the
most complete second canon in existence, and is the most accessible. Only
two others have been published :—Micnart Taytor, 1792, which has several
defects attending its use; and Bacay, 1829, which is scarce.
A list of twenty-six errors (nearly all in the antilogarithms) is given by
Shortrede himself in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society’ for January 1864; and a supplemental list is added in the same
publication for May 1867, where he says that “the unauthorized issue in
1844 contains several others.” One erratum is also given in the ‘Monthly
Notice’ for April 1867. Shortrede adds that the great majority of the
errata were communicated to him by Mr. Peter Gray.
In the ‘Insurance Record’ Mr. Firirowsxt charged Shortrede with having
corrected his table by the aid of his (Filipowski’s). That the charge was
utterly unfounded is proved by the letter of Mr. Peter Gray (‘ Insurance
Record,’ June 9, 1871), who states that the errata in Dopson were given te
Shortrede by himself (Mr. Gray) ; and we have seen reason to impute un-
fairness to Mr. Filipowski in another matter witli regard to Dodson (sw
Firrrowskr, 1849, § 4). Mr. Gray has kindly placed at our disposal his
copious list of errors in Donson, of which we hope to make use in a sub-
sequent Report.
Shortrede did not pay sufficient attention to the examination of the errata-
lists of previous works ; and, in consequence, his tables contain a much greater
number of the hereditary errors that had descended from Vurace than do the
sian logarithms. B (=log 1+.) and C (=be are tabulated for argu-
and the same for the tangent).
134 REPORT—1873.
best contemporary works. These errors are insignificant in themselves, ex-
cept in so far as they show the acquaintance of the author of a table with
the works of his predecessors. Shortrede was absent in India during the
publication of the 1844 edition (which contains seven of these errors) ; but
that of 1849 was published under his own superintendence, and still it con~
tains six, while BasBacr, Hitssr’s Yua@a, and other works of earlier date
have but one. See ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’? March 1873,
t, xxxiii. p. 335; and Gernerth’s tract ($3, art. 15, p. 55).
Stansbury, 1822. [T.I.] Small table to convert arc into time.
[T. I1.] Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places. Same
as T. 74 of Rapnr.
T. D. Log semitangents, viz. log aes
of 15’, to 3 places. This table occupies one page.
T. G. Proportional logarithms for every minute to 24", viz. log 1440
—log v, the arguments being expressed in hours and minutes (and also in
are), to 4 places.
T. H. (pp. 215-304). Log sines and secants, also log versed and sucoversed,
- from 0° to 90° at intervals of 15" (arguments also expressed intime),to 5 places,
By “versed” and “sucoyersed”’ are meant “ semiversed sine ’and “ semisu-
coversed sine” (the terms introduced by De Mendoza y Rios being used for
, ; 1 1+si
brevity, see Rros, 1809); so that the table gives log aos i?
oe and log-—
This table was copied from T. XVI. of Rros; but there is a difference of
arrangement, as the original table gave log sines, cosines, &c., the arrange-
ment being semiquadrantal, while in the present work it is quadrantal.
T, X. Five-figure logarithms from 1000 to 10,000; no differences.
T. Y. Halves of natural sines, viz. 3 sin 2 from «=0° to x=90° at in-
tervals of a minute, to 5 places, with proportional parts for seconds. |
The other tables are nautical.
Stegmann, 1855. T.I. Six-figure logarithms to 119, and fiye-figure
logarithms, with differences, from 1000 to 10,000,
T. I. Antilogarithms from -0000 to :9999, to 5 places. A few tables of
atomic weights &c. are added. As in Frurpowskx1’s tables, the terminal 5 is
replaced by the Roman V when it has been increased.
The preface to these tables is signed by Stegmann, but his name does not
appear on the titlepage.
*Stegmann. This work we have not seen. . Three errata in it are given
by Prof. Wackerbarth in.the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society’ for April 1867: and this is the only place in which we have seen
the table referred to. It is very possibly a five-figure hyperbolic logarithmic
table, similar to the same author’s table of common logarithms just de-
scribed.
Janet Taylor, 1833. T. XVII. Log sines, tangents, and secants to
eyery quarter point, to 6 places.
T. XVIII. Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000.
T. XL. Log sines and tangents for every 10" to 2°, and log sines, tan-
gents, and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with dif-
ferences.
T. XX. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places,
. T. XXT. Log versed sines to 8" at intervals of 5%, to 5 places.
T, XXXVI. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places;
same as T, 74-0f Raper, ~~... -.. ( Je &
from e=0 to z=180° at intervals
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 135
At the end of the preface Mrs. Taylor makes the following curious re-
mark :—‘ Some errors have crept into the calculations from the multiplicity
of entries &c.; these, I trust, will claim the indulgence of the public; for
the system on which I have worked being mathematically correct, and
founded on sound principles, any slight oversight in the figures can be of
but little moment, and very easily rectified.” It is to be presumed that this
does not refer to the tables included in this Report, as they would not have
been calculated afresh.
Mrs. Taylor was also-the author of a work on navigation, the tables in
which are described below.
Janet Taylor, 1843. T. 3. Log sines, tangents, aud secants to every
quarter point, to 6 places.
T. 4, Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000.
T, 5. Log sines and tangents for every 10" to 2°; and log sines, tangents,
and secants for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places, with differences.
T. 30. Log versed sines for every 5° to 8", to 5 places.
T. 32. Natural sines for every minute of the quadrant, to 6 places.
T. 35. Proportional logarithms for every second to 3°, to 4 places; samo
as T, 74 of Raper.
Mrs. Taylor, as we learn from an advertisement, kept a nautical academy
in the Minories.
Michael Taylor, 1792. [T. I.] Logarithms of numbers to 1260, to 7
places.
[T. IL.] Logarithms of numbers from 10,000 to 101,000, to 7 places, with
differences and proportional parts. The change in the third figure, in the
middle of the line is not marked.
[T. I1I.] Table of log sines and tangents to every second of the quadrant,
to 7 places (semiquadrantally arranged). The change in the leading figures,
when it occurs in the middle of the column, is not marked at all; and it
requires very great care in using the table to prevent errors from this
cause. If any one is likely to have to make much use of the table, it will
be worth his while to go through the whole of it, and fill in with ink the first
0 after the change (making it a black circle such as is used to denote full
moon in almanacs), and also to make some mark that will catch the cye at
_ the top of every column containing a change. This will be a work of con-
siderable labour, but is absolutely necessary to ensure accuracy. It is no
doubt chiefly on account of the absence of any mark at a change that
Bacay has so completely superseded this table, though difference of size &c.
are also in favour of the former.
[T. I.] and ['T. I1.] present no novelty ; but [T. III.] is an enormous table,
containing about 450 pages, with an average number of about 7750 figures
to a page, so that it contains nearly three millions and a half of figures.
The left-hand pages contain sines and cosines, the right-hand tangents and
cotangents. This is unfortunate, as the sines and cosines (which are used
_ far more frequently than the tangents and cotangents) are thus separated
at least a foot from the computer’s paper as he works with the table on his
left; and it is well known that the number of errors of transcription is
* proportional to the distance the eye has to carry the numbers. [T. IIT.] was
calculated by interpolation from Vraco’s ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis,’ to 10
places, and then contracted to 7; so that the last figure should always be
correct. Taylor was a computer in the Nautical Almanac Office ; he unfor-
tunately died almost at the moment of the completion of his work, only five
pages remaining unfinished in the press at the time of his death. These
136 REPORT—1873.
were examined, and the introduction &c, written, by Maskelyne. Some
errata, found among Taylor’s papers, are given on p. 64 of the work; anda
list of nineteen errata signed by Pond is published in the ‘ Nautical Almanac’
for 1833. To this list is appended the remark :—‘ The above errata were
detected by collating Taylor’s Logarithms with the French manuscript tables,
now the property of C. Babbage, Esq. The arrangement for this examina-
tion was made by the late lamented Dr. Young; a few days only before his
death he gave directions for its completion.—J. Ponp.”
_ We do not know any thing further with regard to this examination, though
the fact that certain errors were found in Taylor by comparison with the
French tables is well known; but there must be some mistake, as the French
tables could not have been even temporarily the property of Babbage. In
the preface to his tables Bassace states that while on a visit to Paris he
availed himself of the opportunity of consulting the great manuscript tables
preserved at the Observatory, and that he “‘ enjoyed every facility for making
the comparisons which were requisite for this purpose [the preparation of his
seven-figure table], as well as making extracts necessary to me for other
calculations.”
Bagay intimates in his preface that he had found 76 errors in Taylor.
Taylor was also the author of the Sexagesimal Table (§ 3, art. 9); and we
cannot but admire the undaunted perseverance that could enable him to com-
plete such monuments of industry in addition to his routine work as computer
in a laborious office.
Thomson, 1852. T. I. One-page table to convert are into time.
T. X. Logarithms for finding the correction of the sun's declination &e.,
viz. log 1440 —log w, from «=1 to v=1440, to 4 places.
T. XI. Logarithms of the latitude and polar distance, viz. log secants to
every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, without differences; quadrantally
arranged.
T. XII. Logarithms of the half sum and difference, viz. log sines and
cosines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places, without differences ; qua-
drantally arranged.
T. XIII. Logarithms of the apparent time or horary angle, viz. 2 log sin 5
from #=0" to v=9" at intervals of 10, with proportional parts for seconds,
to 5 places.
T. XV. Logarithins of the apparent altitudes, viz. log cosec x — ‘5400,
from w=0° to v=89°, at intervals of a minute, to 4 places.
T. XVI. Logarithms of the apparent distance, viz. log sines and tangents
for every minute, from 18° to 90°, to 4 nlaces.
T. XLX. Four-place proportional logarithms for every sccond to 3°; same
as T. 74 of Rarer.
- i ; ' Met
T. XXIII. Logarithms of the sum and difference, viz. log sin 3 from
x=0° to v=180°, at intervals of a minute, to 6 places.
T. XXIV. Six-figure logarithms of numbers from 1000 to 10,000, with
differences and tables for interpolating at the foot of the page. In this book
it is only required to find numbers corresponding to logarithms; and the
tables are constructed with this view. There are given, therefore, the usual
differences (called first differences), and the approximate results of the divi-
sion of 1, 2,3,....10, and ten or more higher numbers by them. By the second
difference is meant the difference between the given logarithm and the logarithm
next below it in the table. .
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 137
T. XXV. Natural versed sines for every minute to 120°, to 6 places, with
proportional parts for seconds.
The other tables are nautical &e.
Trotter, 1841. [T. I.] Six-figure logarithms of numbers to 10,000,
with differences. This is followed by a small table to convert Briggian into
hyperbolic logarithms &c.
“iD. II.] Log sines, tangents, and secants to every quarter point, to 6
places.
. [@. TIL] Log sines and tangents for every fifth minute of the quadrant,
to 6 places.
[T. 1V.] Natural sines and tangents for every fifth minute of the quadrant,
to 6 places.
[T. V.] Areas of circular segments, to 6 places; same as Py SLL OG
HAntscHu.
[T. VI.] Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 6 places) for numbers
from 1 to 1000.
(T. VII.] Circular measure of TO, De icin eer w Oe os.) sla Otuly aid mathe.
and of 1'",... .60'”, to 7 places.
[T. VIII.| Reciprocals of numbers from 1 to 500, to 9 places.
[T. IX.] Logarithms of numbers from 1000 to-1100, to 7 places,
[T. X.] Lengths of sides of inscribed and circumscribed polygons (up to a
20-sided figure), the diameter of the circle being unity, to 7 places.
[T. XI.] Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100, to 8 places.
[T. XII.] For finding the areas of oblong and oblate spheroids. A few
constants are given. ‘The other tables are astronomical, meteorological, &e.
Some trigonometry &c. is prefixed at the beginning (pp. 102).
_ Turkish Logarithms &c. [1834]. The book commences on the last
page; and the first table gives seven-figure logarithms of numbers from unity
to 10,080, arranged consecutively in columns, there being three columns of
arguments and tabular results to the page. The tables begin at the last page,
as before remarked, the extreme right-hand column being the first column of
arguments; to the left of it is the corresponding column of tabular results,
then to the left of that the second column of arguments, and so on. The
table occupies 84 pp. (up to p. 85). Then “ follows” a table of log sines and
tangents for every minute of the quadrant (semiquadrantally arranged), the
sines and cosines being side by side, and separated by some “ white” from
the tangents and cotangents. This table occupies 90 pp., and is followed by
a similar table of natural sines and tangents (to 7 places), which also occupies
90 pp. Except that the table runs in the wrong direction, it only differs from
an ordinary table in the ten digits being denoted by different marks from
those to which we are accustomed. A few minutes’ practice, however, is quite
sufficient to get used to the new numerals; and then the table could be used
as well as any other. ‘There is no introductory or explanatory matter. The
book is in the British Museum ; and the place and date in § 5 are taken from
the Catalogue of the Library.
Ursinus, 1827. [T.1.] Six-figure logarithms to 1000, and from 10,000
to 100,000, without differences ; the values of § and T for finding log sines
and tangents of angles below 2° 46’ 40" (see § 3, art. 13) are given at the top
of the page.
[T. I1.] Log sines and tangents for every 10 seconds throughout the
uadrant, with differences, to 6 places.
[T. IIL.] Longitudes of circular ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,3°,....
360°, of 1’, 2',....60', andof 1”, 2”,....60", to7 places. These are followed
138 REPORT—1873.
by a page giving the sines of 3°, 6°, 9°,....87° accurately (7. ¢. expressed as
radicals).
[T. IV.] Longitudes of chords, viz. lengths of chords subtending given
angles (the arguments) at the centre. The arguments proceed from 0° to
108°, at intervals of ten minutes, and thence to 180° at intervals of 1°; and
the tabular results are given to 3 places.
[T. V.] Abacus trigonometricus, viz. natural sines, tangents, and secants,
and log sines and tangents from 0° to 90° (quadrantally arranged), to
every ten minutes, to 6 places. Then follow a few formule and con-
stants.
Vega (Thesaurus, fol. 1794). T. I. (Magnus Canon logarithmorum
vulgarium). Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1000, without differences, and
from 10,000 to 100,999, with differences, to 10 places, arranged like an
ordinary seven-figure table. Proportional parts are also given, but only for
the first two or three figures of the difference. The table can thus be used
as an ordinary seven-figure table. A change in the fourth figure in the
middle of the line is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to all the logarithms
affected. T.I. occupies pp. 1-310. The last page and a half are devoted to
multiples of the modulus, a few constants, and a table to convert degrees (1°
to 360°) and minutes (1' to 60’) into seconds.
T, II. (Magnus Canon logarithmorum vulgarium trigonometricus). Log
sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0° to 2° at intervals of one
second, to 10 places, without differences, and for the rest of the quadrant at
intervals of ten seconds, also to 10 places, with differences. All this occupies
pp. 311-629, and is followed by 3 pp. containing natural sines for angles less
than twelve minutes, to every second, to 12 places.
The appendix occupies pp. 633-685 : p. 633 contains formule ; and pp. 634
and 635 are occupied with tables of the longitudes of circular arcs &e. Of these
the first gives the circular measure of 1°, 2°, 3°,.. . .360°, the second of 1’, 2’,
3’,....60', the third of 1”, 2", 3”,....60", all to 11 places; the fourth is a
small table to express minutes and seconds as fractions of a degree. Pp. 636-
640 are occupied with formule for the solution of triangles ; and on pp. 641—
684 [T. III.] we have Wolfram’s great table of hyperbolic logarithms (see
Scuutze, § 4). The six omitte#in Scnvumze are given ; andit is stated in the
preface that several errors have been corrected. The error pointed out by Mr,
Gray (see Scuutzz ['T. II.]) is reproduced. An error in log, 1099 is pointed
out by Prof. Wackerbarth in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society’ for April 1867.
Some of the errata found in Vuaca are indicated in the preface. These are,
ag a rule, corrected in the book; others, given in a list at the end of the in-
troduction, were found after the printing, and must be corrected in manu-
script before use. ‘There is a third list at the end of the work (p. 685); but
it is identical with that at the end of the introduction.
In some copies the list at the end of the introduction is much more com-
plete than in others, the errors in Viace being marked by an asterisk, and the
errata being also given in Latin and German. It is probable that additional
errata were found before the edition was all made up, and that the original
list was suppressed and the new one substituted. In all copies the titlepage
is the same. See ‘Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.,’ June 1872, and
May 1878 (p. 454).
There is a great difference in the appearance of different copies of the work,
In some the tables are beautifully printed on thick white paper, with wide
margin, so that the book forms one of the handsomest collections of tables we
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 139
have seen; while in others the paper is thin and discoloured; all are printed
from the same type.
The arrangement of T. I. (though about half the space that would be required
if the logarithms and differences were written at length is thereby saved) is not
nearly so convenient as in Vuace; 1628, for there is danger of taking out a
wrong difference. Vega took great pains to free his tables of logarithms of num-
bers from error; and he detected all the hereditary errors that had descended
from Vuace which affected the first seven figures of the logarithms. But as
several of these errors were corrected in his errata-list and not in the text, his
successors, who failed to study these lists sufficiently, were really less accurate
than he was. ‘The last thousand logarithms that appear for the first time in
this work were calculated by Lieut. Dorfmund at. Vega’s instigation.
T. II. is not reprinted entirely from Vuace’s ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis,’
as the logarithms for every second of the first two degrees were calculated for
the work by Lieut. Dorfmund. Vega seems not to have bestowed on the tri-
gonometrical canon any thing approaching to the care he devoted to the loga-
rithms of numbers, as Gauss estimates the number of last-figure errors at from
31,983 to 47,746 (most of them only amounting to a unit, but some to as
much as 3 or even 4).
Vega offered a reward of a ducat for every error found in his table; and
it is to be inferred from his preface that he intended to regard inaccuracies of
a unit as such, so that it was fortunate that no contemporary of his made an
examination similar to Gauss’s. The paper of Gauss’s in which this estimate
occurs is entitled “‘Einige Bemerkungen zu Vega’s Thesaurus Logarithmo-
rum,” and appeared in the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No. 756, for May 2,
1851 (reprinted ‘ Werke,’ t. iii. pp. 257-264). It contains an examination
of the relative numbers and magnitudes of the last-figure errors that occur
in the sine, cosine, and tangent columns. It is easily shown that the tan-
gents were formed by mere subtraction from the sine and cosine columns ;
but Gauss was unable to explain the fact that the cosines were more accu-
rate than the sines, which appeared as one of the results of the examination.
This question is further discussed in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast.
Soc.’ for May 1873; and it is there shown by the reporter that this result is
-a direct consequence of the formula by means of which Vlacq calculated the
table. So long as all these errors remain uncorrected, the logarithmic trigo-
nometrical canon cannot be considered to be in a satisfactory state, as it is
certainly desirable that a reliable ten-place table should exist. ef
We believe no perfect list of errors in Vega has been given: a number of
errors in T. I. are given by Lefort (‘Annales de l’Observatoire de Paris,’
t. iv.); but this list could not, from the manner in which it was formed, in-
clude any errors that did not also occur in Viaca.
A long list of errors in the trigonometrical tables of Vega is given by
Gronau, ‘ Tafeln fiir die hyperbolischen Sectoren’ &c. Dantzig, 1862, p. vi.
Copies of Vega are still procurable (but with difficulty and delay) from
Germany, through a foreign bookseller, for about £1 10s. or £1 15s.
Vega (Manuale), 1800. TT. I. Seven-figure logarithms to 1000, and
from 10,000 to 101,000, with proportional parts. The change in the line
is denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the fourth figure of all the logarithms
affected. A few constants are given on p. 188.
T. II. Log sines, tangents, and ares for the first minute to every tenth of
asecond. Although there is a triple heading, there is but asingle column of
tabular results, as for such small angles the sines, tangents, and arcs are equal
to one another, '
140 REPORT—1873.
_ Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents, from 0° to 6° 3’ at intervals
of 10”, and thence to 45° at intervals of 1’, to 7 places, with differences for
1” throughout.
An Appendix contains some spherical trigonometry. One page (p. 297)
contains longitudes of ares, viz. circular measure of 1°, 2°,....90°, and
by intervals of 10° to 180°; also of 360°, of 1', 2',....60', and of 1", 2”,..
60", to 8 places. At the end some errata are given, and also some in CALLET
and other works.
The description of this work, according to order of date, should follow the
next; but as it is referred to in the latter it is convenient to place it first.
Vega (Tabule), 1797. Vol. i—T. I. is identical, page for page, with
T. I. of Veea’s ‘Manuale’ just described, and was most likely printed from
the same type. The constants &c. on p. 188 are also identical.
T. IL. is also identical with T. II. of the ‘ Manuale,’ only with the addition
of 40 more pages, containing log sines and tangents from 0° for every
second to 1° 30' 0", to 7 places, without differences. Thus the ‘Tabule’ and
the ‘ Manuale’ agree to p. 193; then the 40 pp. are inserted in the ‘ Tabule,’
and pp. 233-330 of the ‘Tabule’ are identical with pp. 193-290 of the
‘ Manuale,’ the coincident portions of the two works being doubtless printed
from the same type.
T. III. Natural sines and tangents to every minute of the quadrant, to
7 places, with differences for one second throughout.
The Appendix contains a table of circular ares, viz. the circular measure
of 1°, 2°, 3°,... .360°, of 1’, 2’,....60', and of 1”, 2”,. ...60” (with the cor-
responding number of seconds in these angles), to 8 places, and small tables
for the conversion of arc into time, and hours &c. into decimals of a day. On
pp. 407-409 are given one or two constants connected with the calcula-
tion of 7, the values of a few radicals, and the expression for the sine of
every third degree in radicals. Some errata are given at the end of the
introduction.
Vol. u.—T. I. Table of all the simple divisors of numbers below 102,000
(2, 3, and 5 excluded); a,b,c, d are printed for 11, 13,17, 19, to save room.
This is followed by primes from 102,000 to 400,000. Cumrnac (§ 3, art. 8)
found 39 errors in this table: see his preface.
T. II. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers to 1000, and of primes from 1000
to 10,000, to 8 places. This table is followed by the first 45, 36, and 27
powers of 2, 3, and 5 respectively.
T. III. gives e* and Briggian log ¢* (the former to 7 figures, the latter to 7
places), from w=0-:00 to v=10-00 at intervals of -01.
T. LV. The first nine powers of numbers from 1 to 100, squares from 1
to 1000, cubes from 1 to 1000, and square and cube roots of numbers from
1 to 100, to 7 places.
T. V. Logistic logarithms, viz. log 3600—log (number of seconds in argue
ment), for every second to 1° (=3600"), to 4 places.
[T. VI.] The first six binomial-theorem coefficients, viz. x, v= : De "
v(vw—1)....(w—5)
129 6 , from v=-01 to v=1-00 at intervals of -01, to 7 places.
This is followed by a page of tables, giving ae et vet 8 see
ld
--+.9—q &e., to 10 places, with their logarithms to 7 places.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 141
The rest of the book is devoted to astronomical tables and formule, except
two remarkable tables at the end (pp. 364-371). The first of these ['T. VII. ]
is most simply described by stating that it gives the number of shot in a py-
ramidal pile on a square base, the number » of shot in the side of the base
being the argument; the table extends from n=2 ton=40, There is also
given the number of shot in a pyramidal pile on a rectangular base, the ar-
guments being n the number of shot in the breadth of the base, and m the
number of shot in the top row (so that m-++-n—1 is the number in the length
of the base). The ranges are, for n, 2 to 40, and for m, 2 to 44, the table being
of double entry.
[T. VIII.] gives the number of shot in a pyramidal pile on a triangular
base, the number of shot in a side of the base being the argument, which
extends from 2 to 40. The other portion of the table is headed “ Tabula
pro acervis globorum oblongis, ab utraque extremitate ad pyramides quadri-
lateras appositis;’’ and the explanation is as follows:—Suppose we have
two pyramidal piles of shot on square bases (n shot on each side) placed
facing one another, at adistance equal to the sum of the diameters of m shot
apart ; and suppose it is required to fill this interval up, so as to make a pyra-
midal pile on a rectangular base, then this table gives the number for x (latus)
to n=40, and for m (longitudo baseos) to m=44, the table being of double
entry.
Soins errata are given after the introduction.
We have seen the third edition (Leipzig, 1812); and though we have not
compared it side by side with the second (here described), we feel no doubt
the contents are identical; at all events the number of pages in each volume
s the same, and the preface is dated 1797 in both.
Viacq (Arithmetica Logarithmica), Gouda, 1628, and London, 1631.
|T. I.] Ten-figure logarithms of numbers from 1 to 100,000, with differ-
ences. This table occupies 667 pages.
_ [T. IL] Log sines, tangents, and seeants for every minute of the quadrant,
to 10 places, with interscript differences; semiquadrantally arranged. This
table occupies 90 pp.
In the English copies, by George Miller, there is an English introduction
of 54 pp., and then follows a table of latitudes (8 pp.). The original edition
of 1628 has 79 pp. of introduction; and a list of errata is given, which does
not occur in Miller’s copies (but see ‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’
§. xxxili. pp. 452, 456, May, 1873).
There were also copies with a French titlepage; and in these there is an
Introduction in the same language of 84 pp. We suspect that a Dutch edition
was contemplated, but that the copies of the table intended for this purpose
afterwards formed Miller’s English edition: no Dutch edition is known to
exist (see Phil. Mag., May 1873). The titles of the three editions are given
in full in § 5; in all, the tabular portion is from the same type. The bibli-
ography of this work forms an essential part of the history of logarithms ; and
a good many of the references occurring in the introductory remarks to § 3,
art. 13, have reference to it.
The table of logarithms of numbers contains about 300 errors, exclusive
of those affecting the last figure by a unit; but a good many of these have
reference to the portion below 10,000, which need never be used. This is
still the most convenient ten-figure table there is (Vuaa, fol. 1794, is the only
other); but before use the known errata should be corrected. References to
all the places where the requisite errata-lists are to be found are given in the
‘ Monthly Notices of the Roy. Ast. Soc.’ for May and June, 1872. We intend,
142 REPORT—18783.
however, in the next Report to give a complete list of errors in the portion
of the table from 10,000 to 100,000.
We succeeded in obtaining a copy of this work after some difficulty ; Mr.
Merrifield informs us that copies have always been procurable from abroad
for about £2.
Viacq (Trigonometria Artificialis), 1633. [T.I.] Log sines and tan-
gents to every ten seconds of the quadrant, to 10 places, with characteristics
and differences (not interscript); semiquadrantally arranged. The table
occupies 270 pp.
[T. II.] Ten-figure logarithms of numbers to 20,000, with differences,
printed from the same type as that used in the ‘ Arithmetica ’(1628 and 1631)
(except the last 500). A list of errata is given on the last page. The trigo-
nometry &c, at the beginning occupies 52 pp. See $3, art. 15 (introductory
remarks), and also Vuea (fol.), 1794.
Wlacg, 1681. This is one of the numerous small editions called after
Vlacq, on the Gellibrand model. The contents, shape of type, &c. are exactly
the same as in Huntscunn (Vlacq), 1757, § 4, except that in the latter the
“whites” are rather wider. The printed portion of the page of tables is
33 in. by 5fin. There are 48 pp. of trigonometry &c. in Latin. No namo
except Vlacq’s appears in connexion with the work.
[T. I.] Natural sines, tangents, and secants, and log sines and tangents
for every minute, to 7 places.
[T. I1.] Logarithms of numbers from 1 to 10,000, arranged consecutively
in columns, to 7 places ; no differences,
In one of the copies we have seen there are several errors corrected in
manuscript. This edition must be rather common in England, as we have
seen several copies.
Wackerbarth, 1867. T. I. Five-figure logarithms (arranged as in
seven-figure tables) to 100, and from 1000 to 10,000, with proportional
parts to tenths (7. e. multiples of the differences). The degrees, minutes, &c.
corresponding to eight numbers on the page are given at the bottom of each.
At the end of this table there are added seven-figure logarithms of numbers
from 10 to 100, and also from 10,000 to 11,000, the latter with proportional
parts to tenths.
T. IL: Log... 2:.35.+.%) for gs], 2,. 5.1005, lag’ (Ll. 2) 5a), ee
PEAS. a 65; log (2.4.6....«) for v=2,4,6,...66: all to 5 places.
T. III. Log sines and tangents for every second from 0' to 10' ; log sines and
tangents for every ten seconds from 0° to 5°; log sines and tangents for every
minute of the quadrant: all to 5 places. Differences aro added throughout,
and also proportional parts to tenths (¢. e. multiples of the differences) for every
second to 5°, and for every 10 seconds in the other portion of the table.
T, IV. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, of 1’, 2',....60', and of 1”,
2",....60", to 5 places. Some constants, such as the unit arc, its logarithm
Bes +, are cailted:
T. V. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1010, to 5 places, with
proportional parts to tenths, arranged as in seven-figure tables of Briggian
logarithms ; followed by the first hundred multiples ‘of the modulus and its
reciprocal, to 5 places. A few constants, 7, e, &c., are given, to 30 places.
T. VI. Squares of numbers from 1 to 1000.
T. VI. Square roots (to 7 places) of numbers from 1 to 1000.
T, VIII. Natural sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents for every 10’.
ia 5°, thence for every 20' to 15°, and thence to 45° at intervals of 30', to 3
places,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 143
T. IX. Reciprocals (to 7 places) of numbers from 1 to 1010.
T. XVIL. List of primes to 1063.
T. XXI. gives some constants.
The other tables are chemical &c,
This is one of the most complete five-figure tables we have scen. The
change in the leading figures, where it occurs in the middle of a line, is
throughout denoted by an asterisk prefixed to the third figure of all the
logarithms affected. It may be remarked that though the introduction &e. is
in Swedish, the headings of the tables are in Latin.
. A list of four errata in the tables is given by Prof. Wackerbarth himself
in the ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ t. xxxi. No. 9
(Supplementary Number, 1871).
Wallace, 1815. [T. I.] Six-figure logarithms to 100, and from 1000 to
10,000, with differences.
[T. I.] Log sines, tangents, and secants to every minute of the quadrant,
to 6 places, with differences.
[T. IfI.] Natural sines to every minute of the quadrant, to 5 places. This
is followed by a traverse table.
_ The tables are preceded by 148 pp. of trigonometry &c.
. Warnstorff’s Schumacher, 1845. Out of 221 pages, only 21
. (pp. 116-120 and 206-221) come within the scope of this Report.
T. I.] For the conversion of arc into time, and vice versé.
(Peti.}, The circular méasure of 1°, 2°. .’, .90°, 95°... ..1120°, 180° 2...
360°, of 1’, 2’....60’, and of 1”, 2”,....60", to 7 places.
[T. III.] Four-figure logarithms to 1009.
[T. LV.| Log sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents at intervals of 4’
to 10°, and thence to 45° at intervals of 10', to 4 places.
[T. V.] Gaussian logarithms; B and C are given for argument A from A=
‘00 to 1°80 at intervals of ‘01, and thence to 4:0 at intervals of +1, to 4 places,
with differences.
_ The other tables are astronomical.
Willich, 1853. T, XX. Seven-figure logarithms to 1200, followed by a
few constants, &e, .
T. XXI. Squares, cubes, square and cube roots (to 7 places), and reci-
procals (to 9 places) of numbers to 343, followed by some constants.
T. A. Hyperbolic logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1200, to 7 places.
T. B. Natural and log sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines, for every
half degree, to 7 places.
T. C, Circumferences and areas of circles for a given diameter, viz. ad
(to 5 places) and = (to 2 places) ford=1, 2,....9, and from d=1 to
100 at intervals of +25.
T. D. Circular measure of 1°, 2°,....180°, to 7 places.
The other tables in the work are of a very varied character.
_ We have also scen the second edition (1852), which does not contain the
tables A to D ; and we nave seen a review of the seventh edition, edited by
M. Marriott, 1871.
§5. List of works containing Tables that are described in this Report, with refer=
ences to the section and article in which the description of their contents is
to be found.
[Those works to which an asterisk is prefixed have not come under the
inspection of the reporter; and the description of their contents is therefore
144 REPORT—1873.
derived from some secondhand source. The author’s name is enclosed within
square brackets when it docs not occur on the titlepage of the work. For other
explanations see § 2, arts. 4-14, and § 6 (Postscript), arts. 2-4, 8, 10-12.]
Acapémre RoyaLe... pr Prussz, Publié sous la direction de l’, Recueil
de Tables Astronomiques. Berlin, 1776. 3 vols. 8vo. § 4.
Apams, Joun. The Mathematician’s Companion, or a Table of Logarithms
from 1 to 10,860... London, 1796. 8yo. § 4.
Arry, G. B., Computed under the direction of; Appendix to the Greenwich
Observations, 1837. London, 1838. 4to. § 3, art. 15.
Atsrepivus, J. H. Scientiarum omnium encyclopsdie tomus primus...
Lugduni, 1649 (2 vols. fol.). § 3, art. 4.
Anprew, James. Astronomical and Nautical Tables, with Precepts...
London, 1805. 8vo (pp. 263). § 4.
Anonymous. Multiplicationstabelle, enthaltend die Producte aller ganzen
Factoren yon 1 bis 1000, mit 1 bis 100, Kopenhagen, 1793, 4to (pp. 247 ;
and introduction, pp. 8). § 3, art. 1.
Anonymovs. Tables de Multiplication... Paris, 1812. § 3, ari. 1. —.
Anonymous. Tafel logistischer Logarithmen. Zugabe zu den Vega-Hiils-
se’schen und anderen Logarithmen-Tafeln. Aus Callet’s “Tables de Loga-
rithmes.” Niirnberg. Verlag von Riegel & Wiessner. 1843 (table, 7 pp.).
§ 3, art. 18.
Awnonrmovs (1844). See SmrersHanks.
. Anonymous. Logarithmen. Antilogarithmen. Berlin. [Ona card, 1860?]
§ 4. ;
Avxrttary Tables. See [Scrumacuer.]
Bassage, Cuartus. Table of the Logarithms of the Natural Numbers from
1to 108000... Stereotyped. Fourthimpression. London, 1841] (202 pp. and
explanations &c. xx). § 3, art. 13.
[The 1888 edition (or rather tirage) has the following notice of errata
contained in it, on the back of the titlepage: “In the logarithms of 10354,
60676 to 9, 70634 to 9, and 106611 to 9, the fourth figures ought to be
small instead of large. In the list of constants the last figure of the value
of e should be 8 instead of 9.” The tables were stereotyped from their first
publication in 1827. Mr. W. Barrett Davis has called our attention to the
number of last-figure unit errors in the portion of the table beyond 100,000 ;
thus on p. 192 there are no less than fifteen such errors which are corrected
in more recent works, such as Scurén and Kouter. This portion of the
table Babbage copied from Cazex. ]
Bazssace Cararocun. Mathematical and Scientific Library of the late
Charles Babbage of No. 1 Dorset Street, Manchester Square. To be sold by
Private Contract.... Printed by C. F. Hodgson and Son, Gough Square,
Fleet Street [London], 1872. [The catalogue was drawn up by Mr. Robert
Tucker, M.A., Honorary Secretary of the London Mathematical Society; and
the library was purchased by Lord Lindsay. |
Bacay, V. Nouvelles Tables Astronomiques et Hydrographiques....
Edition stéréotype... Paris, Firmin Didot, 1829. Small 4to. § 4.
Bartow, Perrr. New Mathematical Tables containing the factors, squares,
cubes, square roots, cube roots, reciprocals, and hyperbolic logarithms of all
numbers from 1 to 10,000,... London, 1814. 8vo (pp. 336, and intro-
duction Ixi). § 4,
Bartow’s Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square roots, Cube roots, Reciprocals
of all integer numbers up to 10,000. \ Stereotype edition, examined and cor-
rected. (Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Usefu ”
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 145
Knowledge.) London, 1851, from the stereotyped plates of 1840. 8vo (pp.
200). § 3, arts. 4 and 7.
Bares, Davip. Logarithmic Tables, containing the logarithms of all num-
bers from 1 to 10 000, together with... Dublin, 1781. (63 pp. of tables,
introduction cexi pp., and appendix 60 pp.) § 4.
Bearpmore, Naraaniet. Manual of Hydrology: containing... London,
1862. 8vo (pp. 384). § 4.
Bernoviu, Jonn. A Sexcentenary Table... Published by order of the
Commissioners of Longitude. London, 1779. 4to (pp. 165; and intro-
duction, viii). § 3, art. 9.
Bertrnoup, F. Les Longitudes par la mesure du temps... Paris, 1775.
Small 4to (34 pp. of tables). § 3, art. 15.
Besset. Sce (Scuumacuer. |
Bevertey, Taomas. The Mariner’s Latitude and Longitude Ready-com-
puter .. . Cirencester(no date ; but Appendix dated1833). 4dto(pp. 290). §4.
Brancwarp. Sce Garvrner (Avignon edition, 1770).
Bonnycastiz, Joun. An Introduction to Mensuration.... The fifteenth
edition... London, 1831. Small 8vo. §3, art. 22.
Borva, Cx. Tables trigonométriques décimales ou Tables des logarithmes
... Tevues, augmentées et publices, par J. B. J. Detampre. Paris, An ix.
[1800 or 1801]. Small 4to. § 4.
Bowoircu, N. The improved Practical Navigator; ... to which is added
a number of new Tables.... Revised, recalculated and newly arranged by
Tomas Kirsy. London, 1802. 8yvo. § 4.
Bremixer, C. Tafel der Proportionaltheile zum Gebrauche bei logarith-
mischen Rechnungen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Logarithmentafeln
yon Callet und Vega... Berlin, 1843. 8vo (pp. 127). §3, art. 2.
Bremixer, C. Logarithmorum VI decimalium nova tabula Berolinensis.. .
Berolini, 1852. 8yo. § 4.
Bremrker’s Vega. See Veca (1857).
Bremixer. See Crertz (1864).
Brerscunemer, C. A. Produktentafel enthaltend die 2,3....9 fachen
aller Zahlen von 1 bis 100 000. Hamburg und Gotha, 1841. 8vo (pp. 110).
§ 3, art. 1.
Bricer, H. Tables des Logarithmes ... 1626. See under pz Decker,
1626, § 4.
[Brtees, Heyry.] Logarithmorum Chilias Prima. [London,1617.] Small
8yvo (pp. 16). § 3, art. 13.
Briecs, Henry. Arithmetica logarithmica sive logarithmorum chiliades
triginta, pro numeris naturali serie crescentibus ab unitate ad 20,000: et a
90,000 ad 100,000. Quorum ope multa perficiuntur Arithmetica problemata
et Geometrica. Hos numeros primus inyenit clarissimus vir Iohannes Nepe-
rus Baro Merchistonij; eos autem ex elusdem sententia mutavit, eorumque
ortum et usum illustravit Henricus Briggius, in celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi
Geometrie professor Savilianus. Deus nobis usuram vite dedit et ingenil,
tanquam pecunie, nulla prestituta die. [Royal arms, I. R.] Londini, Ex-
cudebat Gulielmus Tones, 1624. folio (preface &c. 6pp., trigonometry 88 pp. ;
tables unpaged). § 3, art. 13.
(Some copies of this work were also published in 1631, with the same title-
page as Vuace’s Logarithmicall Arithmetike. See § 3, art. 13.)
Briees, Henry. Trigonometria Britannica: sive de doctrina triangulorum
libri duo. Quorum prior continet Constructionem Canonis Sinuum Tangen-
tium & Secantium, uni cum Logarithmis Sinuum & Tangentium ad Gradus
¥ L
146 REPORT—1878.
& Graduum Centesimas & ad Minuta & Secunda Centesimis respondentia: A
Clarissimo Doctissimo Integerrimoque Viro Domino Henrico Briggio Geome-
trie in Celeberrima Academia Oxoniensi Professore Saviliano Dignissimo,
paulo ante inopinatam Ipsius e terris emigrationem compositus. Posterior
verd usum sive Applicationem Canonis in Resolutione Triangulorum tam
Planorum quam Sphericorum e Geometricis fundamentis petit, calculo facil-
limo, eximiisque compendiis exhibet: Ab Henrico Gellibrand Astronomie in
Collegio Greshamensi apud Londinenses Professore constructus. [Then follow
a quotation of three lines from Vieta and a diagram showing the trigonome-
trical functions.) Goude, Excudebat Petrus Rammasenius. M.D¢.xXxImI.
Cum Privilegio. folio. (Dedication to the Electors to the Savilian Chairs;
Gellibrand’s preface, and 110 pp. of trigonometry &c., followed by one page
containing errata to the page signature f. 3 of the tables; the tables are
unpaged.) § 3, art. 15.
- Brices. See Saerwiy.
Brown. See WatzAce.
Brownr, Rozerr. A new improvement of the Theory of the Moon....
London, 1731. Small 4to (pp. 14). § 8, art. 25.
Brouuns, Dr. A new Manual of Logarithms to seven places of Decimals... .
Stereotype edition. Bernhard Tauchnitz. Leipzig, 1870. Svo(pp. 610, and
introduction xxiii), § 4.
Bruno, Fad vz. Traité élémentaire du Caleul des Erreurs avee des Tables
stéréotypées... Paris, 1869. 8vo (41 pp. of tables). § 3, art. 4.
Borcxnarovr, J.Cu. Tables des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du deuxiéme
million... Paris, 1814. 4to (pp. 112 and viii). § 3, art. 8.
Bourexwanrnr,J.Cu. Table des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du troisiéme
million... Paris, 1816. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8.
Burexnarpt, J.Cu. Table des Diviseurs pour tous les nombres du premier
million... Paris, 1817. 4to (pp. 114, and preface &c. 4 pp.). § 3, art. 8.
*Birerr, J. A.P. Tafel zur Erleichterung in Rechnungen &c, 1817. See
under CentnerscuweER, 1825, $ 3, art. 3.
Byrne, Ortver. Practical, short, and direct Method of calculating the
Logarithm of any given Number, and the Number corresponding to any given
Logarithm, discovered by Oliver Byrne... London, 1849. 8vo (pp. 82, and
introduction xxiii), § 4.
Byrye, Ortver. Tables of Dual Logarithms, Dual Numbers, and corre-
sponding Natural Numbers; with proportional parts of differences for,single
digits and eight places of decimals... London, 1867. Large 8vo (pp. 202,
and introduction pp. 40). § 3, art. 23.
Byrnz, Orrver. Other works. See § 3, art. 23.
Cartet, Francois. Tables portatives de Logarithmes, contenant....
Edition stéréotype, gravée, fondue et imprimée par Firmin Didot. Paris:
Firmin Didot, 1795 (Tirage, 1853). 8vo (pp. 680, and introduction pp. 118).
§ 4.
Cattet, F. Table of the logarithms of sines and tangents.... Paris,
ee (Tirage, 1827). Stereotyped and printed by Firmin Didot.... 8vo.
, art. 15.
Catter (1843). See Anonymous.
Ceyrxerscnwer, J.J. Neu erfundene Multiplikations- und Quadrat-Tafeln
-+. mit einer Vorrede yon... J. P. Griison und L. Ideler. Berlin, 1825.
8yvo (45 pp. of tables, and introduction lv). § 3, art. 3. ;
Cuzrnac, Laprstavs. Cribrum Arithmeticum ; sive tabula continens nu-
meros primos... Daventrie, 1811. 4to (pp. 1020). - § 3, art, 8,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 147
*Crourn, F. M. Tables pour le Calcul des Coordonnées goniométriques,
Mayen (chez l’auteur). 8vo. § 3, art. 10.
Coreman, Guorcx. Lunar and Nautical Tables.... Stereotype edition.
London, 1846. 8vo (317 pp. of tables). § 4.
Cretir, A.L. Erleichterungs-Tafel fiir jeden, der zu rechnen hat; enthal-
tend die 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, und 9 fachen aller Zahlen von 1 bis 10 Millionen
... Berlin, 1836. (pp. 1000 and explanation xvi.) § 3, art. 1.
Cretiz, A. L. Rechentafeln welche alles Multipliciren und Dividiren mit
Zahlen unter Tausend ganz ersparen... Zweite Stereotyp-Ausgabe ... von
Dr. C. Bremrxrr. Berlin: Georg Reimer, 1864. Folio (pp. 450). [There is
also a French titlepage.] Also edition of 1820, in two vols. 8vo. § 3, art. 1.
Croswett, Wiri1am. Tables for readily computing the Longitude....
Boston, 1791. 8vo. § 4.
Dasr, Zacnarras. ‘Tafel der natiirlichen Logarithmen der Zahlen. In
der Form und Ausdehnung wie die der gewéhnlichen oder Brigg’schen
Logarithmen... Wien, 1850, 4to (pp. 195). § 3, art. 16. .
Das, Zacuartas. Factoren Tafeln fiir alle Zahlen der Siebenten Million
Hamburg, 1862. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8.
Dasn, Zacuartas. Factoren Tafeln fiir alle Zahlen der Achten Million...
Hamburg, 1863. 4to (pp. 112). § 3, art. 8.
Dasz, Zacwartas... Factoren-tafeln fiir: Zahlen der Neunten Million..
ergiinzt von Dr. H. Rosenserc. Hamburg, 1865, 4to (pp. 110). - § 3, art. 8
Decuatrs (Cursus Mathematicus). § 2, art.3.
. Dr Decxzr. Nieuwe Telkonst, inhoudende de Logarithmi voor de Ghetallen
- beginnende van 1 tot 10000... Door Ezzcuret pz Ducrmr, Rekenmeester,
ende Lantmeter residerente ter Goude... Ter Goude. By Pieter Rammaseyn
... 1626. 8vo (260 pp. of tables, and introduction pp. 50+, (copy imper-
fect)). [De Haan gives 51 as the number of pp. in the introduction, ‘ Phil.
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Drern, C. F. Tabularum ad faciliorem et breviorem Probabilitatis com-
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duction xxii). § 4.
Dz Haan (Iets over Logarithmentafels). § 3, art. 13 (p. 55).
Dr Joncourr. See Joncourr.
De ta Lanpr. See Lananvs.
Detampre. Sec Borpa.
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Ds Montrerrier. See MontrerRier.
[Dz Morean, A.]. Tables of Logarithms (Under the superintendence of
the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge). London, 1854. From
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Dz Morean, A. Encyclopedia Metropolitana. Pure Sciences, vol. ii.
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Dr Morean (Article on tables in the Penny and English Cyclopedias and
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Dr Morean. Seo Scurdn (1865).
De Prassz. Tables logarithmiques, pour les nombres, les sinus et les
tangentes, disposées dans un nouvel ordre... Accompagnée de notes et dun
avertissement par M. Harms. Paris, 1814. 12mo (pp. 80). § 4.
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§ 3, art. 1, :
L2
148 ; REPORT—1873.
_ Donson, James. The Antilogarithmic Canon... London, 1742. folio. § 3,
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Large 8vo (pp. 174). § 4.
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die Kéniglich Preussischen N avigations-Schulen. . . Berlin, 1852. 8yo
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Dovetas, Guorcz. Mathematical Tables, containing the Logarithms of
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Tables. Edinburgh, 1809. 8v0. (pp. 166). §4.
Dovuwers. See under Bownrrcn, § 4.
Ducom, P. Cours d’Observations nautiques, contenant. ..suivi d’une col-
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Dumas. See Garpiner (Avignon edition, 1770).
Dunn, Samvet. Tables of correct and concise logarithms for numbers,
sines, tangents, secants.., London, 1784, 8vo (pp. 144). § 4.
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Durvis. See under Canter, 1853. § 4.
_ [Encxe J. F.] Logarithmen von vier Decimal-Stellen. Berlin, 1828.
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[Fartry, R.] Natural versed sines from 0° to 125°, and Logarithmic
versed sines from 0° to 135°, or 0" to 9", used in computing Lunar Distances
for the Nautical Almanac, London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1856. folio
(pp. 90). § 4. ‘
Faviuaner, Jonann. Ingenieurs-Schul, Erster Theyl: Darinnen durch
den Canonem Logarithmicum alle Planische Triangel zur fortification... .zu
solviren... Auss Adriano Vlacq, Henrico Briggio, Nepero, Pitisco, Berneck-
hero. ..gezogen... Gedruckt zu Franckfurt am Mayn. ..1630. Small 8vo (pp.
170) (with an Appendix of 14 pp.).. Followed by an engraved titlepage. § 4.
[Fauruaner, J.| Zehentausend Logarithmi der Absolut oder ledigen Zahlen,
von 1. biss auff 10000, nach Herrn Johannis Neperi Baronis Merchistenii
Arth und Inuention, welche Heinricus Briggius illustriert, und Adrianus
Vlacq augiert, gerichtet. Gedruckt zu Augspurg, durch Andream Aperger,
auff unser lieben Frawen Thor. Anno m.pc.xxxi. Small 8vo (pp. 104). § 4.
[Favraser, J.J. Canon Triangulorum logarithmicus, das ist: Kiinstliche
Logarithmische Tafeln der Sinuum, Tangentium und Secantium, nach Adriani
Vlacqs Calculation Rechnung und Manier gestelt. Gedruckt zu Augspurg,
durch Andream Aperger, auff unser lieben Frawen Thor. Anno M.D¢.XXXI.
Small 8yo (pp. 190). §4.
Frrxer, Anroy. Tafel aller Einfachen Factoren der durch 2, 3, 5 nicht
theilbaren Zahlen von 1 bis 10 000 000. I. Theil. Enthaltend die Factoren
von 1 bis 144000. Wien, mit von Ehelenschen Schriften gedruckt, 1776.
Large folio (pp. 26, and preface, &e. 4 pp.). § 3, art. 8.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 149
Frrxrt. Sce Lampert.
Finirowsk1, Herscurett E. <A table of Anti-logarithms, containing to seven
places of decimals, natural numbers, answering to all logarithms from ‘00001
to ‘99999, and an improved table of Gauss’s logarithms.... London, 1849.-
8yo (pp. 220, and introduction xvi). § 4.
Frurowsx1, H. The wonderful canon of logarithms ...by John Napier
....-retranslated from the Latin text, and enlarged, with a table of hyper-
bolic logarithms to all numbers from 1 to 1201. By Herschell Filipowski
Edinburgh, 1857. 16mo. § 3, art. 16.
Fixcx. Thome Finkii Flenspurgensis Geometrix rotundi Libri xiv. ad
Fridericum Secundum, Serenissimum Danie, & Norvegie regem &. Cum
Gratia & Privileg. Ces. Majest. Basileae per Sebastianum Henricpetri [1583].
4to. §3, art. 10.
Fiscurr’s Veca. See Veca.
Frencu Manvscrirt Tastes. See Tastes pv Capastre.
Ga.prairuy, D. The Piece-Goods Calculator, consisting of a series of tables
Glasgow, 1838. 8vo (pp. 53). § 3, art. 25.
Gatsrairu, J. A., and S. Haventon. Manual of Mathematical tables...
London, 1860. Small 8vo (pp. 252). § 4.
Gatsraira, WintiAmM. Mathematical and Astronomical Tables... Edin-
burgh, 1827. 8yo (112 pp. of tables). § 4.
Garpiner, Witt1am. ‘Tables of Logarithms for all numbers from 1 to
102100, and for the Sines and Tangents... London, 1742, 4to. § 4.
Garpiner, W. Tables de Logarithmes, contenant les Logarithmes des
nombres...des sinus & des tangentes... Nouvelle édition, Augmentée des
Logarithmes des sinus & tangentes pour chaque seconde des quatre premiers
degrés. Avignon, 1770. 4to. (This reprint was edited by Przenas, Dumas,
and Buancnarp.) § 4.
*GarpineR. Paris edition, 1773. § 4.
Garrard, Witt1aAm. Copious trigonometrical tables... .intended to com-
plete the requisite tables to the Nautical Almanack.... London, 1789.
8vo.
Gauss, C. F. Tafel zur bequemern Berechnung des Logarithmen der
Summe oder Differenz zweyer Grissen, welche selbst nur durch ihre Loga-
rithmen gegeben sind. Zach’s ‘ Monatliche Correspondenz,’ t. xxvi. (pp. 498-
528). Gotha, 1812. §3, art. 19.
Gavss. Carl Friedrich Gauss Werke. . . . herausgegeben von der koniglichen
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen. Still in course of publication :
4to, t. i. (1863, and ‘zweiter Abdruck,’ 1870); t. ii. (1863) § 3, arts. 6 and
7 (introductory remarks); t. iii. (1866) § 3, art. 19 (introductory remarks) ;
and under Dr Prasse, Htussr’s Veca, Pasquicu, Veea (1794) in § 4 &e.
(t. iii. includes the reprints from the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten’ and the
‘Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen,’ on logarithmic tables.)
Grriipranp. See Brices (1633).
Geiiisranp. See Jonn Newron (1658).
Gernerru (Tract on the accuracy of logarithmic tables). Under Ruxzricus
(§ 3, art. 10), and § 3, art. 13 (introductory remarks, p. 55). ;
Guarsuur,J.W.L. ‘Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society :’
May, 1872 (On errors in Vlacq’s (often called Briggs’ or Neper’s) table of
ten-figure logarithms of numbers) ; June, 1872 (Addition to a paper on errors
in Vlacq’s ten-figure logarithms, published in the last Number of the ‘ Monthly
Notices’) ; March, 1873 (On the progress to accuracy of logarithmic tables) ;-
May, 1873 (On logarithmic tables). ‘ Philosophical Magazine :’ October,
150 : REPORT—1875.
1872 (Notice respecting some new facts in the carly history of logarithmic
tables) ; December (Supplementary Number), 1872 (Supplementary remarks
on some early logarithmic tables); May, 1873 (On early logarithmic tables
and their calculators). ‘Messenger of Mathematics’ (new series): (July,
1872 (Pineto’s table of ten-figure logarithms of numbers); May, 1873 (Re-
marks on logarithmic and factor tables, with special reference to Mr. Drach’s
suggestions). § 3. art. 13 (introductory remarks; Brices, 1617; Priyero),
art. 15 (Gunter), art. 17 (Narrer, 1614), § 4, Borpa and DrLAmsre, DE
Decker, Hitssn’s Vuca, SHortrepE, Vega, 1794, Vuace, 1633, &e.
[Gopwarp, Witt1aM, Jun.] Interpolation tables used in the Nautical
Almanac Office. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1857. 8vo (pp. 30).
3, art. 21.
: Goopwyy, Hzyry. The first centenary of a series of concise and useful
tables of all the complete decimal quotients, which can arise from dividing a
unit or any whole number less than each divisor, by all integers from 1 to
1024. [London, Preface dated 1816]. Small 4to (pp, 18 and introduction
xiv). § 3, art. 6.
_ Goopwry, Heyry. The first centenary of a series of concise and useful
tables of all decimal quotients, which can arise from dividing a unit, or any
whole number less than each divisor, by all integers from 1 to 1024. To
which is now added a tabular series of complete decimal quotients, for all
the proper vulgar fractions, of which, when in their lowest terms neither the
numerator, nor the denominator is greater than 100: with the equivalent
vulgar fractions prefixed, London, 1818. Small 4to (pp. 18 and 30, and
introductions xiv and yii), § 3, art. 6.
[Goopwyn, Henry.] A tabular series of decimal quotients for all the
proper vulgar fractions, of which, when in their lowest terms, neither the
numerator nor the denominator is greater than 1000. London, 1823. 8yvo
(pp. 153 and introduction vy). § 3, art. 6.
_ [Goopwxn, Henry.] A table of the circles arising from the division of a
unit or any other whole number by all the integers from 1 to 1024; being
all the pure decimal quotients that can arise from this source. London,
1823. 8yvo (pp. 118 and introduction vy). § 8, art. 6.
Gorvon, James. Lunar and Time Tables.... for finding the Longitude
....+ London, 1849, 8vo (92 pp. of tables). § 4,
Grasse (Trésor de livres rares). § 2, art. 3.
Gray, Prrer. Tables and formule for the computation of life contin-
géencies... London, 1849. 8vo (68 pp. of tables). § 3, art. 19.
Gray, Perer. Addendum to tables and formule for the computation of
life contingencies.... Second issue, comprising a large extension of the prin-
cipal table.... London, 1870, 8vo (26 pp. of tables) (noticed under the pre-
ceding work, § 3, art. 19). This title is copied from the wrapper of the
*‘ Addendum,” the titlepage of which is intended to apply to the whole work
when the “ Addendum ” is included, and runs, “‘ Tables and formule for the
computation of life contingencies.... Second issue, with an addendum, com-
prising a large extension of the principal table... . London, 1870.”
Gray, Prrer. Tables for the formation of Logarithms and Anti-logarithms
to twelve places; with explanatory introduction.... London, 1865. 8vo
(55 pp. of introduction &. and xi pp. of tables). § 3, art. 13.
GreEGory, Oxrnruus. Tables for the use of nautical men, astronomers, and
others; by Onmyraus Grecory, W. 8. B. Woornovsn and James Hany,
London, 1843. 8yo (pp. 168 and introduction xxiv). § 4.
Gregory, Oumraus, Sce Hurroy (1858).
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 151
GrienBeRGER. Elementa trigonometrica, id est sinus tangentes, secantes
In Partibus Sinus totius 100000. Christophori Grienbergeri E Societate Iesu.
Rerum Mathematicarum Opusculum Secundum. [Device—globe with IHS. ]
Rome, Per Hered. Barthol. Zan. 1630. Superiorum permissu. 12mo (pre-
face 7 tables unpaged, trigonometry 88 pp., and 4 pp. of corrections). $3,
art. 10.
Grin, JAurs, A complete Epitome of Practical Navigation... . to
which is added an extensive set of Requisite tables... London, 1843.
Syo (325 pp. of tables). § 4.
GRUENBERGER, GRUENPERGER, or GRIEMBERGER. See GRIENBERGER.
Gruson, J. P. Pinacothéque, ou collection de Tables d’une utilité générale
pour multiplier et diviser inventées par J. P. Gruson, Avec une table de
tous les facteurs simples de 1410500. Berlin, 1798. 8vo (pp. 418 and
introduction xxiy). § 3, art. 1.
Gruson, J. P. Grosses Einmaleins von Eins bis Hunderttausend. Erstes
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Grusoy, J. P. Bequeme logarithmische, trigonometrische und andere
niitzliche Tafeln zur Gebrauch auf Schulen... Dritte verbesserte Auflage.
Berlin, 1832. 8vo. § 4.
Gruson. See Cenrnerscuwer.
Guyver, Epmunp. Canon Triangulorum sive Tabule Sinuum et Tangen~
tium artificialium ad Radium 10000,0000 & ad scrupula prima quadrantis.
Per Ep. Gunter, Professorem Astronomie in Collegio Greshamensi. Londini,
excudebat Gulielmus Jones. mpcxx. Small 8vo (p. 94). § 3, art. 15.
Guyver, Epuunp. The works of; ... with a canon of artificial sines and
tangents... ‘The fifth edition, diligently corrected... By William Ley-
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Harma. See De Prassr.
Hann. See Ormrsvs Greeory (1843).
Hanrscut, Jossrs. Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch... Wien,
1827. Large 8vo. § 4.
Harrie, G. L. Kubik-Tabellen fiir geschnittene, beschlagene und runde
Holzer ... und Potenz-Tabellen, zur Erleichterung der Zins-Berechnung ...
Dritte Auflage... Berlin und Stettin, 1829. S8vo. (pp. 488 and introduc-
tion xviii). § 4.
Hasstur, F. R. Tabule logarithmice et trigonometrice, notis septem
decimalibus expresse, in forma minima... Novi-Eboraci, 1830. 12mo
[stereotyped]. § 4.
Hasstrr, F, R. Logarithmic and trigonometric tables, to seven places of
decimals, in a pocketform... New York, 1830. 12mo [stereotyped]. § 4.
Hasstrr, F. R. Tables logarithmiques et trigonométriques 4 sept déci-
males, en petit format ... Nouvelle-York, 1830. 12mo [stereotyped]. § 4.
Hasster, F, R. Logarithmische und trigonometrische Tafeln, zu sieben
Dezimal-Stellen ; in Taschen-Format... Neu-York, 1830. 12mo [stereo-
typed]. § 4.
Hasster, F. R. Tablas logaritmicas y trigonometricas para las siete deci-
males, corregidas... Nueva-York, 1830. 12mo [stereotyped]. § 4.
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Hertsronner, C. Historia Matheseos Universe... Lipsie, 1742. 4to.
§ 3, art. 25; and see § 2, art. 3.
Hewrioy, Dunts. Traicté des logarithmes. Par D, Henrion, Professeur
152 REPORT—1873.
és Mathematiques. [Typographical ornament]. A Paris, chez l’Autheur,
demeurant en l’Isle du Palais, 4 Image S. Michel. u.pe.xxvz. Auce priuilege
du Roy. 8vo (paging begins at 341, and proceeds to 708). § 4,
Henset. See Hizssn’s Vea, § 4.
Hantscuen. Adrian Vlacq Tabellen der sinuum, tangentium... Neue
und verbesserte Auflage von Jonann Jacos Hentscuen. Franckfurt und
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4.
. Hirrrmann. ‘ Vienna Sitzungsberichte’ (Verbesserung der IT. Callet’schen
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Herwarr an Hounensurc. Tabule arithmetic Mpoc8agapecews Uni-
yersales, quarum subsidio numerus quilibet, ex multiplicatione producendus,
per solam additionem: et quotiens quilibet, e divisione eliciendus, per solam
subtractionem, sine tadiosa & lubrica Multiplicationis, atque Divisionis ope-
ratione, etiam ab eo, qui Arithmetices non admodum sit gnarus, exacte,
celeriter & nullo negotio invenitur. EE museo Ioannis Georgii Herwart ab
Hohenburg, Y. I. doctoris, ex assessore summi tribunalis Imperatorii, et ex
Cancellario supremo serenissimi utriusque Bavarize Ducis, sue serenissime
Celsitudinis Consiliarii ex intimis, Presidis provintie Schuabe, & inclytorum
utriusque Bavariz Statuum Cancellarii. Monachii Bavariarum, ex officina
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7 pp-). § 3, art. 1.
Hirt, Joux. Decimal and logarithmical Arithmetic explained . . . with a
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~ Hinp, J. R. See [Fartry] (Versed Sines, 1856).
Hosert, Jean Purtrere and Lovis Ivever. Nouvelles Tables trigonomé-
triques calculées pour la division décimale du quart de cercle... Berlin,
1799. 8yo (pp. 351, and introduction Ixxii). § 4.
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(116 pp. of tables, 32 of introduction). § 4.
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Hitssr’s Veca. See Veca (Sammlung, 1840.)
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Hvrron, Cuanrtes. Tables of the Products and Powers of Numbers...
Published by the Commissioners of Longitude. London, 1781. folio (pp.
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Hvrron, Cuartzs. Mathematical Tables: containing common, hyperbolic,
and logistic logarithms. Also sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines . . .
to which is prefixed a large and original history of the discoveries and writings
relating to those subjects ... London, 1785. 8vo (pp. 343 of tables and 176
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Hvurroy, Cuartes. A Philosophical and Mathematical Dictionary .. . (in
2 vols.). vol. ii. London, 1815. 4to. § 3, art. 8.
Hurron, Cuartes. Mathematical Tables, ... with seven additional tables
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1858. 8yo (368 pp. of tables). § 4.
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Tveter. See Hoperr,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 153
Iywan, J. Nautical Tables, designed for the use of British Seamen. New
edition, revised by the Rev. J. W. Inman. London, Oxford and Cambridge,
1871. 8vo (445 pp. of tables). § 4.
Insencarru, H. F. Gemeinniitziges Compendium von Quadrat-Flichen-
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Jann, Gustav Apoten. ‘Tafeln der sechsstelligen Logarithmen fiir die
Zahlen 1 bis 100 000, fiir dic Sinus und Tangenten... Leipzig. 2 vols.
vol. i. 1837; vol. ii. 1838. 4to (vol. i. pp. 79, and introduction, &e., xvi;
vol. ii. pp. 463, and introduction, &c., viii). ‘There is also a Latin title on
the same titlepage. $4.
Joncourt, E. pr. De natura et preclaro usu simplicissimee speciei nume-
rorum trigonalium... Hage Comitum, 1762. Very small 4to (pp. 267).
§ 3, art. 25.
Juncr, Aveust. Tafel der wirklichen Linge der Sinus und Cosinus fiir
den Radius 1 000 000 und fiir alle Winkel des ersten Quadranten yon 10 zu
10 Secunden .... insbesondere fiir diejenigen, welche bei trigonometrischen
Berechnungen die Thomas’sche Rechenmaschine benutzen. Leipzig, 1864.
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Kisrnur (Geschichte der Mathematik). § 2, art. 3.
Ketrn. See [Maynarp. |
Kerrier, J. Joannis Kepleri... Chilias logarithmorum ad totidem nu-
meros rotundos ... quibus nova traditur Arithmetica... Marpurgi, 1624.
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Krriean, THomas. The young Navigator’s Guide to... Nautical Astro-
nomy... London, 1821. 8yvo (204 pages of tables). § 4.
Kirsy. See Bownrrcn.
Koéurer, H.G. Jerome de La Lande’s logarithmische-trigonometrische
Tafeln durch die Tafel der Gausschen Logarithmen und andere Tafeln und
Formeln vermehrt ... Stereot¥pen-Ausgabe. Dritter Plattenabdruck ...
Leipzig, 1832. 32mo (pp. 254, and introduction xlv), There is also a
French titlepage. § 4.
Kéuter, H. G. Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch... Zweite
Stereotypausgabe. Leipzig, 1848. 8yo (pp. 388, and introduction xxxyi).
§ 4
Krier, J. G. Gedancken von der Algebra nebst den Primzahlen von 1
bis 1000000... Halle im Magdeburgischen, 1746. 12mo (Algebra pp. 124,
and the list of primes pp. 47). § 3, art. 8.
Korix, Jaxon Puiipr. Tafeln der Quadrat= und Kubik=Zahlen aller
natiirlichen Zahlen bis Hundert Tausend . . . nach einer neuen Methode be-
rechnet... Leipzig, 1848. 8vo (pp. 460, and preface vii). § 3, art. 4.
Latanpr, Jerémz pr. Tables de logarithmes pour les nombres et pour les
sinus... dition stéréotype ... gravée, fondue et imprimée, par Firmin
Didot... Paris, 1805 (tirage de 1816). 16mo. §4.
Laxanve, Jerome pE. Tables de logarithmes par Jeréme de Lalande éten-
dues 4 sept décimales par F. C. M. Marre. . . précédées d’une instruction ...
par le Baron Reynavp. Edition stéréotypée... Paris, 1829. 12mo (pp.
204 and introduction xlii). § 4.
Latanvz (Bibliographie Astronomique). § 2, art. 3.
Latanpg. See Konzer (1832).
Latanpr. See Reynavp.
Lamsert, J. H. Supplementa tabularum logarithmicarum et trigonome-
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monem, secundum ultima auctoris consilia amplificata. Curante Anronro
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Lampert, J. H. Zusiitse zu den logarithmischen und trigonometrischen
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Lavypy, Samven Linn. Table of Quarter-squares of all integer numbers
up to 100,000, by which the product of two factors may be found by the aid
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Lavnpy, 8. L. A Table of Products, by the factors 1 to 9 of all numbers
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. Lax, Rey. W. Tables to be used with the Nautical Almanac for finding
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pu CADASTRE.
Lxonetux. Leonelli’s logarithmische Supplemente ... aus dem Franzjé-
sischen nebst einigen Zusiitzen von G. W. Leonnarpr... Dresden, 1806.
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Lxstin, Joun. The Philosophy of Arithmetic.... with tables for the
multiplication of numbers as far as one thousand... Second edition, im-
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Lirrrow, C. L. von. Hiilfs-Tafeln fiir die Wiener Universitiits-Sternwarte.
Zusammengestellt im Jahre 1837... 8vo (pp. 88). § 3, art. 12.
Lupotr. Tetragonometria tabularia, qua per tabulas quadratorum 4 Radice
quadrata 1. usque ad 100 000... Autore L. Joso Lupotrro, P. P. Math.
in Universitate Hierana ibidemque Senatore. Amstelodami, 1690. Small
Ato (introduction, 150 pp., and tables about 420 pp.). § 3, art. 4.
Lynn, Tuomas. Horary tables, for finding the time by inspection...
London, 1827. 4to (300 pp. of tables). § 4.
Mackay, Anprew. The Theory and Practice of finding the Longitude...
with new tables. In 2 vols., the third edition, improved and enlarged...
London, 1810. 8vo (vol. ii. contains about 340 pp. of tables). § 4.
Maernt, J. A. Tabula tetragonica seu quadratorum numerorum cum suis
radicibus ex qua cujuscunque numeri perquam magni minoris tamen triginta
tribus notis, quadrata radix facile, minimaque industria colligitur, Venetiis,
1592. § 3, art. 4.
Maainus, J. A. ...De Planis triangulis liber unicus. De dimetiendi
ratione ... libri quinque. Venetiis, 1592. Small 4to (contains the Tabula
Tetragonica, see Macini above). § 3, art. 4.
Marre. See Laranpe (1829).
Marriott. See under Witticu, § 4.
Martin, C. F. Les tables de Martin, ou le régulateur universel .
troisiéme édition. Paris, 1801. 8vo. § 3, art. 1.
Maserers, Francis. The Doctrine of Permutations and Combinations...
together with some other useful tracts... London, 1795. 8vo. § 4.
‘[Maskexyns, Nevit.] Tables requisite to be used with the Nautical Ephe-
meris ... Published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude. The third
edition, ‘corrected and improved. London,1802. 8yvo (206 pp. of tables, and
appendix (see next below) 106 pp. of tables). § 4,
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 155
[Masxunynz, Nevit.] Appendix to the third edition of the Requisite Tables
..+ [London, 1802}. 8vo (pp. 106). § 4.
Masxenyne. See Micnarn Taynor (1792).
Massatovp, J. V. Logarithmisch-trigonometrische Hiilfstafeln .. . Hand-
buch fiir Geometer, Markscheider ... Leipzig, 1847 (pp. 667 and intro-
duction xii). § 3, art. 10.
[Marruiussrn, E. A.] Tafel zur bequemern Berechnung des Logarithmen
der Summe oder Differenz zweyer Gréssen welche selbst nur durch ihre
Logarithmen gegeben sind. Altona, 1818. Large 8vo (pp. 212 and intro-
duction 53). There is also a Latin titlepage. § 3, art. 19.
[Maynarp, Samvet.] A table containing useful numbers often required in
calculations, together with their logarithms. 8vo (pp. 12, numbered 169-
180). From Templeton’s ‘Millwright and Engineer’s Pocket Companion’
[see title under Teurrzron]. It is stated on the first page that a portion of
the table had appeared in other publications, and in particular in Krrrn’s
‘ Measurer,’ 24th edit. 1846, by the same editor (Maynard). § 3, art. 24.
Menpoza. See Rios.
Merpavt, J. M. Tables Arithmonomiques fondées sur le rapport du rect-
angle au carré, ou le calcul réduit 4 son dernier degré de simplification ...
Vannes, 1832. 16mo (500 pp. of tables, introduction 40 pp.). § 3, art. 3.
Micnarnis. See under Hitssn’s Vuaa, § 4.
Minstncer, Prof. Die gemeinen oder Briggischen Logarithmen der Zahlen
... Augsburg, 1845. 8vo (31 pp. of tables and introduction &e. vi). § 4.
Monrrerrier, A. 8. pz. Dictionnaire des sciences mathématiques pures et
appliquées... Tome troisicme (Supplément). Paris, 1840. folio. § 3, art. 13.
Montucta (Histoire des Mathématiques). § 2, art. 3.
[Moorz, Str Jonas.] A canon of the squares and cubes of all numbers
under 1000. Of the squared squares under 300. And of the square cubes
and cubed cubes under 200... [London,1650?] § 3, art. 4.
Moorz, Sir Jonas. Excellent Table for the finding the Periferies or Cir-
cumferences of all Elleipses or Ovals ... (no place or date. ? London, 1660).
1 page folio. § 3, art. 22.
Moors, Sir Jonas. A new Systeme of the Mathematicks... In 2 vols.
Vol. ii. (Tables). London, 1681. 4to (351 pp. of tables). § 4.
[Moorz, Sir Jonas.] A Table of Versed sines both natural and artificial.
4to. [London, 1681] (pp. 90). § 4.
Moors, J. H. The new Practical Navigator; being a complete epitome
of navigation, to which are added all the Tables requisite ... The nineteenth
edition, enlarged and carefully improved by Josrrn Dessiov. London, 1814.
8vo. § 4
Mov7on’s sines &c. to every second. See Garprver (Avignon reprint, 1770).
Mitter, J. H. T. Vierstellige Logarithmen der natiirlichen Zahlen und
Winkel Functionem ... (Preface dated from Gotha, 1844.) 8vo (25 pp. of »
tables). § 4.
*Munqrericatton, Tables de... Paris, 1812. § 3, art. 1 (Introductory
remarks).
Movraanp (Bibliotheca Mathematica). § 2, art. 3.
Narimr. Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis deseriptio, Ejusque usus, in
utraque Trigonometria ; ut etiam in omni Logistica Mathematica, Amplissimi,
Facillimi, & expeditissimi explicatio. Authore ac Inventore, loannz NEprro,
Barone Merchistonii, &c. Scoto. Edinburgi, Ex officina Andreee Hart Bib-
liopéle, cro.pc.x1v. [On an ornamented titlepage.] 4to (dedication, preface
&e. 6 pp., text 57 pp., tables 90 pp.). § 3, art. 17.
156. nrePort-—1873.
Narrer. Mirifici logarithmorum canonis constructio; Et eorum ad natu-
rales ipsorum numeros habitudines; una cum Appendice, de alia eaque
prestantiore Logarithmorum specie condendaé. Quibus accessere Proposi-
tiones ad triangula spheerica faciliore caleulo resolyenda: Uni cum Anno-
tationibus aliquot doctissimi D. Henrici Briggii, in eas & memoratam appen-
dicem. Authore & Inventore Ioanne Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c.
Scoto. [Typographical ornament, a thistle.] Edinburgi, Excudebat Andreas
Hart. Anno Domini 1619. 4to (preface 2 pp. and text 67 pp.). § 3, art. 17.
[The above is a transcript of the titlepage of the ‘Constructio;’ but in the only
copy of this work that we have seen it is immediately preceded by an ornamental
titlepage, which, as far as the ornamentation is concerned, is a facsimile of that
of the ‘ Descriptio,’ 1614. The letterpress, however, is very different, and runs,
*« Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio, Ejusque usus, in utraque Tri-
gonometria ; ut etiam in omni Logistica Mathematica, amplissimi, facillimi,
& expeditissimi explicatio. Accesserunt opera posthuma: Primd, Mirifici
ipsius canonis constructio, & Logarithmorum ad naturales ipsorum numeros
habitudines. Secundo, Appendix de alia, eique prestantiore Logarithmorum
specie construenda. ‘Tertid, Propositiones quaedam eminentissime, ad Tri-
angula spherica miré facilitate resolvenda. Autore ac Inventore Ioanne
Nepero, Barone Merchistonii, &c. Scoto. Edinburgi, Excudebat Andreas
Hart. Anno 1619,” This would imply that the ‘ Descriptio’ and ‘ Constructio’
were issued together in 1619; and whether this was so or not, it shows that
such was intended. Some writers speak of a reprint of the ‘ Descriptio’ in
1619; but this title may be all their authority, as few of those who have
written on the subject seem to have looked beyond the titlepages of the
works they were noticing. On the other hand, of course, the ‘Descriptio’ may
have been torn out from the copy before us. The ‘ Constructio’ is a much
rarer work than the ‘ Descriptio ;? we have seen half a dozen copies of the
latter and but one of the former (Camb. Univ. Lib.). In any case, as
the leading words of the title of the ‘ Constructio’ (on the first titlepage) are
“ Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio,”’ it could only be distinguished
from the ‘ Descriptio’ in most library catalogues by the date 1619. We have
thought it worth while, since the description in § 3, art. 17 (p. 73), was
printed, to add the first title of the work containing the ‘ Constructio,’ and to
point out the uncertainty relating to the reprint of the ‘ Descriptio,’ in hopes
that some one may settle the matter. The 1619 edition of the ‘ Descriptio’
(supposing there to have been one of this date) is the only book of importance
relating to the early spread of logarithms of which we have scen no copy;
and the question of its publication is almost the only point of bibliography,
in reference to the tables of this time, that we are obliged to leaye undecided
for the present. |
Neper, Nerarr, or Nerper. See Napier.
Nrwroy, Joun. ‘Trigonometria Britanica (sic): or, the doctrine of tri-
angles, In Two Books. . . . The one Composed, the other Translated, from
the Latine Copie written by Henry Gellibrand, ... A table of logarithms
to 100.000, thereto annexed, With the Artificial Sines and Tangents, to the
hundred part of every Degree; and the three first Degrees to a thousand
parts. By John Newton... London: MDCLVIII. fol. (Dedication and
preface 6 pp., trigonometry 96 pp.; tables unpaged.) § 4.
Norte, J. W. A complete set of Nautical Tables containing all that are
requisite ... Eighth (stereotype) edition. London, 1836. 8yo (360 pp. of
tables). § 4.
Nor, J. W. A complete epitome of Practical Navigation ... Thirteenth
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 157
(stereotype) edition, considerably augmented and improved. London, 1844.
Svo (360 pp. of tables). § 4.
[We have also seen the “fourteenth (stereotype) edition....by George
Coleman,” 1848, the “twelfth (stereotype) edition,” 1839, the ‘eleventh
edition,” 1835, all containing 360 pp. of tables—and, besides, an edition of
1805 containing 252 pp. of tables, in which it is stated that the tables were
published two years previously under the title ‘‘ Nautical Tables.” ]
Norwoop, Ricnarp. ‘Trigonometrie, or the Doctrine of Triangles... per-
formed by that late and excellent invention of logarithms ... London, 1631,
Small 4to, § 4.
Oaxes, Lieut.-Col. W. H. Table of the reciprocals of numbers from 1 to
100,000, with their differences, by which the reciprocals of numbers may be
obtained up to 10,000,000... London, 1865. 8vo (205 pp. of tables and xii
of introduction). § 3, art. 7.
Oaxes. Machine table for determining primes and the least factors of
composite numbers up to 100,000. Dedicated, by permission, to Professor
De Morgan. By Lieut.-Col. W. H. Oakes. Printed and published by
Charles and Edwin Layton. ... London, 1865. § 3, art. 8.
OppotzER, TaEopor. Vierstellige logarithmisch-trigonometrische Tafeln.
e-. Wien, 1866 (pp.16). § 4.
Orvs Patatinum. See Ruericvs,
Oro. See Ruericus (Opus Palatinum),
OvenTreD, WiLuIAM. ‘Trigonometrie, or, The manner of calculating the
Sides and Angles of Triangles, by the Mathematical Canon, demonstrated...
published by Richard Stokes and Arthur Haughton.... London, 1657,
Small 4to. (Trigonometry 36 pp., tables 240 pp.). § 4.
Ozanam, M. Tables des sinus tangentes et secantes et des logarithmes des
sinus et des tangentes... Paris, 1685. Small 8vo. § 4.
Parxuurst, Astronomical Tables, comprising logarithms from 3 to 100
decimal places, and other useful Tables. By Hrnry M. Parxuursr. Revised
edition. Printed and published by Henry M. Parkhurst (Short Hand Writer
and Law Reporter), No. 121 Nassau Street, New York City. 1871, 12mo
(176 pp. of tables, 66 pp. of formule, explanations, &c.). § 4.
Pasauicu, Ioannes. Tabule logarithmico-trigonometricee contractee eum
novis accessionibus ... Lipsiew, 1817. 8vo (pp. 228 and introduction xxxyiii).
There is also a German titlepage. § 4.
Peacock (Arithmetic). § 2, art. 3.
Parson, W. An introduction to Practical Astronomy containing Tables
.... London, 1824. 2 vols. Large 4to. § 4.
[Prtt, J.] Tabula Numerorum Quadratorum decies millium, und cum ip-
sorum lateribus ab unitate incipientibus & ordine naturali usque ad 10 000
progredientibus ... London, 1672. 4to (pp. 32). § 3, art. 4.
Prerers,C.F.W. Astronomische Tafeln und Formeln... Hamburg, 1871.
8vo (pp. 217). § 4.
Pezenas. See Garprner (Avignon edition, 1770).
Patties, Sir Tuomas, Bart. An improved Numeration Table to facilitate
and extend Astronomical Calculations... [London?], 1829. 12mo (pp. 18).
§ 3, art. 25,
Pricarrr, R. La Division réduite 4 une Addition, ouvrage approuvé par
VAcadémie des Sciences de Paris... augmenté d’une Table de Logarithmes
... Paris [1861]. 4to (pp. 104 and introduction &e. xvi). § 3, art. 7.
Pieri, Gruserpr. Nuove Tavole degli Elementi dei Numeri dall’ 1 al
10 000... Pisa, 1758. 8vo (pp. 195). § 3, art. 8.
158 REPORT-—1873.
Prveto, 8. Tables de Logarithmes vulgaires 4 dix décimales construites
d’aprés un nouveau mode ... §.-Pétersbourg, 1871. S8vo (pp. 56 and intro-
duction xxiv). § 3, art. 13.
Prriscus. Thesaurus mathematicus Sive canon sinuum ad radium
1,00000.00000.00000. et ad dena queque scrupula secunda Quadrantis:
una cum sinibus primi et postremi gradus, ad eundem radium, et ad singula
scrupula secunda Quadrantis : Adjunctis ubique differentiis primis et secun-
dis ; atq, ubi res tulit, etiam tertijs. jam olim quidem incredibili labore &
sumptu § 4 Georgio J oachimo Rhetico supputatus: at nunc primum in lueem
editus & cum yiris doctis communicatus a Bartholomeo Pitisco Grunbergensi
Silesio. cujus etiam accesserunt: I. Principia Sinuum, ad radium, 1.00000,
00000.00000.00000.00000. quam accuratissimé supputata. TI. Sinus deci-
morum, tricesimorum & quinquagesimorum quorumq; scrupulorum.secundo-=
rum per prima & postrema35. scrupula prima, ad radium, 1.00000.00000.00000,
00000.00. [Typographical ornament.] Francofurti Excudebat Nicolaus
Hoffmannus, sumptibus Jone Rose Anno crp. 19. x11. folio [part of the title
is printed in red] (preface 5 pp., tables pp. 2-271, pp. 2-61, pp. 8-15). There
are four titlepages altogether, including that to the whole work (copied
above) ; on the first two the date should be cto. roc. xu, and not as alanis
§ 3, art. 10.
PoaGENDoRFF (Handworterbuch). § 2, art. 3.
Prassz. See Dr Prassz.
Prony. See Tanrms pv Capastrn. Sce also § 3, art. 13 (introductory
remarks, p. 54), and § 3, art. 16 (introductory remarks, p. 69),
Rauy,J.H. Teutsche Algebra, oder Algebraische Rechenkunst...-Zurich,
1659. Very small quarto (pp. about 200). § 3, art. 8.
Ranxiyz, W. J. M. Useful Rules and Tables relating to Mensuration,
Engineering, Structures, and Machines... London, 1866. 8vo. § 4.
Rarsr, Henry, Lieut. R.N. Tables of logarithms to six places ... London,
1846. 8vo (pp. 122 and introduction xi). § 4.
Rarzr, Henry, Lieut. R.N. The Practise of Navigation and Nautical
Astronomy... Sixth Edition. London, 1857. 8vo (454 pp. of tables). § 4.
Rexrs, Apranam. The Cyclopedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts,
Sciences, and Literature... In 39 vols. London, 1819. 4to. Vol. xviii.
Hyperbolic logarithms. § 3, art. 16. Vol. xxi. Logarithms. § 3, art. 13,
Vol. xxviii. Prime numbers. § 3, art. 8.
Retsnamaen, Férrx. Manuel général pour les Arbitrages de Changes ...
par Nombres fiwes ou par Logarithmes . . Suivi d’une Table de Logarithmes
depuis 1 jusqu’é 10400 (et, & Paide de la Tables des Differences, jusqu’a
104000)... Paris. An viii (1800). 8yvo (pp. 326 and 131 pp. of tables).
§ 3, art. 13.
Rezovisire Tastes. Sce [Masxnryne.]
Revss (Repertorium). § 2, art. 3.
Reyyavp, A. A. L. Trigonométriec ... troisiéme édition ; suivie des tables
de logarithmes ... de Jéréme de Lalande. Paris, 12mo, 1818 (203 pp. of
tables). § 4,
Reynavup. See Laranpe (1829).
Ruericvs. Opus Palatinum de triangulis a Georgio Ioachimo Rhetico
ceptum: JL. Valentinus Otho Principis Palatini Friderici IV. Electoris
mathematicus consummavit. An. sal. hum. ct. to. xovi. Phin. lib, xxxvi.
cap. ix. Rerum nature interpretationem Aigyptiorum opera philosophie
continent. Cum privilegio cvs, majes. folio, 2 vols. [on an ornamented title-
page]. § 3, art. 10, -
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 159
Ruerievs, See Prrrsovs.
Rippiz, Epwarv, ‘Treatise on Navigation and Nautical Astronomy...
with all the Tables requisite in nautical computations... London, 1824.
8vo (239 pp. of tables). § 4.
Ritzy’s Arithmetical Tables for multiplying and dividing sums to the
utmost extent of numbers... London, 1775. S8vo (pp. 176 and intro-
duction xii). § 3, art. 1.
Rios, Josupu pn Menpoza. A complete collection of Tables for Navigation
and Nautical Astronomy ... Second edition, improved. London, 1809.
Ato (604 pp. of tables), § 4.
Rios, José pk Menpoza y. Coleccion completa de Tablas para los usos de
la Navegacion y Astronomia Nautica... Primera Tirada. Madrid, 1850.
4to. § 4.
_ Ror, N. Tabule Logarithmice, or two tables of logarithmes ... by Na-
THANIEL Row, Pastor of Benacre in Suffolke ... Unto which is annexed their
admirable use... by Epu. Wineate, Gent. London, 1633. 8vo (preface and
tables unpaged, the Use &c, pp. 70, and 10 addit. pp. of tables). § 4.
Roae (Bibliotheca Mathematica). § 2, art. 3.
Rosrnprre. See Dase (ninth million),
Rovsr, Wizrram. The Doctrine of Chances, or the Theory of Gaming
made easy... with Tables on Chance, never before published... London
[no date]. 8vo (pp. 350, preface &e. lvi). § 3, art. 25,
Rimxrr, C. Handbuch der Schifffahrtskunde mit einer Sammlung von
Seemanns-Tafeln ... Vierte Auflage. Hamburg, 1844. 8yo (531 pp. of
tables). § 4.
Satcey. See under Carter, 1853, § 4.
*Satomon, Jos. M. Logarithmische Tafeln, enthaltend die Logarithmen
der Zahlen 1-10800, die Logarithmen der Sinusse und Tangenten yon
Sekunde zu Sekunde, ete. Wien, 1827. 4to (pp. 466 and introduction
xxxvili). Also with French text. § 4.
Sane, Epwarp. Five-place logarithms... Edinburgh and London, 1859.
32mo (pp. 82). -§ 3, art. 13.
Sane, Epwarp. A new table of seven-place logarithms of all numbers from
20 000 to 200000... London, 1871. Large 8vo (pp. 365), § 3, art. 13,
Sane, Epwarp. ‘Edinburgh Transactions,’ vol. xxvi. 1871. (Account of
the new table of logarithms to 200 000), See under Sane, § 3, art, 13.
Scnerset (Mathematical Bibliography). § 2, art. 3. ;
[Scuevrz, G. and E.] Specimens of Tables; calculated, stereomoulded,
and printed by Machinery. London, 1857. 8vo (pp. 50). § 3, art. 13.
*Sontémincn, O. Fiinfstellige logarithmische und trigonometrische Tafeln,
Braunschweig. 8vo. § 4.
Scumipt, G. G. Logarithmische, trigonometrische und andere Tafeln
».. Giessen, 1821. 12mo (pp. 217 and introduction xxii). § 4.
Scuroy, Lupwie. Tafeln der drei- und fiinfstelligen Logarithmen.., Jena,
1838. (Small quarto tract, without cover, 20 pp.) § 3, art. 13.
Scnréy, Lupwie. Siebenstellige gemeine Logarithmen der Zahlen von
1 bis 108000 und der Sinus, Cosinus, Tangenten und Cotangenten ..,. nebst
einer Interpolationstafel zur Berechnung der Proportionaltheile ... Stereo-
typ-Ausgabe. Gesammt-Ausgabe in drei Tafeln, Braunschweig, 1860, Large
8vo (pp. 550). § 4,
Scuréyx, Lupwic. Seven-figure logarithms... Fifth edition, corrected
and stereotyped. With a description of the tables added by A. pp Moran...
London and Brunswick, 1865. 8vo. § 4.
160 REPORT—1873.
Scuvunze, Jonann Cart. Neue und erweiterte Sammlung logarithmischer,
trigonometrischer und anderer....Tafeln. Berlin, 1778. 2 vols. 8vo (each
about 300 pp.). There is also a French titlepage. § 4.
Scuutze. See Acapémre Royarz pz Prusss, § 4.
Scuumacner, H.G. Sammlung von Hiilfstateln herausgegeben im Jahre
1822 von H.G. Schumacher. Neu herausgegeben und vermehrt von G. H.
L. Warnsrorrr. Altona, 1845. 8vo (pp. 221, and 31 pp. of explanation in
French). § 4.
[Scuumacuer.] Auxiliary Tables for Mr. Bessel’s method of clearing the
Distances. 8yo (pp. 91). [No editor’s name, date, or place.] § 4.
ScuweiccEr-Seipet (Litteratur der Mathematik). § 2, art. 3.
Stevry, M. Manuel d’Architecture ou Principes des Opérations primi-
tives de cet Art... .Cet ouvrage est terminé par une table des quarrés et des
cubes, dont les racines commencent par l’'unité, et vont jusqu’’ dix mille... .
Paris, 1786. 8vo (the table occupies 100 pp.). § 3, art. 4.
Suanks, Wirttram. Contributions to Mathematics, comprising chiefly the
Rectification of the Circle to 607 places of decimals... London, 1853. Printed
for the Author. 8vo (pp. 95). § 4.
[Suarp, Apranam.| Geometry Improy’d. 1. By a large and and accurate
table of segments of circles... .with compendious tables for finding a true
proportional part... exemplify’d in making out Logarithms or natural numbers
from them, true to sixty figures, there being a table of them for all primes to
1100, true to 61 figures. 2. A concise treatise of Polyedra.... By A.S.
Philomath.... London, 1717. Small 4to (pp. 1386). § 4.
Smarr. See Surrwin.
SurrpsHanks, R. Tables for facilitating Astronomical Reductions. London,
1846, 4to. § 4. (Also Anonymous, 1844). § 4.
(Suerwiy, Henry.| Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, contriv’d after a
most comprehensive method.... The third edition. Carefully revised and
corrected by William Gardiner. London, 1741. 8yo. § 4.
SHortreDE, Rozurt. Compendious Logarithmic Tables.... Edinburgh,
1844, 8vo (pp.10). § 4.
SortrEDE, Ropert. Logarithmic Tables to seven places of decimals
containing.... Edinburgh, 1844. Large 8vo (pp. 829, and introduction,
pp. 389). §4. Also 1849 (2 vols.). See next title.
SHortREDE, Rozrrtr. Logarithmic Tables: containing logarithms to num-
bers from 1 to 120,000, numbers to logarithms from ‘0 to 1:00000, to seyen
places of decimals; .... Edinburgh, 1849. 8vo (pp. 208 and preface xxv).
This is the title of the first volume; that of the second is, ‘ Logarithmic
Tables to seven places of decimals, containing logarithmic sines and tan-
gents to every second of the circle, with arguments in space and time ...”
Edinburgh, 1858 (pp. 602 and preface pp. 2), 8vo. The two volumes seem
to have been regarded as separate works, as the book is not stated to be in
2 vols; nor are they called vol. i. and vol. ii. § 4, under SHorrrepE, 1849.
Sounxe (Bibliotheca Mathematica). § 2, art. 3.
Sprrpett, J. New logarithmes. the First inuention whereof, was, by the
Honourable Lo: Iohn Nepair Baron of Marchiston, and Printed at Edinburg
in Scotland, Anno: 1614. In whose vse was and is required the knowledge
of Algebraicall Addition and Subtraction, according to-+ and— These being
Extracted from and out of them (they being first ouer seene, corrected, and
amended) require not at all any skill in Algebra, or Cossike numbers, But
may be vsed by euery one that can onely adde and Subtract, in whole numbers,
according to the Common or yulgar Arithmeticke, without any consideration
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 161
or respect of + and — [Typographical ornament] By Iohn Speidell, pro-
fessor of the Mathematickes ; and are to bee solde at his dwelling house in
the Fields, on the backe side of Drury Lane, betweene Princes streete and the
new Playhouse. [Erasure in ink.] 1619 (unpaged, pp. 90 and titlepage).
§ 3, art. 16.
Sranspury, Danrer. Tables to facilitate the necessary Calculations in
Nautical Astronomy....New York, 1822. 4to (337 pp. of tables). § 4.
[Srzemann, F.] Tafel der fiinfstelligen Logarithmen und Antilogarithmen.
Marburg, 1855. § 4.
*Srremann. ‘Tafel der natiirlicher Logarithmen. Marburg, 1856. § 4.
Sremnpercer, A. Tafel der gemeinen oder Brigg’schen Logarithmen aller
Zahlen von 1—1 000 000 mit fiinf und beliebig sieben Decimalstellen....
Regensburg, 1840. 8vo (pp. 65). § 3, art. 13.
Taptes pu Capasrre, calculated under the direction of Prony (manu-
script). § 3, art. 13.
Taytor, Janet. Lunisolar and Horary Tables, with their application in
Nautical Astronomy.... London, 1833. 8vo (pp. 232). § 4.
Taytor, Janet. An Epitome of Navigation and Nautical Astronomy,
with the improved Lunar Tables.... London, 1843. 8vo (320 pp. of
tables). § 4.
Taytor, Micuart. A Sexagesimal Table....and the Sexagesimal Table
turned into seconds as far as the 1000th column.... Published by order of
the Commissioners of Longitude. London, 1780. 4to (pp. 316 and intro-
duction xlv) § 3, art. 9.
Taytor, Micnar. Tables of logarithms of All numbers, from 1 to 101000,
and of the sines and tangents to every second of the quadrant.... With
a preface....by Nevin Masketyne.... London, 1792. Large 4to (about
600 pp.). § 4.
Tempteton, W. The Millwright and Engineer’s pocket Companion ...
corrected by Samuel Maynard: London, 1871. 8vo. (Noticed under [May-
NARD ], § 3, art. 24).
Tuomson, Daviy. Lunar and Horary Tables.... Forty-fourth edition.
London, 1852. 8vo (218 pp. of tables). § 4.
Topp, Cuartes. A series of Tables of the Area and Circumference of
Circles; the Solidity and Superficies of Spheres ; the Area and Length of the
Diagonal of Squares.... Second edition. London, 1853. 8vo (pp. 114).
§ 3, art. 22.
Trorrer, James. A Manual of Logarithms and Practical Mathematics....
Edinburgh, 1841. 8vo (82 pp. of tables). § 4.
Turxisu Table of Logarithms &. [Bulik] 1250[1834]. 8vo (pp. 270).
§ 4.
Ursin. See G. F. Unsrnvs.
Ursinvs, B. Beni. Ursini Mathematici Electoralis Brandenburgici Trigo-
nometria cum magno logarithmor. Canone Cum Privilegio Colonize: Sumptib.
M. Guttij. tipijs G. Rungij descripta CD DCXXYV (sic). (This is the title of
the volume, and is printed on an ornamented titlepage.) The trigonometria
occupies 272 pp. ; and then follows the Canon, unpaged, with a fresh title-
page. ‘‘Benjaminis Ursini Spottavi Silesi.... Magnus Canon triangulorum
logarithmicus; ex voto & consilio Illustr. Neperi, p. m. novissimo, Et sinu
toto 100000000. ad scrupulor. secundor. decadas usq; vigili studio & perti-
naci industria diductus ... Colonie. Typis Georgij Rungij ... M.DC.XXIV”;
but the colophon (at the end of the canon and of the whole work) is
~ i Excudebat Georgius Rungius Typographus, impensis & sumtibus
3. M
162 REPORT— 1878.
Martini Guttij. Bibliopolz Coloniensis. Anno CIp I9C XXIV.” 4to. § 3,
art. 417:
Ursinvs, G. F. Logarithmi VI Decimalium scilicet numerorum ab 1 ad
100 000 et Sinuum et Tangentium ad 10”... (Impensis autoris.) Hafniz,
1827. 8vo. § 4.
Vrea,G. Thesaurus logarithmorum completus, ex arithmetica logarithmica,
et ex trigonometria artificiali Adriani Vlacci collectus, plurimis erroribus
purgatus, in novum ordinem redactus,. . .. Wolframii denique tabula logarith-
morum naturalium locupletatus a Georgio Vega.... Lipsie, 1794. folio
(pp. 685 and introduction xxx). There is also a German titlepage. § 4.
Veea, G. Georgii Vega....tabule logarithmico-trigonometrice cum
diversis aliis in Matheseos usum constructis Tabulis et Formulis.... Editio
secunda, emendata, aucta penitusque reformata. Lipsie, 1797. 2 vols. 8vo
(pp. 409 and 371; vol. i. has also lxxxiv pp. intreduction). There is also a
German titlepage. § 4.
Vuea, G. Georgii Vega....manuale logarithmico-trigonometricum....
Editio secunda, aucta et emendata. Lipsiw, 1800. 8vo (pp. 304 and intro-
duction lxiv). There is also a German titlepage. § 4.
Veea,G. Sammlung mathematischer Tafeln....Herausgegeben von Dr.
J. A. Hittssz. Stereotyp-Ausgabe. Erster Abdruck. Leipzig, 1840. 8vo
(pp. 681 and introduction xxiv). § 4 (described as Htrssr’s Vue).
Veea, G, Logarithmisch-trigonometrisches Handbuch (eimundvierzigste
Auflage)....bearbeitet von Dr. C. Bremrxer. Berlin, 1857. 8vo (pp. 575
and introduction xxxil). § 4 (described as Bremixer’s Vue).
Veea, G. Logarithmic Tables....by Baron von Vega, translated from
the fortieth edition of Dr. Bremiker’s by W. L. F. Fiscumr.... Thoroughly
revised and enlarged edition.... Stereotyped.... Berlin, 1857. (pp. 575 and
introduction xxvii) § 4 (under Bremrxur’s Vue).
Versep Srves, A Table of. See [Str Jonas Moore. ]
Versep Srvzs, Natural ... and Logarithmic ... See [ Fartryr].
Vuace, Aprian. Arithmetica logarithmica, sive logarithmorum chiliades
centum, pro Numeris naturali serie crescentibus ab Unitate ad 100000.
una cum canone triangulorum seu tabula artificialium Sinuum, Tangentium,
& Secantium, Ad Radium 10,00000,00000. & ad singula Scrupula Prima Qua-
drantis. Quibus novum traditur compendium, quo nullum nec admirabilius,
nec utilius solvendi pleraque Problemata Arithmetica & Geometrica. Hos
numeros primus invenit Clarissimus Vir Johannes Neperus Baro Merchis-
tonij: eos autem ex ejusdem sententié mutavit, eorumque ortum & usum
ilustravit Henricus Briggius, in celeberrimé Academia Oxoniensi Geometrie
Professor Savilianus. Editio Secunda aucta per Adrianum Vlacq Goudanum.
Deus nobis usuram vite dedit et ingenii, tanquam pecunie, nulla prestituta
die. [Typographical ornament.| Goud, Excudebat Petrus Rammasenius.
M.DC.XXVHI. Cum Privilegio Illust. Ord. Generalium. fol. (preface and
errata 5 pp., trigonometry &c. 79 pp.; tables unpaged). Part of the title is
printed in red. § 4.
Vuace, Aprian. Arithmetique logarithmique ou la construction et usage
dune table contenantles Logarithmes de tousles Nombres depuis l’ Unité jusques
& 100000. et d’une autre table en laquelle sont comprins les Logarithmes des
Sinus, Tangentes & Secantes, de tous les Degrez & Minutes du quart du
Cercle, selon le Raid de 10,00000,00000. parties. Par le moyen desguelles
on resoult tres-facilement les Problemes Arithmetiques & Geometriques.
Ces nombres premierement sont inventez par Iean Neper Baron de Mar-
chiston: mais Henry Brigs Professeur de la Geometrie en l'Université
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 163
d’Oxford, les a changé, & leur Nature, Origine, & Usage illustré selon l’inten-
tion du dit Neper. La description est traduite du Latin en Francois, la
premiere Table augmentée, & la seconde composée par Adriaen Vlacq. Dieu
nous a donné l’usage de la vie et d’entendement, plus qu’il n’a fait par le
temps passé. [Small typographical ornament]. A Goude, Chez Pierre
Rammasein. M.DC.XXYIII. Avee Privilege des Estats Generaux. fol.
(preface 3 pp., errata 1 p., trigonometry &c. 84 pp.; tables unpaged). Part
of the title is printed in red. § 4.
| The radius is erroneously describedin the above twotitles as 10,00000,00000;
it is really 1,00000,00000, viz. the logarithms are given to ten decimal places. |
Vuace, Aprray. Logarithmiecall arithmetike. or tables of iogarithmes for
absolute numbers from an unite to 100000; as also for Sines, Tangentes
and Secantes for every Minute of a Quadrant: with a plaine description of
their use in Arithmetike, Geometrie, Geographie, Astronomie, Navigation,
&c. These Numbers were first invented by the most excellent Iohn Neper
Baron of Marchiston, and the same were transformed, and the foundation
and use of them illustrated with his approbation by Henry Briggs Sir Henry
Savils Professor of Geometrie in the Universitie of Oxford. The uses
whereof were written in Latin by the Author himselfe, and since his death
published in English by diverse of his friends according to his mind, for the
benefit of such as understand not the Latin tongue. Deus nobis usuram
vite dedit, et ingenii, tanquam pecunie, nulla prestituta die. [Printer’s
device and motto, Anchora spei.] London, Printed by George Miller. 1631.
fol. (54 pp. of trigonometry &e. followed by “a Table of Latitudes” (8 pp.),
and then the logarithmic tables, unpaged). § 4.
Vuace, Aprian. ‘Trigonometria artificialis: sive magnus canon triangu-
lorum logarithmicus, Ad Radium 100000,00000, & ad dena Scrupula Secunda,
ab Adriano Vlacco Goudano Constructus. Cui Accedunt Henrici Briggii
Geometriz Professoris in Academia Oxoniensi p.m. Chiliades logarithmorum
Viginti pro numeris naturali serie crescentibus ab Unitate ad 20000. Quorum
ope triangula plana & spherica, inter alia Nova eximiaque compendia é
Geometricis fundamentis petita, sola Additione, Subtractione, & Bipartitione,
exquisitissimé dimetiuntur. [Here follows a quotation of seven lines from
Kepler. Harm, lib. iv. cap. vii..p. 168,] Goude, Excudebat Petrus Ram-
masenius. Anno M.DC.XXXIII. Cum Previlegio. folio. (Dedication and
preface 4 pp., trigonometry &c. 52 pp. ; tables unpaged). § 4.
_ Vuace, Aprian. Tabule sinuum, tangentium et logarithmi sinuum tangen-
tium & numerorum ab unitate in 10,000.... Editio ultima emendata &
aucta. Amsteledami: Apud Henricum & Viduam Theodori Boom. 1681.
Small 8yo. § 4.
Vuace’s works (Chinese reprint). § 3, art. 13 (introductory remarks, p. 54).
Yurace. See Hentscumn.
*Yorsin, AntornE. Tables de Multiplications ou Logarithmes des Nombres
Entiers depuis 1 jusqu’é 20,000.... Paris, 1817. § 3, art. 3.
Wacsersartu, A. F. D. Fem-stilliga Logarithm-Tabeller, jemte en
Samling Tabeller.... Upsala, 1867. Small 8vo (pp. 224 and introduction
xviii). § 4. ‘
Waxuace, Jonn. Mathematical Tables containing the logarithms of num-
bers, logarithmic sines, tangents, and secants.... By J. Brown. The third
edition, improved, enlarged with many useful additions, by J. Watzace,
Edinburgh, 1815. 8yvo. § 4.
Watts. See SHEerwin.
Warnsrorrr. See ScHuMACHER,
164 REPORT—1873.
Werensacn. Tafel um den Logarithmen von tt zu finden wenn der
Logarithme von x gegeben ist.... Mit einem Vorworte von Herrn Hofrath
Gauss. Copenhagen, 1829. 16mo (pp. 24). § 3, art. 19.
Wetts, I. Sciographia. London, 1635. See under De Decker, 1626.
Wutricn, C. M. Popular Tables arranged in a new form.... Third edition.
London, 1853. 8vo (pp. 166). § 4.
Wineats. See Ros.
Wirtstern, Turopor. Logarithmes de Gauss 4 sept décimales.... Han-
nover, 1866. 8vo (pp. 127 and introduction xvi). § 3, art. 19.
Wotrram. 48-place hyperbolic logarithms: these first appeared in Scuuuze’s
Sammlung. See Scuurze (1778).
Wootnovssz, W.8. B. On Interpolation, Summation, and the Adjustment
of Numerical Tables.... London, 1865. 8vo (pp. 100). § 3, art. 21.
Woornousr. See Orinruvs Gregory (1843).
Wocuerer, W. F. Beytriige zum allgemeinern Gebrauch der Decimal-
Briiche.... Carlsruhe, 1796. 8vo (152 pp. of tables and 48 pp. of intro-
duction). § 3, art. 6.
Zrcu, J. Tafeln der Additions- und Subtractionslogarithmen fiir sieben
Stellen....Aus der Vega-Hiilsse’schen Sammlung besonders abgedruckt.
Leipzig, 1849. 8vo (pp. 201). Also “ Zweiter Auflage,” 1863. § 3, art. 19.
§ 6. Postscript.
Art.1. The foregoing Report is that which was presented to the Brighton
Meeting in 1872, considerably enlarged. After the Meeting it seemed de-
sirable to extend some of the articles in § 3, and to add descriptions of several
works to § 4; and it then appeared that the Report was so lengthy that it
was thought better to delay its publication till the ensuing volume, so as to
afford time for its passage through the press without undue haste. The
printing therefore was commenced in February or March, and is now
(September 30, 1873) all but finished. It was arranged, as the completion
of the Report by a supplement depended in great measure on the coopera-
tion of others possessing information on the subject of tables, that a certain
number of separate copies should be placed in the hands of the Committee,
as soon as the printing was effected, for circulation amongst those interested
in the matter, so as to avoid the delay of a year that would otherwise take
place before the work undertaken by the Committee became known to those
who could render assistance.
Art. 2. While the Report has been passing through the press a good many
alterations have been made which were necessitated by increased informa-
tion on the subjects treated of, and by repetitions &c. which were detected
for the first time when the whole appeared in print. But no attempt has
been made to increase the extent of the Report by introducing descriptions
of fresh works; in fact only about a dozen have been added since the
Brighton Meeting, and but four or five since the MS. was placed in the printer’s
hands.
The tendency of the Report has been from the first to become more and
more bibliographical. Originally it was intended to introduce nothing of a
bibliographical nature ; but experience showed that this was impossible, and
attention to such matters has been continually forced upon us. A report on
tables differs from a report on any other scientific subject in this—that
whereas in a progressive science the earlier works become superseded by
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 165
their successors, and are only of historical interest, a table forms a piece of
work done, and, if done correctly, is done for all time. Thus Briees, 1624,
or Vice, 1628, when procured, are as useful now as if the tables had been
calculated and published recently, subject to the one drawback, that it needs
a bibliographical research to determine how far their accuracy is to be relied
upon. A table is calculated for a special purpose, which purpose in process
of time ceases to be an object of practical interest, and the table is forgotten ;
but, for all that, it is the expression of a certain amount of abstract truth,
and as such is always of value, and is liable at any moment to be utilized
again for some other purpose. Thus one of the most useful objects of the
Report is to give in an accessible form accounts of old tables that have passed
out of notice, as even the most special table is never so obsolete that some
fresh use may not be found for it in the future; and it is of little value to
describe an old and unimportant work without such additional explanation as
may lead to its easy identification, with references to the works that contain
information of importance to its user.
Art. 3. But, apart from the necessity of giving bibliographical information
with regard to some works in order to render the descriptions useful, it is to
be noticed that mathematical history is practically nothing but mathematical
bibliography, as the number of letters and other manuscript documents bear-
ing upon the subject is very small. This being so, it seemed a pity when the
examination of any work showed it to possess some interest, even though of
a purely historical kind, to ignore it entirely merely because the table it
contained was clearly destitute of practical value*. The whole additional
space thus devoted to bibliograpby does not altogether amount to more than
a very few pages ; and the chief concession that has been made to it is in the
list of titles in § 5, where in several cases the full titlepage has been tran-
scribed. This, with one or two exceptions, has only been done in the case
of the tables of logarithms immediately following their invention in 1614.
An examination of a great number of works of reference in regard to this
matter has shown us how inaccurate, not only in details but even in pro-
minent facts, are the accounts usually given. With the exception of
Delambre, Lalande (in his ‘ Bibliographie Astronomique’), and De Morgan,
it is not too much to say that not a single writer on the subject is to be
trusted. Those only who have had occasion to investigate any historical
point, like that of the invention of logarithms, can appreciate the slight value
that was set on accuracy previously to the dawning of a more careful age at
the beginning of the present century. It is necessary to give this caution, as
any one who took the trouble to compare certain statements made in this
Report with those given in such works as Thomson’s ‘ History of the Royal
Society,’ or even Hallam’s ‘ Literature of Europe’ (founded on earlier works),
might imagine that our account involved matters of opinion and was liable
to be disputed; whereas we cannot find that any previous writer ever did
(or perhaps could in the then state of libraries) examine or even see all the
works relating to this period. It is also worthy of remark that the early
logarithmic tables form a most remarkable bibliographical tangle. For some
years it was customary to always place the name of Napier on the titlepages
* “Tt would be something towards a complete collection of mathematical bibliography,
if those who have occasion to examine old works, and take a pleasure in doing it,
would add each his quotum, in the shape of description of such works as he has actually
seen, without any attempt to appear more learned than his opportunities have made
him.”—De Morgan, ‘ Arithmetical Books,’ p. x. See also ‘Companion to the Almanac,’
1851, p. 5.
166 REPORT—1873.
of works on logarithms, as being their inventor, and, if the logarithms were
decimal, that of Briggs (and perhaps also that of Vlacq) in addition. Thus
the ‘ Arithmetica’ of 1628 will be found in bibliographies and library cata-
logues usually under the name of Napier or Briggs, and very rarely under
that of its author Vlaeq. If to this confusion be added the additional com-
plication produced by the varieties of ways in which the names of the three
leading logarithmic calculators were spelt, it may easily be inferred how
incorrect and confused is all the information to be obtained from bibliogra-
phical sources, whether general or mathematical*. It is on this account
that we have thought it desirable to give the titles of these works in full in
§ 5. Perhaps it would not have been possible to see so many of them
in any one other country exeept this; and the value of a number of such
titles eollectively in the same list is much greater than the sum of their
separate values when scattered in different works.
Art. 4. While on the subject of bibliography, it is proper to remark that,
in the cases where the full titles have been given in § 5, there is a certain
sight want of uniformity in the way in which they have been transcribed,
viz. in the use of capitals, the writing at full length of words abbreviated,
and the modernizing the language by the substitution of u for v or i for j,
and wee versd. Titlepages are printed partly in capital and partly in Roman
and italic characters ; and when they are transcribed wholly in Roman letters,
there arise several uncertainties. Thus it is usual in the portion printed in
capitals to replace U by V and J by I, and very often not to use a larger
letter after a full stop or for a proper name; and in copying the whole in
Roman letters it is doubtful whether to. write these as they are, or to recon-
vert them. We are inclined to think that the best plan (except when capitals
are reprinted as capitals &c., in which case no difficulty occurs) is to make an
exact copy, and not even introduce a capital letter after a full stop, although
the author would no doubt have done so himself had he printed his title-
page in Roman characters throughout. Exception must, however, be made
in the case of proper names. These rules have not been followed out com-
pletely in one or two of the earliest titles that we copied, before experience
hed taught us that in bibliographical matters the greatest attainable aecu-
racy should be invariably striven after; also one or two abbreviations have
been replaced by the words at length (such as e.g. “ serenis™” by “ sere-
nissimi” or ‘“ atq ;” by “‘atque”). Whenever, of course, any difference from
ordinary spelling is observed, it may be taken for granted that the title is so
printed in the book ; the utmost change that has been made being that some
words in a few of the titles are modernized.
The foregoing remarks apply to the titles that are transcribed at length ;
but a few words must also be said with regard to those in which only
enough is given to identify the books described without possibility of mis-
take. Wherever words are left out from the title, the omission is marked
* Even Babbage makes a bibliographical error on the first page of the preface to his
tables, where he says that ‘‘the first 20,000 were read with those in the Trigonometria
Artificialis of Briggs.” The ‘Trigonometria Artificialis’ was calculated by Vlacq, and
published by him two years after Briggs’s death, though the 20,000 logarithms ap-
pended were of course originally computed by Briggs. Any one who will look at the
title of the ‘ Trigonometria Artificialis’ in § 5 will see how easily a mistake of this kind can
be made ; and in fact an inspection of the titles of the other works of this period will show
that it would be difficult for any one who had not bestowed some attention on the history
of logarithms to assign them to their true authors. Part of the confusion that exists is
due to Vlacq’s excessive modesty, which led him on the titlepages of his works to give
quite a subordinate position to his own name compared with those of Napier and Briggs.
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 167
by dots, except between place and date, where the publisher’s name almost
invariably occurs; so that, this being understood, the separation by a comma
was considered sufficient. If the work of the Report had to be performed over
again, we should adopt a set of fixed rules with regard to the use of initial
capitals in the printing of words in titles, instead of leaving the matter to
caprice or the printer; as it is, the treatment in this respect has been fairly
uniform, but might have been better. Such details may seem insignificant; but
it is desirable that nothing should be regarded as arbitrary. With regard to
the number of pages assigned to books in § 5, there is also a certain want of
uniformity: at first we merely looked at the number on the last page, and
(having assured ourselves that the pagination was continuous) regarded that
as the number of pages, ignoring the few pages at the beginning (usually
with a roman pagination) that are devoted to preface &c.; but afterwards
we included these also. Our object merely was to give an idea of the size
of the work ; so that (except in the cases where the interest of the book was
bibliographical, when we took pains to be quite accurate) it was not thought
necessary always to count pages that were not numbered. Sometimes it
seemed desirable to give the number of pages occupied by the tables instead
of the number in the whole book; and in a few cases, where the pages were
not numbered, it was not considered worth while to count them, or even give
an estimate. It may be remarked that very frequently (we think we might
say more often than not) the pages on which extensive tabular matter is
printed are not numbered.
Art. 5, The distinction mentioned in § 2, art. 8, between works that are
and works that are not described in the Report, viz. that the names of the
authors of the former, when the works are referred to, are printed in small
capitals,and of the latter in roman characters, has been adhered to as carefully
as possible ; but it has been found to be very troublesome and unsatisfactory.
We have generally thought it sufficient to print the name in small capitals
only once in a paragraph; and when there is no risk of mistake (as in the
description of the work in question itself) the name has been printed in
ordinary roman type: the distinction will not be retained in future Reports.
Also, with reference to the meanings to be attached to the words 8vo, 4to,
&c., explained in § 2, art. 9, experience has shown that it is more conve-
nient to use these terms in their technical significations, viz. as defined by
the number of pages to the sheet; and in future Reports they will be so
used. It should be stated that, except in the case of a few books of no
bibliographical interest, these have been the meanings actually adopted.
Care was taken that this should be so in regard to all works of bibliogra-
phical interest; and in most other cases the size, as estimated by the eye,
agrees with the technical signification.
Art. 6. In § 1 it is stated that the Committee had determined to print and
stereotype certain tables of e* and e~*, and of hyperbolic sines and cosines
which had been commenced by the reporter, and that they were then in the
press. Only four pages were set up when the above statement was written ;
and shortly afterwards, when the elliptic functions (referred to further on
in art. 16) were in process of calculation, it became clear that they would
oceupy so much attention that it was not likely that the tables of e &e.
could be continued by the reporter till after their completion, and, further,
that the publication of the elliptic functions would tax the resources of the
Committee to such an extent that it was not probable that they would have
the means of printing any thing else, at all events for some time. These
tables were therefore withdrawn ; and the reporter contemplates completing
168 REPORT—1873.
them (very little more remains to be done) after the publication of the
elliptic functions, when they will probably be communicated to one of
the learned societies. The table of powers by the reporter, mentioned in
§ 3, art. 5, is entirely completed, except for the final verification by differ-
ences, which is in progress; and the printing will be commenced very shortly ;
but as it is intended to prefix to it a list of constants, with historical notices
of the calculation of each, the publication may be somewhat delayed.
Art. 7. Any one who studies the Report attentively cannot fail to notice
differences of modes of description in it. These are only verbal, and will be
seen to be unavoidable when it is considered that, as a rule, the account of
each book was written by itself on a separate piece of paper, and that not
till all had been arranged, and the Report was in print, was it easy to com-
pare the descriptions of the same table occurring in different works, and
therefore written under different circumstances. Very few of these “ dis-
crepancies” have been removed, partly because, as each description was cor-
rect, it seemed scarcely worth while to make alterations for the sake of a
fictitious uniformity, and partly because we made it a rule that, a descrip-
tion having been written in the presence of the book, it ought not to be
altered when the book was absent. Slight differences of style and manner
are inevitable in a work the performance of which has extended over the
space of two years, as experience must always continually modify to some
extent both opinions and modes of thought and expression ; of course, if the
work could be done over again with the experience already obtained, the
descriptions would be more uniform.
Art. 8. An objection might be made on the ground that descriptions are given
of some very minor works, which have not even the bibliographical interest
due to age. In answer to this it is to be noted (1) that it is sometimes as
important to know that a book does not contain any thing of value as to know
what is in it if it does, and that the reader alone should be left to decide
what is and what is not valuable; and (2) that no book is so insignificant
that in the future a correct account of its contents will not be of value.
‘‘The most worthless book of a bygone day is a record worthy of preserva-
tion. Like a telescopic star, its obscurity may render it unavailable for
most purposes ; but it serves, in hands which know how to use it, to deter-
mine the places of more important bodies” (De Morgan, ‘ Arithmetical
Books,’ page ii). Although the primary object of the Report is utility in the
present, still it is not desirable to entirely forget the wants of the future.
The difficulty the historian of science meets with consists not so much in
getting a sight of the books the existence of which he knows, as in finding
out the names of the second- and third-rate authors of the period he is con-
cerned with. Bibliographies grow more valuable as they increase in age;
and it may be predicted with confidence, that long after every vestige of
claim to represent the “state of science”? has passed away from this Report,
the list of names in § 5 will be consulted as a useful record of nineteenth-
century authors of tables. It might be thought that a less detailed descrip-
tion of unimportant books would suffice; but it is only necessary to point
out in reply, that work, unless done thoroughly, had better be left alone.
An account of all the tables in a book is absolute, whereas an account only
of those that seem to the writer worth notice is relative. Want of thorough-
ness is the thing most to be dreaded in all work of a bibliographical, his-
torical, or descriptive nature. It is this want that renders all but valueless
the greater part of seventeenth and eighteenth-century writings of this
class ; and any one who performs such work in an incomplete or slovenly
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 169
manner, merely accumulates obstructions which obscure the truth, and ren-
ders more difficult the task of his successors, who will have to be at the
pains not only of doing the work again de novo, but also of correcting the
errors into which others have fallen through his imperfect accounts.
Art. 9. With regard to the future Report on the subject of general tables
that has been’ mentioned more than once, and is intended to be supplemen-
tary to the foregoing, it may be stated that a number of additional tables
have already been described and will be included in it; but the cooperation
of others in the matter is requested. Whether the descriptions in the Sup-
plement will resemble those in this Report will of course depend on the ex-
tent of the former, as, if the number of works described be large, it may be
necessary to practise some curtailment.
It is requested also that notices of errors detected in the Report may be
sent to the reporter (see p. 12).
Art. 10, Although, as already stated, this Report has no pretensions to
completeness, still any one who notices the non-appearance of names well
known in calculation (such as that of Legendre) is asked to read the con-
clusion of § 1, the list of articles in § 3, and enough of the introductory
matter in § 2 to comprehend clearly the spirit that has directed the selection
of works included, before coming to the conclusion that the omission was not
intentional. Books such as Legendre’s ‘ Fonctions Elliptiques’ and Jacobi’s
‘Canon Arithmeticus,’ though forming separate publications, yet belong more
properly to a later portion of the Committee’s work, as they are conclusive,
not subsidiary tables; the former belongs to Division II., and the latter to
Division III. (see § 1, p. 4).
It is perhaps worth noting explicitly, that the word Report has sometimes
been used to donote the whole Report that is contemplated by the Committee,
including ‘the accounts of the Integral and Theory-of-Number tables, and
sometimes only the portion of it that will form one year’s instalment; but
the context always shows, without risk of confusion, the meaning to be
assigned.
Art. 11. It was originally intended that the list in § 5 should merely con-
tain the titles of the books described in $$ 3 and 4, with references to the
section and article where each description was given. But it has been found
convenient to render it in addition more of an index to the whole Report by
adding cross references, and also a few titles of papers often referred to, as
well as references to the places where certain other works or tracts (besides
books of tables) were noticed. One or two remarks that should have appeared
in the accounts of the works themselves in §§ 3 and 4 have been added
after their titles in § 5 (see Bassacr, Norte, 1844, and Napier, 1619, in
§ 5).
A table of contents is given at the conclusion of this postscript. Whether
a work of reference ever gets into use or not depends more on the complete-
ness with which it is indexed than on any thing else.
Art. 12. The following statistics will not be found without interest. The
number of separate books of tables described at length in this Report (ex-
clusive of different editions and of works only noticed incidentally) is 235, of
which only 5 are derived from second-hand sources. The 230 that have
thus come under the eye of the reporter are thus distributed among the dif-
ferent countries :—
Great Britain and Ireland .... 109 ANG. a8 dan odia tats nei 27
Germany (including Austria &c.) 66 ST QUANG 8 scedynie tastes on 8
170 REPORT—1873.
Menmarke* i208; LAF Pt a Portugal Pee ee 1
Risthy Ree. ie. eset 3 Sweden) 20at..ehd./i0000 2 1
United States’ #33. 2.2. 3 Rissiaty, 262 Saees > ee 1
Swatzerland yh: PSP AMY 2 Higypt . 2H. Oa Ae 1
eer IS eM OT i
Belgium supplying none. These figures afford no comparison between Great
Britain and other countries; but they give a fair idea of the relative table-
publication of foreign countries, or, at all events, of the relative proportions in
which their tabular works are to be found in English libraries. The numbers
of tables published in some of the chief towns are as follows :—London 94,
Paris 23, Berlin 18, Leipzig 17, Edinburgh 11, Vienna 5, Copenhagen 4,
New York 3. Of the 109 works published in Great Britain and Ireland the
following is the distribution:—England 96 (London 94, Boston 1, Ci-
rencester 1), Scotland 12 (Edinburgh 11, Glasgow 1), Ireland 1 (Dublin),
showing the paramount position of London in the publishing trade in this
country.
Art. 13. Contents oF THE REPORT THAT WAS INTENDED TO BE PRESENTED TO
THE Braprorp Mrerrine, 1873.—Owing to the great amount of space already
occupied in the present volume by the foregoing Report, it seemed desirable
to postpone for a year the Report which it was till recently intended should
be presented to the Bradford Meeting, and only to give here a brief
description of the work performed in 1872-1873. This latter Report (which
is not lengthy) consists of three parts—(1) Tables of the Legendrian Func-
tions; (2) List of errors in Vuace’s ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica,’ 1628 or
1631; (3) Account of the tabulation of the Elliptic Functions.
Art. 14. The Tables of the Legendrian Functions (Laplace’s Coefficients).—
These give P(#) to n=7 from «=0 to v=1 at intervals of -01, viz. the
functions are :—
P=
Rea 9
PP? =3(32°—1),
P§ = 4(5a°—32),
Pt = 3(35v* —3027+3),
P* = 3(63a° —70a° 4 152),
P* = 1. (2312° —315a*+4 1052? —5),
P= g(4292" — 693v° + 315a°— 352) ;
and as only powers of 2 appear in the denominators, all the decimals ter-
minate, and their accurate values are therefore given. The work was per-
formed in duplicate—one calculation having been made by Mr. W. Barrett
Davis, and the other under the direction of the reporter, by whom the two
were compared, the errors corrected, and the whole differenced. As the
accurate values of the functions were tabulated, the verification by differ-
ences was absolute. A short introduction on the use of the tables in inter-
polation was written by Prof. Cayley, who has also made drawings of the
curves y=P"(x) over the portion calculated.
Art. 15. The List of Errors in Vlacq’s ‘Arithmetica Logarithmica’ (1628
or 1631).—It seemed very desirable that a complete list of the errata in
Vuacq, 1628 or 1631, should be formed for the convenience of those who
have occasion to employ ten-figure logarithms. No less than five copies of
this work have been continually in use in the calculation of the Elliptic
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 171
Functions (see next article) during the last year; and it is the ten-figure
table chiefly used. Besides this, the errata in Vrace are known with more
certainty than are those in Vzea, 1794.
This list had only been partially formed when it was determined to post-
pone the Report; and it is believed that the year’s delay may possibly result
in its being made more complete. It is proposed to add a list of errata also
in Dopson’s ‘ Antilogarithmic Canon,’ 1742 (§ 3, art. 14), and perhaps to
consider the subject of errors in tables generally.
Art. 16. The account of the Tabulation of the Elliptic Functions.—In Sep-
tember 1872 it was resolved to undertake the systematic tabulation of the
Elliptic Functions (inverse to the Elliptic Integrals), or, more strictly, of
the Jacobian Theta Functions which form their numerators and denomi-
nators.
The formule are :—
2Ku
a= 1— 2q cos 2 + 2q* cos 4v—2q° cos 6a+...,
9 2k _1 2K
7 Hertha
it te oe 25h
= - (24° sin #—2q4 sin3xe+2q4 sinda—.. );
2Ka _ k' 2K T
6, z ra ae H—( «+ 5)
k! ee 9 BS
=(z) (297 cos w+ 294 cos 3u+2q 4cos5a+...),
0.2K te (242)
Tv
=k? (1+ 29 cos 2x + 2q* cos 4a+4 29° cos 64+...) 5
so that
sin am 2K © =60, = > —
vie vis Tv
cos am 2Kx =6, — + ai
Tv Tv
a am SE og Me. Ke
Tv T qv
mK!
q being, as always, e *; and the tables, when completed, will give
9, O,, 9,, O, and their logarithms to eight decimals for
w= 1°, 2°,...90°, k=sin 1°, sin 2°, ...sin 90°.
The tables are thus of double entry, and contain “eight tabular results for
each of 8100 arguments, viz. 64,800 tabular results. The arrangement will
be so that over each page k shall be constant ; and at the top of each page
certain constants (7. ¢. quantities independent of x), such as
K, K’, J, J, K, i, (@)' Pi (p)* q &e.,
172 REPORT—1878.
and their logarithms, which are likely to be wanted in connexion with the
tables, will be added. K and K’ (complete elliptic integrals) were, as is well
known, tabulated by Legendre, and published by him in 1826.
For the performance of the calculation of © and ©, (©, being deduced from
©) 8500 forms were printed and bound up into 15 books (550 in each, with a
few over). Each book, therefore, contains forms for the calculation of six
nineties, viz. from /=sin a? (say), v =0°, to k=sin (a°+5°), 7=90°. Similar
forms for the calculation of ©, and ©, were printed and bound up into 15
other books.
The work has been in active progress since the beginning of October 1872;
and eight computers have been engaged from that time to the present, under
the superintendence of Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., and the Reporter. About
three quarters of the work is now performed—60 having been calculated com-
pletely, and its accuracy verified by differences, and ©, being nearly finished
also, while very considerable progress has been made with ©, and @,,.
It is intended that the tables, which will be completed, it is hoped, by
February 1874, shall form a separate work, and that they shall be preceded
by an introduction, in which all the members of the Committee will take part,
—an account of the application of the functions in mathematics generally
being undertaken by Professor Cayley, of their application in the theory of
numbers by Professor H. J. 8. Smith, and of their use in physics by Sir W.
Thomson and Professor Stokes, while the account of the method of calcula-
tion &e. will be written by the Reporter.
The magnitude of the numerical work performed has not often been ex-
ceeded since the original calculation of logarithms by Briggs and Vlacq,
1617-1628 ; and it is believed that the value of the tables will be great.
After the circular and logarithmic functions there are no transcendants
more widely used in analysis than the Elliptic Functions ; and the tables will
not only render the subjects in which they occur more complete, but will also,
to a great extent, render available for practical purposes a vast and fertile
region of ‘analysis. Apart from their interest and utility in a mathematical
point of view, one of the most valuable uses of numerical tables is that they
connect mathematics and physics, and enable the extension of the former to
bear fruit practically in aiding the advance of the latter.
Art. 17. Norm on rue Centrestmat Division or tHE Drcree.—In the note
on p. 64 we have expressed an opinion that Briggs and his followers, by
dividing centesimally the old nonagesimal degree, showed a truer appreciation
of how far improvement was practicable, or indeed desirable, than did the
French mathematicians who divided the quadrant centesimally. On reading
Stevinus’s ‘ La Disme,’ the celebrated tract in which the invention of decimal
fractions was first announced, we found that the centesimal division of the
degree was there suggested. The following extract from ‘La Disme’ is
taken from pp. 156 and 157 of ‘ La Pratique d’Arithmetique de Simon Stevin
de Bruges’ (Leyden, 1585), near the end of which ‘La Disme’ appears in
French. The first publication of the tract, as far as we can find, was in
Dutch, under the title “ De Thiende....Beschreven door Simon Stevin van
Brugghe ” (Leyden, 1585).
« Article V. Des Computations Astronomiques.—<Aians les anciens Astro-
nomes parti le circle en 360 degrez, ils voioient que les computations Astro-
nomiques d’icelles, auec leurs partitions, estoient trop labourieuses, pourtant
ils ont parti chasque degré en certaines parties, & les mesmes autrefois en
autant, &c., & fin de pouuoir par ainsi tousiours operer par nombres entiers, en
choissisans la soixantiesme progression, parce que 60 est nombre mesurable
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 173
par plusienrs (stc) mesures entieres, 4 scauoir 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30,
mais si l’on peut croire l’experience (ce que nous disons par toute reuerence
de la venerable antiquité & esmeu auec |’vlilité commune) certes la soixan-
tiesme progression n’estoit pas la plus commode, au moins entre celles qui
consistoient potentiellement en la nature, ains la dixiesme qui est telle: Nous
nommons les 360 degrez aussi Commencemens les denotans ainsi 360(0) *
& chascun degré ou 1(0) se diuisera en 10 parties egales, desquelles chascune
fera 1(1), puis chasque 1(1) en 10(2), & ainsi des autres, comme le semblable
est faict par plusieurs fois ci deuant”’}.
At the end of the ‘ Appendice du Traicté des Triangles,’ which concludes
the fourth book of the ‘“ Cosmographie” in Albert Girard’s edition of
Stevinus’s collected works, Leyden, 1634 (p. 95), there occurs the following
note :—
“ Notez.—J’ay descrit un chapitre contenant la maniere de la fabrique &
usage de la dixiesme progression aux parties des arcs avec leurs sinus, & de-
claré combien grande facilité en suit, comparée 4 la vulgaire soixantiesme
progression, de 1 deg, en 60(1), & 1(1) en 60(2), &c. laquelle matiere pour-
roit ici sembler requerir sa place: Mais veu que les principaux exemples
d’icelle se prennent des cours moyens des Planetes & autres comptes communs
avec iceux, qui jusques ici ne sont point encores descrits, nous avons appliqué
le susdit chapitre derriere le traicté d’icelles Planetes, 4 scavoir en U’ Appen-
dice du cours des Planetes.”
To which is appended the following note by Girard :—* Ceste promesse ne
se trouve pas avoir esté effectuée.”
Steichen, in his ‘Mémoire sur la vie et les travaux de Simon Stevin’
(Brussels, 1846), p. 52, says that Stevinus promises a chapter on the manner
of constructing a table of trigonometrical lines ‘‘ pour la division de la cir-
conférence en parties décimales.” ‘This is not correct, as the quotation
from ‘ La Disme’ shows that Stevinus’s idea was to divide the degree cen-
tesimally.
Briggs, in the ‘ Trigonometria Britannica’ (p. 1), states that he was led to
divide the degree centesimally by the authority of Vieta (“‘ Ego verd adductus
authoritate Viete, pag. 29. Calendarij Gregoriani, & aliorum hortatu,
Gradus partior decupla ratione in partes primarias 100, & harum quamlibet
in partes 10. quarum quelibet secatur eidem ratione. Atque he partes cal-
eulum reddunt multé facilorem (sic), & non minus certum”). We have
looked through ‘Francisci Vietz Fontenzensis....Relatio Kalendarii vere
Gregoriani....1600” (Colophon: ‘ Excudebat Parisiis....,’ 40 leaves, as
only the rectos are numbered, 1 to 40) without finding, either on p. 29 or
elsewhere, any mention of the division of the degree. Without venturing to
say that there is nothing of the kind in the book, it is not unlikely that the
wrong work of Vieta’s is referred to, as we have found many other seven-
teenth-century references inaccurate; and this is rendered more probable
when it is remembered that the ‘Trigonometria Britannica’ was published
after Briggs’s death.
But granting, as is likely, that Briggs did derive the idea from Vieta, it is
very probable that the latter himself obtained it from Stevinus, and perhaps
adopted it without acknowledgment, as unfortunately it is to be feared that
* Stevinus encloses tne exponential numbers in complete Circles, for which we have
throughout substituted parentheses, for convenience of printing.
+ This refers to the preceding articles of the ‘Disme,’ where the decimal division is
explained.
174
REPORT—-1873.
Vieta was bigoted enough to suppress the name of a heterodox author,
as in all likelihood Stevinus was. There can therefore be but little
doubt that the original suggestion for the centesimal division of the degree is
contained in the sentence quoted from ‘ La Disme;’ but we intend to inves-
tigate the question further, and endeavour to decide it conclusively.
such
Contents or Parr I. (1872 anp 1873) or tHE Report on MarHEMATIcAL
§ 1. General Statement of the Objects of the Committee
TABLES.
eee ePeEEe TT OL See ee ereeee errr irri)
§ 2. General Introduction to the present Report, and explanation of its Arrangement
Art.
and Use.
(Report includes general tables; see also conclusion of § 1)
(Object of the Report). aiisienecaceaelsiasie tines dabidce sates an ielsle ie neteuens ape
(Previous works on the subject of tables; bibliographies, &ec.) .............+-
(Mode of arrangement of the Report; meaning of a prefixed asterisk)
. (Explanation of the marks, conventions, terminology, &c. adopted)
(The particular edition of a work described is arbitrary) .............-2.ses0e0e8
. (The tables themselves, and not merely their titlepages, have been ex-
DIMM)! Geass seiesouehecs poses ous enn cthte crs anese hea webeng et eeeesob cen telantet mee memeare
(Why certain names are printed in small capitals, or enclosed in square
brackets; seo, alsoxs/Gyarte O)) orisavecdacenst ath «nite vac berateaent ag iiamedtine sor
. (Use of the words 8yo, 4to, &e.; see also § 6, art. 5)
fe (hibrariesiconsuilted) Sco.5.ceses-ceasucsessesstives vanccetten cents sence ecueeersmaenserens
. (The Report is imperfect ; information is asked from persons possessing
knowledge on the subject of tables)
12. o(Dwarverse tables, Omitted.) nice demomseiisisnans eo seicdsse-aemoasb ob ries bophddCameaanrnel
13. (Errors in tables) ,
14. (‘The works are described from inspection ; care taken in preparation of the
Report)
eee ee cere er eeteee
BSo © NOobotr
Leer eee err Cee Perec reer er er eee ere rer rr
Peer Teer Cee eee rere eee eee reer eer eee ee errr rer Teer rere rere Terre rrr cerry
§ 3. Separate Tables, arranged according to the nature of their contents; with
Art. 1. Multiplication tables
Introductory Remarks on each of the several kinds of Tables included in the
present Report.
. Tables of proportional parts
pp LADIES: OT QUATLET RQ UMTEDS sacsccocesdoscuscsccsssaseesssens-euerpesse- sere eeeneeeene
. Tables of squares, cubes, square roots, and cube roots
. Tables of powers higher than cubes..............02-ceccecceecceceseenscseceeeeecess
. Tables for the expression of vulgar fractions as decimals
+ Lables of reciprocals). aicvctsenes «fades awis shina deszexacudyasiesshinye sip peeeee emeeee
. Tables of divisors (factor tables), and tables of primes
. Sexagesimal and sexcentenary tables ................0sceeseceneeececeeeesenresens ees
. Tables of natural trigonometrical functions
. Lengths (or longitudes) of circular arcs ............:0cceecceeeeeeeneeeeceeeeeneenees
12. Tables for the expression of hours, minutes, &c. as decimals of a day, and
for the conversion of time into space, and vice versd
13. Tables of (Briggian) logarithms of numbers
14S EablesiotantilomarmitnManern. cares «asi-<-caseas sc eteersncsuscheee cere eneeees
15. Tables of (Briggian) logarithmic trigonometrical functions
16. Tables of hyperbolic logarithms (viz. logarithms to base 2°71828....) ......
. Napierian logarithms (not to base 2°71828 ....) ...scceseseeseceeseeecereeeees fis
. Logistic and proportional logarithms
19, Tablesof Gaussian logarithms. ,...f-.ssve-tuntcweonsvars aces: ease bere deepest
20. Tables to convert Briggian into hyperbolic logazithms, and vice versd
21. Interpolation tables
22. Mensuration tables
23. Dual logarithms
PORN eer ee teem ae ee ena HERE eee ee eee eee OE eneersererereee
Peete eee nee eee ernennee
BS oma ob OPS
ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 175
Page
PPE Mathematical’ constants, :jncicas setksect cove «deevevas ode dba oe beter ots dvevcqecdyscceussees 81
25. Miscellaneous tables, figurate numbers, &c. ........ a Ren ee ones atte dicns 83
§ 4. Works containing Collections of Tables, arranged in alphabetical order ............ 85
§ 5. List of Works containing Tables that are described in this Report, with references
to the section and article in which the description of their contents is to be found 143
§ 6. Postscript.
Art. 1. (Report is that presented to the Brighton Meeting enlarged) .................. 164
2. (Alterations since the Brighton Meeting; Report has been made more
Pili rapitical i. ae. cde scececske «co taeacceta te Oeheebe “M-Sat = de Mabe Stace ene ke 164
3. (Reasons for introducing bibliography ; inaccuracy of previous writers) ... 165
4, (Explanations with regard to the list of books in § 5) ............:s.ceeeseeen ees 166
5. (Supplementary explanations referring to § 2, arts. 8 and 9) ...............065 167
6. (The tables of hyperbolic antilogarithms and powers calculated by the Re-
MILAM GAIL, ANOS. HuuEicO) Ii. Asa. .ctedskla. diakeln stags. deceesone. Abd. dane its eke 167
7. (Slight differences in mode of description observable in the Report) ......... 168
8. (Why some unimportant works are included) ...............ssecsecesecseseeeees 168
9. (The Supplementary Report on general tables)...............cceceeceeeeeeereeees 169
10. (Some books omitted intentionally, as belonging more properly*to subse-
quent@Reports) 0:2, 2 ivssccavcevessce. .cuuds sect aur. sv dsecentotondevc ct sedebewneee donee 169
11. (§ 5 has been made an index as well as a list of titles of books) ............... 169
12. (Statistics with regard to books described in the Report from inspection) ... 169
13. (Contents of the Report that was intended to be presented to the Bradford
URSIHITRT)y Se ak 352 Ra Cayo Rab Ange DHSS Se Heri SR ERB SMB aite ce BonRoneHn Sea dSotcioa 170
14. (The tables of the Legendrian functions)..................eeceeeeesseceeeeeeeeceeeene 170
15. (The list of errors in Vuace, 1628 or 1631) ..... cece ce seee cece eceee eee eceeeees 170
16. (The account of the tabulation of the elliptic functions) ..............:eeseeeeee 171
17. (Note on the centesimal division of the degree)......c01..ceereeecpesecseeeeeseeees 172
ERRATA.
Page 6, line 8 frum bottom, for Poggendoff read Poggendorff.
Page 13, line 25 from top, for multiplication read multiplication table.
Observations on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of
Coal in Mines. By Witu1am Fira, of Birley Wood, Leeds.
[A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed i extenso.]
Tne object of this paper is to submit for’ consideration some matters touch-
ing the history of the now more than ever absorbing subject of cutting coal
in mines by mechanical means.
It is intended to avoid all technical and scientific symbols, and to convey,
in the most simple manner, whatever information is at my command, and to
give, from practical experience, spread over long periods, the results derived
therefrom, and to show that machinery can be, and is now, applied to the
purpose equally to the advantage of the masters and of the men.
I am aware that there are now several distinct modes of doing the work,
and doing it well; but it is not in my power to give any reliable information
upon the competitive status which the successful machines hold towards
each other. I shall therefore have in this paper to confine myself more
particularly to the introduction of coal-cutting machinery driven by com-
pressed air, and the results obtained from the invention now known as
“‘ Firth’s Machine,” which was unquestionably the first that ever succeeded
in reducing to actual practice the cutting of coal in mines.
176 REPORT—1873.
When the severe nature of the employment of manual labour for the
“hewing of coal” and the great dangers which beset that occupation are
taken into thoughtful consideration, it is not surprising that much sympathy
should have been always excited in favour of the coal-working class. All
men who have thought upon the subject have felt a strong desire that some
mechanical invention might be made to ameliorate the severe conditions
of that occupation.
The statistics of the comparative longevity of the working classes show
that the duration of the lives of colliers (apart from special accidents) is
lamentably low ; and as respects the “ hewers”’ or ‘“ pickmen,’”’ whose work is
the most exhausting, they must especially, and in a large degree, contribute
to, and account for, much of that average shortness of life.
The really hard work of a colliery falls upon the ‘“‘ hewers ;” and the effect
is very often to stamp the men with the mark of their trade, and (through
the constrained position of their daily toil) to alter and distort many of the
more delicately formed persons ; and it is due to these men as a class, that
their weaknesses should be mildly judged, having regard to the scanty oppor-
tunities hitherto afforded to them for intellectual culture, and the unequal
sacrifices which press so heavily upon them in the most valuable and im-
portant branch of all our industries.
In 1862 some experiments were commenced at West Ardsley, by the em-
ployment of compressed air, to devise a cutting-instrument in the form of a
pick. It was to be moved on the face of the coal, striking in a line and with
such force as would cut a groove deep enough to admit of its being easily
taken out. In the early stages there were many and serious discouraging
symptoms discovered, but on the whole we were well satisfied that they could
be overcome by perseverance. We set about to improve the defects, and
battle with the difficulties as they presented themselves; and after some
years we were in possession of a coal-getting machine, in combination with
air-power, more suitable for the performance of the work which we had
undertaken than we ever anticipated.
Much surprise has been expressed at our slow progress during the ten
years which have elapsed since the time when we believed that we had
reached success ; but when the peculiar circumstances which surround the
work, and the nature of the work to be done, are taken fairly into account,
the delay need not excite any astonishment. It was in many respects a
new field to be broken up, and accompanied by numerous uncertainties.
It has been more or less so with most of the important inventions which
have gone before it; indeed the steam-engine, whose origin cannot be
traced back, was known as a prime mover nearly two centuries before it was
sufficiently developed to be recognized as a valuable machine.
We found, however, that we had to contend against much prejudice and
resistance. Those who were the most likely to be benefited by it were
either openly hostile or manifested an unfriendly disposition towards the
machine ; and, added to these embarrassments, we failed to obtain any
general encouragement from those who exerted the greatest influence over
the coal-mining interests of the country; but through the recent dearness
of coal, the attention of the country has been drawn to the subject, the
public mind has been powerfully impressed with the necessity for some
improved means of working the mines, and coal-cutting machinery is now
universally looked to as the principal source from which relief is to come.
From the altered feelings of the miners as to the number of hours which
they consider to be sufficient for their labour, and with the new restrictions
ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 177
imposed by the Legislature, there is found already at every colliery in the
country a deficiency of hands to fully man the works now existing ; and coal
has in consequence been scarce and exorbitantly dear. The consumption
goes on increasing; the continual enlargement of the old iron works, and
the establishment of new ones in new districts, indicate a progressive en-
‘largement in the demand for coal, unless a general collapse in our foreign
commerce should, through high prices of production, come upon the country.
New coal-fields, too, are sought after ; and new pits are being opened in
every direction, at enormously increased cost; and the question naturally
arises, where are the colliers to come from to work them, or how is the in-
creased demand to be reasonably met ?
Labourers from the agricultural districts, and other unskilled workmen,
may, through the influence of high wages, be drawn off to the mines ; but it is
only in “ dead work” where they can be immediately made use of, and only
a small proportion make efficient “ pickmen.”
By the figures laid before Mr. Ayrton’s Committee of the House of Com-
mons (1873), it appears that whilst in 1871 the average production of’ coal
per man was 313 tons, it had declined to 296 tons per man in 1872. There
had been an increase in the number of persons employed at and about the
mines of 42,184. The disturbance which has been felt in nearly every other
occupation seems to me to be traceable to the heavy drafts which have been
made upon them to supply the increased demand for the coal and iron trades
during the last two years ; and until stagnation and distress in those trades
shall throw back the suffering masses again upon their former employment,
that disturbance must continue, with all its inconveniences.
A continuance of the present high price of coal may, and I think will,
make itself felt upon the foreign commerce of this country. I believe, how-
ever, that a decided modification of these evils may be found in the speedy
adoption of coal-cutting machinery.
Other countries are now turning their attention vigorously to the employ-
ment of coal-getting machinery ; and it is not improbable that foreigners will
in this matter take the lead in the employment of an invention purely English.
In the earlier stages of machine-working, it was contended that the “‘ creep ”
of the floors, and the natural disturbances of the strata, would so dislocate
or break the joints of the air-pipes, that continuous working could not be
carried on, the out-put would be intermittent and uncertain, and the cost
of compressing the air would be enormous and overwhelming to the
enterprise.
The coal-owners during many years had had an unprofitable trade, and
they were unwilling to encounter a considerable outlay of new capital in the
work incident to the new system, which, indeed, had not then met with the
approbation of the engineers and mining agents, whilst the mining inspectors,
with very few exceptions, were decidedly mistrustful of the success of the
invention. There were others who believed that the heavy work which they
saw done would knock the machines to pieces, and that they could not stand
the test of long-continued service.
Five or six years, however, of regular and daily working of the machines
at Ardsley and elsewhere have effectually negatived these fears.
In the collier class there is a good deal of professional pride or esprit de
corps, especially amongst the older men. . There was, and still is, an unwill-
ingness to give up the social dignity which they consider belongs to the
expert wielder of the time-honoured pick ; and some of them have been heard
to declare that they ‘ would adhere to the ancient implement to the end of
1873. N
178 REPORT—1873.
their days,” and that they would not come down to the humiliating condition,
as they considered it, of ‘ following the machine.”
This feeling on the part of the colliers has hindered the progress of machine-
work more than any other difficulty; and although it yet prevails to some
extent, the more intelligent and the younger men evince a contrary disposi-
tion towards it.
The leaders of the miners of Yorkshire and other districts have seen the
machines at work, and, whilst they express without hesitation their un-
qualified approbation of them*, state frankly that their object will be to gain
as full and fair a share of the advantage of the machines as possible for their
own class. Now nobody will object to that claim ; and when we come to con-
sider the figures of cost, as we presently shall do, it will be seen that that
claim has not been neglected.
Intelligence is what is required to manage these machines, rather than
muscular development ; and any youth of ordinary capacity can in afew days
acquire sufficient knowledge to do so.
In 1761, Michael Menzies, of Newcastle, obtained a patent for cutting coal
in mines; and that is the earliest evidence which we have of any attempt
having been made to produce a mechanical coal-cutter; and his plans, having
regard to the time at which they were produced, were remarkable for their
ingenuity.
Menzies’s specification is also remarkable in other respects, as showing that
it was his intention to make use of the “ Fire Engine” as his motor, which
engine had about two years previously, through the improvements of Watt
and of Smeaton, attained only to so much perfection as to become a doubtful
rival to the “ Water Miln,” the “ Wind Miln,” and the “ Horse Gin.”
By the power of one or other of these agents, he proposed to give motion
to a heavy iron pick, made to reciprocate by means of spears and chains,
carried down the pit, and with wheels and horizontal spears, on rollers,
extended to the working places, and there to “shear” the coal exactly as it
is now performed. In the same patent Menzies included a “ Saw” to cut
the coal ; and although nothing came from his labours, he displayed so much
mechanical knowledge as to have deserved success; and I am satisfied that
his failure was due to the absence of an eligible power, and not to his defi-
ciencies as a mechanic.
During the hundred years that followed these events, more than a hundred
other patents were applied for and granted ; but I cannot find, amongst them
all, that there was one machine that approached nearer to success than the
invention of Michael Menzies.
This fact is not referred to in disparagement of the patentees ; for there were
many curious devices, ingeniously arranged; but I name the matter to show
* Extract from Letter received by the West Ardsley Company, dated 22nd February,
1872, from Mr. Philip Casey, of Barnsley, Secretary to the South Yorkshire Miners’
Union.
“Will you allow me to express the gratitude which I feel for the pleasure I derived in
visiting your works yesterday ?
“For many years the name of Mr, Firth has been known to me in connexion with his
efforts to lighten the heavy labour incidental to mining operations ; and the coal-bearing
machine that I saw in operation at the West Ardsley Works altogether exceeded my
expectations.
“‘T cannot see how the coal could possibly pay to be got by hand ; its extreme hardness,
coupled with the thinness of the seam, would make it utterly impossible. This machine
is the best friend the collier ever had ; but it will be our business to obtain a full and fair
share of its benefits to our people.’
ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 179
that the object excited much continuous interest, and that amongst so many
miscarriages our mechanics were still hopeful.
Amongst these devices may be enumerated the “Saw,” “Catapult,”
“ Battering-Ram,” “ Plough,” ‘* Rotary Wheel,” “‘ Endless Chain,” ‘“ Planing
Machine,” and many others.
There had been no suitable power made known for driving the machines ;
and it was to that cause, in my opinion, that so many failures and disap-
pointments were attributable. The steam engine, even since it attained to
its most perfect form, is in itself insufficient for the purpose, because steam
eannot be produced near to the place where the work has to be done, nor can
it be carried long distances in effective condition, by reason of its rapid con-
densation. Moreover an escape of exhaust-steam could not be permitted in
the coal-mine, because of its tendency to soften and bring down the roof, the
difficulty of maintaining which is already the most serious and troublesome
part of the coal-mining operations.
Hydraulic power might in certain cases be, and has been recently tried ;
but its unfavourable conditions exceed its advantages for the purpose of
cutting coal in mines, and may be put aside from present consideration.
But in compressed air, so far as the moving power is concerned, every
requirement is found, and from the date of the experiments at West Ardsley,
in 1862, the question was undoubtedly settled.
The elastic property of air under compression is an old and well-known
power ; but until these experiments had been completed, its value was but im-
perfectly understood, and its future beneficial influence, being dormant, was
unappreciated.
The engine for compressing the air is generally placed on the surface, near
to the top of the shaft; a receiver is fixed in close proximity thereto; and the
air is taken from the compressor to the receiver, which is 30 feet in length
and 4 feet in diameter.
The pressure is generally of about three atmospheres.
Iron pipes of sufficient area are laid on from the receiver to the bottom of
the shaft, and there, being split into smaller sizes, are led in every needed
direction through the roads and passages-of the mine, exactly as the gas and
water services are laid on in our towns.
At the entrance into the working places, a screw joint and stopcock are
fixed to the iron air-pipe, at which point an india-rubber hose, fifty or sixty
yards in length (as the length of the “‘ benk” may require), is screwed on ;
the other end of the hose is attached to the cutting machine; and when all is
in readiness, the tap at the receiver is turned on, and the air rushes down,
and throughout the whole service of pipes.
The air does not require to be forced from the receiver, for by its own
elasticity it is carried forward at a velocity depending on its own pressure.
Apparently it loses none of its power by distance, excepting the frictional
retardation; and machines are working nearly two miles distant from the
air-engine without any material loss of force.
I have no doubt that if the compressor were stationed in Bradford the
air would travel, and the machines work by it at Ardsley (ten miles) as
satisfactorily as they now do by the engines on the spot.
In calculating the cost of compressed air, I am satisfied that, although
it is admittedly not a cheap power relatively to steam, yet there is no
other available power so cheap or so good for the purpose of cutting coal in
mines; and I invite attention to the figures on this head which follow, viz. :—
With well-constructed machinery, 45 to 50 per cent. of the steam power
N2
180 REPORT—1873.
exerted will be given off in compressed air at a pressure of three atmospheres
into the receiver; and this pressure is sufficient for effectually working our
machinery. Some makers of air-engines offer to guarantee a much larger
product ; but I base my calculations upon the smaller yield.
If the pressure be much higher than three atmospheres, there is a material
increase in the frictional heat disengaged by the act of compression. The
engines do not work with the same ease ; and the result of our experience is,
that at 45 to 50 lbs. the maximum point of economy is attained. Calculating
its cost and taking a 40-horse-power boiler to consume 10 Ibs. of coal per
hour per horse-power, or 2 tons of engine-coal per day of 11 hours at 8s. per
ton at the pit, we have a cost of 16s. per day.
Itis safe to calculate that this boiler will drive an engine of sufficient power
to supply four coal-cutting machines, being 4s. per day for each machine ;
and each machine will cut more coal in any given time, and do it in a better
manner, in an ordinary seam, than twelve men ; it follows, therefore, that the
equivalent of a man’s power exerted for a whole day in cutting coal, can be
obtained, out of compressed air, at a cost in fuel of but 33d.
Assuming, then, that this comparison is an accurate one, it may be taken
for granted that the objection to its use, on the score of cost, has no founda-
tion in fact.
And considering its many and remarkable properties for employment in
coal-mines, it may be useful to dwell briefly on some of those peculiarities.
It is a power from which, and under no circumstances, can an explosion
happen ; and when an escape from the pipes takes place, it is more or less
beneficial, and not in any wise injurious.
At every stroke of the piston the air is discharged from the cylinder of the
coal-cutting machine at a temperature of about freezing-point, compressed
into one third of its natural bulk ; and it has been found that the working of
only one machine has had the effect of reducing the temperature at the
working face of the coal to the extent of two degrees Fahrenheit.
Occasionally ice is formed at the escape valves of the machine, but with-
out producing any inconvenience to their working.
Now any thing that will reduce the temperature of a mine is an inesti-
mable advantage. It diminishes the risk of explosion ; and by increasing the
velocity of the ventilating current, it renders the occupation of a miner more
tolerable and more healthy.
In very deep mines the internal heat will probably be found to be so great,
that manual labour of an exhausting character will be unendurable; but the
discharge of so large a volume of pure air at a pressure of three atmospheres,
and at freezing-point, must exert a powerful and highly favourable influence
under the peculiar circumstances.
It is well known that the lives which are lost through eaplosions of gas are
far more numerous from the effect of the damp which follows the fire, than
from the fire itself ; and in many cases nearly, if not all, the sufferers have
died from this cause.
There has been no case of fatal explosion within the experience of our
machine workings; and therefore we have no facts upon which absolute
reliance can be placed ; but we draw the inference, that where coal-cutting
machinery may be in general use in any mine where an explosion of gas does
take place, those who escape from the first effect of the fire will most pro-
bably be saved from death.
At a lamentable accident in this neighbourhood about two years ago,
when thirty-one lives were lost, twenty-five or twenty-seven of those unfor- —
ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 181
tunate persons died from the effect of the “ afterdamp;” two of the men
were fortunately saved by a very small current of air which was turned upon
them by a brattice cloth, and which supported life until they were released*.
If the compressed air-pipes had been in those workings at that time, it is
not unreasonable to believe that very few, if any, of those twenty-five men
would have succumbed. :
There is another useful purpose incidental to the use of coal-cutting
machinery in mines, which it is worth while to notice ; and that is in the
event of a pit being on fire.
At West Ardsley a ‘‘ blown-out shot” ignited the gas and set fire to the
goaf. It extended to the face of the coal, and had taken strong hold of it,
and the whole pit was in the greatest danger. ‘There is a large water-tank
at the surface for supplying the boilers and coke-ovens ; and the manager
promptly connected the air-pipes to the water-tank and turned the water
into the fire.
In less than an hour the fire was completely extinguished without any
serious damage. On a previous occasion the same colliery was on fire, and
had to be closed up. That fire cost us many thousands of pounds. It hap-
pened before the introduction of the coal-cutting machinery.
Compressed air is also becoming extensively used for “‘ hauling,” and with
very great advantage. Small engines can be set up wherever convenience
or necessity may require; they are portable and removable at a trifling
expense, and are available where no other mechanical power for traction
can be obtained.
It is also valuable for pumping water, and “ drilling” the holes where the
coal has to be “ blasted,” or broken down by the hydraulic press.
Enough has been said respecting this remarkable and diversified power to
justify the expectation that it is the key to vast and important improvements
upon the present system of working coal; and bearing in mind that the
wealth, the power, and the greatness of this mation depend primarily upon
an abundant supply of coal, it is hardly possible to overrate the importance
or overvalue the advantage which this power places at our disposal.
_ I now turn to the consideration of the machine for cutting the coal, which
has for several years been employed at West Ardsley without any interrup-
_tion. [A model and photograph were exhibited to show its form and con-
struction.| The weight is about 15 ewt. for a machine of ordinary size, its
length 4 fect, its height 2 feet 2 inches, and the gauge 1 foot 6 inches to
2 feet; it is very portable and easily transferred from one benk to another.
The front and hind wheels of the machine are coupled together in a similar
manner to the coupled locomotive engines. The “ pick,” or cutter, is double-
headed, whereby the penetrating power is considerably increased.
The groove is now cut to a depth of 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches at one course,
whereas by the old form of a single blade we had to pass the machine twice
over the face of the coal to accomplish the same depth. ‘The points are loose .
and cottered into the boss; so that when one is blunted or broken, it can be
replaced in a few moments. This dispenses with the necessity of sending the
heavy tools out of the pit to be sharpened, and is an immense improvement
upon the old pick.
When all isin readiness for work, the air is admitted and the reciprocating
* Tam informed that at the accident at the Oaks Colliery, near Barnsley, in 1866,
forty-five persons were found dead in one place, and seventy in another, who were lost for
want of a little air; and it is believed that many more at that time died from the same
cause,
182 REPORT—1873.
action commences. It works at a speed of sixty to ninety strokes per minute,
varying according to the pressure of the condensed air, the hardness of the
strata to be cut, or the expertness of the attendant.
As to the quantity of work in “long wall,” a machine can, under favour-
able circumstances, cut 20 yards in an hour to a depth of 3 feet; but we
consider 10 yards per hour very good work, or say 60 yards in a shift.
This is about equal to the day’s work of twelve average men ; and the per-
sons employed to work the machine are one man, one youth, and one boy,
who remove and lay down the road and clear away the debris.
The machines are built so strong that they rarely get out of working con-
dition. Some of those now working at West Ardsley (and other places) have
been in constant use for three or four years.
At that colliery there are about eight machines in use. One of the seams
is so hard and difficult to manage that it could not be done “ by hand,”
and the proprietors had to abandon, and did abandon it; but now, by the
employment of the machines, it is worked with perfect ease.
It is a thin cannel seam with layers of ironstone ; and the machines now
“hole” for about 1200 tons per week.
The groove made by the machine is only 2 to 3 inches wide at the face,
and 12 inch at the back; whereas by hand it is 12 to 18 inches on the
face, and 2 to 3 inches at the back.
Thus, in thick seams worked by hand, the holing is often done to a depth
of 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet, and the getter is quite within the hole that he has
made ; and where the coal does not stick well up to the roof, or where there
is a natural parting, there is great difficulty and danger from “ falls of coal.”
Referring to a section, it was observed that the angle of the cut is such
that, when the upper portion falls off, there is nothing for it but to pitch
forward into the road ; but by machine “‘holing” with a perfectly horizontal
groove, when the coal falls it simply settles upon its own bed, and has no
tendency to fall forward.
The cost of applying coal-cutting machinery is an important part of the
question ; but it frequently happens that at old-established collieries there
may be surplus power, which can be utilized; but supposing that every thing
has to be provided new, then the following may be taken as an approximate
estimate of the necessary outlay :—
2 Boilers at £500 each .............-5- £1000)
PO PSC AT OOS. cise si joi sis wit Shas sheen 1250 |
10 Machines at £150 each.............. 1500 > say £5000
Pipes, receiver, fixing and sundry weed 1250 |
EL EO a 1K
This outlay would provide all necessary power and plant for the regular
working of eight machines, with two in reserve; and estimating that each
machine will cut 60 yards per day, the product in a 4-feet seam would be
85 tons per day, or per week say 500 tons per machine; and 8 by 500 is
4000 tons.
Now at this rate of expenditure and work done, an allowance of 2d. per
ton would in three years liquidate the entire outlay.
But there is no reason why the machines should be restricted to a single
shift daily ; indeed it is far more economical to work double shifts: there is
no additional outlay of capital; and so far as depends upon the machinery,
the output might be easily increased to 8000 tons per week.
We now come to the relative costs of cutting the coal by hand and by
ON COAL-CUTTING MACHINERY. 183
machine ; and the following figures may be taken as representing a somewhat
fayourable state of things for the latter.
The seam is the “ Middleton Main” or “Silkstone bed.” The depth of
the mine is 160 yards, and the coal 4 feet thick ; there are two bands of shale,
with a thin layer of coal between them.
The bottom portion is not always wholly merchantable ; but when it is so,
it yields one ton and a third of a ton per running yard. For the purpose,
however, of this comparison, I take 60 tons only per day (which would come
out of 45 yards of machine working).
( Tuer Cost py Hanp.
30 men cutting, filling, timbering, drilling, road-
laying, blasting, and all other needful wor
ready in the corves for the “ hurrier” at 4s.53d. £ s. d.
Per LOM ares meet ies Yc pene oeen scree 13 8 9
By Macuine.
ised:
d°machine man at Sai Ga Oe SPio
1 youth at 5s. 6d. 0 5 6
Atteat | 1 boy at 38. 6d. } Ceara be mstie ahenoe
= 3 men cleaning and packing at 8s.4d... 1 5 O
** 6 men filling 10 tons each man, at 8jd. } Seat a
DCL (OMe a iro ited acts Ss sare
Bnd 3 men timbering at 6s. 10d. ...-...... 1 0 6
e ene. | 3 men drilling and blowing down at 106
OBOE) le Wes a CE OV a
3 portion of cost of steam and air 55} (ith ob
POMRe ada, eta ee eso ae ee 1
Maintenance at ld. perton .......... 0 5 0
Redemption of capital at 2d. per ton.... 0 10 0
—— 813 9
Difference, in money, in favour of the machine, or
TS, eh eeBOr COM ce as ths Cae 2 OR se oye eee 415 0
£13 8 9
L Ti eee
The two boys, it will be noticed, are taken as equal to one man; and for
the purpose of another comparison, I will assume that by hand labour
thirty men will produce 60 tons per day, or two tons each, and that by
machine seventeen men will produce the same tonnage. The saving in
number, therefore, would be twelve men to every 60 tons, or upon a colliery
getting 4000 tons per week, the saving would be 132 men.
I do not wish to press this point further than to say that the cost of
dwellings properly to domicile one half of this number would exceed the first
outlay of capital in furnishing a first-class colliery with first-class machinery
for cutting the coal; and it must not be forgotten that the equipment of the
hand-cutters in tools forms a considerable item in the first cost of fitting up
a colliery.
It has been generally supposed that our machines are not adapted for
“ pillar and stall work.”
That their locomotion “ is not so easy as that of men,” must of course be
184. REPORT—1873.
admitted ; but they are removed from place to place with little more trouble
than a full corve; and we have recently made some careful experiments, which
prove that there is in “ pillar and stall” about equal advantage as in “long
wall;” and we can confidently assert that the opinions upon the difficulty of
moving them which have been recently enunciated from high quarters are
quite erroneous.
The items of cost in working contained in the previous account, are con-
fined to the actual working of the two systems, up to the coal being put into
the corves, and ready for being sent out of the pit, all the other work,
whether for hand or machine, being exactly alike.
But there are some advantages in the machine over the hand-working,
which pertain to the general mine account, viz. the larger size of the coal
brought out, and an increased average price, on sale, with a saving in timber
and other stores.
I may say in conclusion, that, putting aside entirely all reduction in
the cost of getting out the coal, there are other and collateral considera-
tions which are, in my opinion, sufficiently important and worthy of your
attention.
IT now recapitulate the most prominent points upon which I rely, viz. :—
1. Greater safety for the workmen from falls of coal and roof.
2. Less danger of explosion, and greater security against the effect of
choke damp.
3. Less strain upon the physical powers of the labourers, and great
amelioration in the hard conditions of their employment, conse-
quently adding to the comfort and length of their lives.
. Saving from destruction much of the most valuable of all our com-
modities.
. Saving of timber and other materials employed in mining.
. Increased control over production, enabling sudden demands to be
suddenly met.
. Preparing for other important improvements in mining, without any
addition to the first outlay, such as drilling, hauling, and pumping.
. The peculiar adaptability of the means set forth for working the very
deep seams of coal, without which it is very doubtful whether they
can ever be profitably worked.
9. Greater saving of time in opening new pits, and quickening the
means of such becoming remunerative.
oOo Fs Oo
Considering the vast extent of the trade in coal and the stupendous con-
sequences of a short and insufficient supply, and believing that the speediest
adoption of coal-getting machinery is desirable, I have myself made some
efforts to stimulate that object by an offer of a premium of £500 for the best
machine that could be produced; but those efforts have failed, and I now
submit that the question, being of national importance, is one specially
entitled to the support and encouragement of the Government, and that the
British Association is preeminently the channel through which that object
could be obtained in the best manner.
ON MALTESE FOSSIL ELEPHANTS. 185
Concluding Report on the Maltese Fossil Elephants.
By A. Leirn Avams, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Ir is with much pleasure I have to announce to the members of the Asso-
ciation that my labours in connexion with the fossil elephants of Malta have
been completed.
It is now thirteen years since these researches were begun ; and although
frequently interrupted by other engagements, the importance of the subject
has all along stimulated me to make every sacrifice within my power in
order to accomplish a work of so much scientific interest. The monograph
descriptive of the elephantine remains discovered by me was read at the con-
cluding meeting of the Zoological Society of London in June last, and will
appear in due course in the Transactions of the Society.
It is illustrated by a mapand 21 Quarto plates. In my Second Reportin 1866,
drawn up immediately after the termination of my explorations, I was dis-
posed towards an opinion that the exuvie I had brought together represented
only one form of Elephant, distinct from any known member of the genus,
and somewhat under the ordinary dimensions of the living species. Subse-
quent examinations, however, showed, in addition, that there were good
indications of the presence of the two dwarf elephants previously determined
by Dr. Falconer and Mr. Busk, from the collection made by Capt. Spratt in the
Zebbug Cave in Malta in the year 1859.
1st. With reference to the largest species. This is represented in my col-
lections by nearly the entire dentition and many bones of an elephant which
varied in height between 64 and 7 feet. The last figure, however, represents
the maximum proportions as far as I have been enabled to determine from
my own specimens and from all other remains hitherto discovered in the
island. It is apparent, therefore, that the largest Maltese fossil elephant
was, comparatively speaking, a small animal. The dental specimens I have
assigned to this species are very numerous, and for the most part perfect.
They represent every stage of growth, from the first to the last, showing what
appears to me an unbroken series of molars which display the progressive
succession of ridges characteristic of the subgenus Zowodon, and are therefore
allied to the existing African elephant, from which, however, they differ not
only in relative dimensions, but also in well-marked specific characters.
The ridge-formule of the deciduous and true molars of this species seem
to me to stand thus * :—
Milk-Molars. True Molars.
ox |x Gx + x 8—9 x3: x 8-9 x:x10x:x12-13 x.
From these figures it will be apparent that the nearest alliance as regards
the ridge-formula would be to the gigantic Lowodon meridionalis, whilst the
’ erown sculpturing of the molars resemble the same in Elephas antiquus ; but
they do not agree in further particulars with other species excepting the
Elephas melitensis, to which I will refer presently. With reference to the
skeleton generally, the majority of the characters of the long bones are more
in keeping with the African than the Asiatic elephant.
The presence of this larger species of elephant, in conjunction with the
dwarf forms, was pointed out by Dr. Falconer, and subsequently by Mr.
Busk; but their specimens were much too fragmentary to allow of specific
determination, a want, however, which is amply supplied by the materials
collected by me.
* x stands for talons.
186 REPORT—1873.
In the choice of a name for this proboscidian I have been prompted by
considerations purely incidental, inasmuch as the gap or rock-fissure from
which I obtained the most perfect specimens of its teeth and bones is situ-
ated in the immediate vicinity of a remarkable megalithic structure supposed
to have been built during the Phoenician occupation of the Maltese Islands.
I have accordingly named this new species the Elephas mnaidriensis.
2nd. The dwarf species named Llephas melitensis by Falconer and Busk is
well shown in my collection by many important bones, besides what appears
to me to be the entire dental series. This species seems to have varied con-
siderably in size ; indeed it would appear to link the two extremes represented
by the Llephas mnaidriensis and the smallest form, Hlephas Falconert. The
majority of the bones indicate, however, that its average height may
have been nearly 5 feet, as previously estimated by Dr. Falconer and Mr.
Busk, from the Zebbug collection. The dentition of Hlephas melitensis, as
determined by Falconer, receives ample confirmation from the data furnished
by my collections, the ridge formula being :—
Milk Molars. True Molars.
RIO RAD TR. ERS OX. x 8-9:x ) x 9=10 x: x 12 x,
The only discrepancy between our estimates is an additional ridge in the
penultimate true molar of my specimens, which it may be observed is not a
rare occurrence in the equivalent tooth of the African elephant. It is clear
therefore that, like the larger form, the above belonged to the Loxodon
group, with a ridge-formula almost identical to that of Z. mnaidriensis, ex-
cepting in the penultimate milk-molar, which in the former holds 5 instead
of 6 plates, besides talons—a distinction maintained in various specimens in
my collection.
The crown-patterns of worn molars in the two elephants are also very much
alike; but the relative dimensions of teeth of equivalent stages of growth
differ a great deal, indeed more so than perhaps in large and small indivi-
duals of any known species.
Again, we find thick- and thin-plated varieties among the last true molars
of both forms, just as obtains in other species ; so that, taken in conjunction
with the bones, it seems to me that they cannot be reconciled with sexual
or individual peculiarities of one species of elephant.
3rd. The smallest adult bones in my collection represent a very diminu-
tive elephant. In some instances, as compared with other species, there are
evidences of individuals even under 3 feet in height. With reference to
dental materials, there is some variety in dimensions of molars ascribable to
the Elephas melitensis ; but, allowing a fair margin in this respect, and taking
into consideration their absolute similarity in every other particular, it seems
to me impossible to make out a third species from the teeth alone. There
are, however, vertebree and other bones which fairly establish the pigmy
proportions of the Elephas Falconeri of Busk ; at the same time there is no
difficulty in arranging a graduated series of specimens, from the smallest up
to the largest bones ascribable to the Hlephas melitensis.
But whilst the differences in size between the two dwarf forms are not so
great as usually obtains between large and small individuals of living species,
there is aremarkable dissimilarity in this respect between the largest specimens
representing the Hlephas mnaidriensis and the smallest of Hlephas Falconer: ;
indeed the estimated height of the former shows an elephant nearly three
times as tall as the latter, thus displaying a range much exceeding any
known instances of individual variation among recent and extinct species.
ON MALTESE FOSSIL ELEPHANTS. 187
I am thus particular to record these facts in order to show what appears to
me evidence that the dwarf forms were not females or small individuals of
Hlephas mnaidriensis, although the latter was, comparatively speaking, a small
species, and agreed, at all events, with Zlephas melitensis in many important
particulars. Unless, therefore, a far greater variability of species existed in
those times than at present, after making every allowance for size and other
characters, I see no avoiding the inference the materials force on us, viz.
that there lived in the Maltese area two, if not three, distinct species of
elephants different from any known forms. It is necessary to say a few
words with reference to their associated fossil fauna. In the first place, all
the elephantine forms have been found in the same deposits, and usually in-
termingled. Along with them we find bones and teeth referable to the Hip-
popotamus Pentland: and H. minutus. ‘The former has been met with in great
abundance in the island, whilst only a few teeth and other portions of the
skeleton of the latter have turned up. Here again we observe a great varia-
bility in dimensions ; indeed in this respect these two riverhorses resemble
the large and pigmy forms of the elephants; and although the former have
been found in a fossil state in Sicily and Crete in conjunction with other
mammals, this is not the case with the giant dormice and large extinct swan,
which have hitherto turned up nowhere out of Malta. I may state that the
Reptilian remains found by Admiral Spratt and myself in union with these
quadrupeds and birds have not, as a whole, been critically examined ; but, in
consideration of the importance of the subject, 1 am in hopes of seeing this
accomplished soon.
The mollusca found in connexion with foregoing represent several recent
species, which have been already noticed in my first Report for 1865.
It must be apparent, therefore, that this (for the most part) unique fossil
fauna, restricted to a small mid-ocean island, presents several interesting
contrasts with reference to the Mammalia in general, and elephants in par-
ticular, which frequented Europe during late geological epochs. For example,
between Rome and Sicily we find remains of the Hlephas primigenius, Elephas
antiquus, and Elephas meridionalis. In the caves of Sicily traces of the
African elephant have been discovered, and also molars, barely distinguish-
able from those of the Asiatic species, and which, under the name of Hlephas
armeniacus, are traceable eastward into Asia Minor, in the direction of the
present habitat of the living species. It looks, indeed, as if the eastern
basin of the Mediterranean had been at one time a common ground where all
these extinct and living elephants met, and whence, with other animals,
they have disappeared or been repelled to distant regions.
In fine the importance of late discoveries in this area, and the circumstance
that the explorations have been hitherto restricted to isolated points along
the shores and islands of the great inland sea, promise well for future re-
searches ; indeed I might be permitted to say that if one quarter of the super-
fluous zeal and energy of the rising generation of English geologists were
directed towards the ossiferous deposits of Southern Europe and Northern
Africa, we should not have long to wait for novelties equally interesting with
any yet produced.
In conclusion, I beg once more to express my deep obligations to the
British Association for the valued assistance extended to me not only during
the prosecution of the explorations, but also with reference to the illustration
of the various and interesting materials I have described at length in my
memoir, of which this is but a brief abstract.
188 REPORT—1873.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ramsay, Professor
Guixiz, Professor J. Youne, Professor Nicot, Dr. Bryce, Dr.
Artuur Mircue.t, Professor Hutt, Sir R. Grirritu, Bart., Dr.
Kine, Professor Harkness, Mr. Prestwicu, Mr. Hueuss, Rey.
H. W. Crossxey, Mr. W. Jotty, Mr. D. Mitnz-Hotmeg, and Mr.
PENGELLY, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining the existence
in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders, of indicating on Maps their position and height above the
sea, as also of ascertaining the nature of the rocks composing these
blocks, their size, shape, and other particulars of interest, and of
endeavouring to prevent the destruction of such blocks as in the opi-
nion of the Committee are worthy of being preserved. Drawn up by
the Rev. H. W. Crosskezy, Secretary.
Tue Royal Society of Edinburgh has appointed a Committee for the special
examination and description of Boulder or Erratic Blocks in Scotland ; and it
will therefore not be necessary for this Committee to include Scotland in its
inyestigations.
Throughout England and Wales boulders and groups of boulders are
scattered, among which the work of destruction is constantly going on.
Groups of boulders are removed from the fields and built into walls; large
boulders are frequently blasted ; and during these operations the signs of ice-
action are either rendered obscure or entirely removed.
The geological importance, however, of obtaining the exact facts respecting
the distribution of travelled boulders is increasing with an extended knowledge
of the very complicated character of the phenomena of the glacial epoch. The
dispersion of boulders cannot be traced to one single period of that great epoch.
Prof. Ramsay has pointed out that transported blocks have travelled in
some instances over land higher than the parent beds from which they
have been derived, thus affording support to the theory that oscillations of
the land took place during the one great glacial period, which would neces-
sarily be accompanied by a series of dispersions of boulders*.
The distances of the boulders from the rocks from which they were de-
rived, the heights over which they have passed and at which they are found,
the matrix (if any) in which they are imbedded, whether of loose sand,
gravel, or clay, will form elements in determining at what period in the gla-
cial epoch their distribution took place.
As the dispersion of boulders cannot be traced to one single period,
neither can it be referred to one single cause.
The agency of land-ice, the direction in which icebergs would float during
the depression of the land, the power of rivers in flood to bring down
masses of floating ice, must be taken into account.
It will not be the office of this Committee to offer theoretical explanations,
but to collect facts, although the bearing of these facts upon debatable geo-
logical problems may from time to time be not unjustly indicated.
While the dispersion of boulders can neither be traced to one single
period nor referred to one single cause, in some cases boulders distributed at
different periods.and by different causes may have become intermixed. This
possibility, of course, largely adds to the complexity of the problems in-
volved, and to the difficulty of assigning to various isolated boulders and
groups of boulders their definite place in a great series of phenomena.
The following circular has been distributed by the Boulder Committee of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh :—
* Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. yol. xxix. p. 360.
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 189
f If there are in your Parish any Erraric Buocks or Bounpers,—i. 0. Masses of Rock
evidently transported from some remote locality, and of a remarkable size, say containing
above 10 cubie yards—i. e. about 20 tons,—please to answer the following Queries :—
QUERIES. ANSWERS.
1. What is name of the Parish, Estate, and
Farm on which Boulder is situated,
adding name of oes 3 of Estate,
and Tenant of Farm?
to
. What are dimensions of Boulder, in
length, breadth, and height, above
ground ?
3. Is the Boulder, in shape, rounded or
angular ?
4. If the Boulder is long-shaped, what is
direction by compass of its longest
axis ?
;
5. If there are any natural ruts, groovings,
or striations on Boulder, state—
(1) Their length, depth, and number
(2) Their direction by compass ......
(3) The part of Boulder striated, viz.
whether top or sides ............
6. If the Boulder is of a species of rock
differing from any rocks adjoining it,
state locality where rock of the same
nature as the Boulder occurs, the dis-
tance of that locality, and its bearings
by compass from the Boulder ?
7. What is the nature of the rock com-
posing Boulder, giving its proper Geo-
logical or Mineralogical name, or other
description ?
|
t
|
|
Bf Boulder is known by any popular 1
}
}
|
name, or has any legend connected
with it, mention it.
9. What is the height of Boulder above
the sea ?
10. If Boulder is indicated on any map,
state what map.
11. If Boulder is now, or has been, used to
mark the boundary of a County, Parish,
or Estate, explain what boundary.
12. If there is any photograph or sketch of
the Boulder, please to say how Com-
mittee can obtain it.
13. Though there may be no one Boulder
in your Parish so remarkable as to
deserve description, there may be
groups of Boulders oddly assorted ;
if so, state where they are situated, and
how grouped. Sometimes they form
lines more or less continuous,—some-
times piled up on one another.
14. Ifthere are in your Parish any ‘‘ Kames,”
or long ridges of gravel or sand, state
their length, height, and situation.
,
190 REPORT—1875.
It is proposed by the Committee to issue a similar circular, with some
modifications, to Secretaries of Field-clubs and local Geological Societies in
England and Wales, and others who may be willing to assist in their work.
The Committee would especially invite the cooperation of the various
field-clubs of England and Wales, whose members, in their various excur-
sions, enjoy singular opportunities of becoming acquainted with the boulders
of the country.
Cuarnwoop-Forrst BovLDErs.
The railway-cutting at Hugglescote, approaching Bardon Hill, passes
through an immense number of striated and polished boulders. Mr. Plant,
of Leicester (who has imvestigated the boulders of this district, and furnished
us with considerable information), describes this cutting at Hugglescote as
30 feet deep. The drift-gravel is a hard cemented mass, with hundreds of
erratics, at all heights, sticking not on their longer faces, but sometimes on end,
distinctly proving that the ice melted in situ, and left the materials to find
their own bearings. One, of which he saw the fragments, had to be blasted
to get it out, and was estimated by the engineer to weigh 10 tons.
All the boulders (except one, a peculiar millstone-grit) were derived from
the Charnwood-Forest range, the most travelled from a distance of 30 miles,
the nearest about 2 miles.
Some of the boulders were upwards of 5 tons in weight, and were striated
and polished frequently on more than one side. Many were angular and
subangular. ‘They were very irregularly dispersed through an unstratified
matrix of sand and clay.
The whole distance from the vast accumulation in the cutting to Bardon
Hill, the nearest point of Charnwood, a distance of about 2 miles, is covered
with trails of boulders.
The jagged edges of the Bardon-Hill rock, 854 feet above the sea-level,
indicate the way in which boulders would be broken off, supposing the hill
itself covered with ice.
During some part of the glacial epoch Charnwood Forest was evidently a
centre from which highly glaciated boulders were distributed.
Mr. Plant reports that a great south front of igneous rock has been broken
down and distributed, east, south, and south-west, 10, 15, and 20 miles, in
direct lines.
An area of 10 miles N.N.W. and 20 miles §.8.E. and 8.W., is covered
with boulders derived from Charnwood Forest, from 2 cwt. up to 10 tons.
Centuries of cultivation (he adds) have been occupied more or less in clear-
ing the surface of these boulders. They are still found in great numbers, 2
to 3 feet deep ; but the surface-boulders are found in the walls of village
houses, churches, farm-houses, and other old structures, all over the county.
Four large blocks from the railway-cutting at Hugglescote have been
removed, and placed in the grounds of the Leicester Museum. One of these
is a fine example of a polished rock, and is full of ice-grooves. Its dimen-
sions are :—6 ft. high, 3 ft. 2 in. broad (or thick), 3 ft. wide ; weight nearly
4tons. It consists of “porphyritic greenstone” from Charnwood Forest, grey
felspathic base (dolerite), with crystals (; to $ on face) of quartz. Through
long chemical action in the drift the felspar has been decomposed, and left
the crystals standing out all over the surface, except on the polished side.
The other three blocks are nearly of the same size and composition.
It is intended to remove other blocks to the museum-grounds for preser-
vation.
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 191
Charnwood Forest and other Boulders, beneath marine sands and gravels,
357 feet above the sea.
At the base of Ketley grayel-pit, near Wellington (Shropshire), is a bed
of very fine sand, containing a remarkable group of large angular and sub-
angular boulders.
The sands and gravels extend to heights of from 25 to 30 feet, and yielded
13 species of mollusca, chiefly in fragments.
Cardium edule, Linn. Dentalium ? (very worn).
echinatum, Linn. Turritella terebra, Linn.
Cyprina islandica, Linz. Natica greenlandica, Bech.
Astarte borealis, Chemnitz. : Buccinum undatum, Linn.
sulcata, Da Costa. Trophon truncatus, Strom.
Tellina balthica, Zinn. Nassa reticulata, Linn.
Mactra solida, Linn.
It will be observed that only one of these species is extinct in British
__-waters, viz. Astarte borealis.
Throughout the sands and gravels waterworn pebbles are found, with
oceasional masses of larger size, composed of the same material as the larger
boulders beneath.
Beneath the marine sands and gravels some of the boulders are 8 feet by
5 feet, and their sides are planed very smoothly, and they have a subangular
shape.
Out of 100 specimens, 80 per cent. consist of Permian sandstones from
the immediate neighbourhood.
From the immediate neighbourhood also there are boulders of
Mountain Limestone. Silurian Limestone.
Old Red Sandstone. Greenstone,
The travelled boulders consist of
Various granites, both red and grey (very numerous), probably from Cumberland or
Scotland.
Rocks of Charnwood Forest, from a distance of 50 miles. ”
ee? eee
One remarkable feature of this group of boulders is the intermixture of
boulders from the neighbourhood with those that have travelled from different
points of the compass, the whole group being buried beneath marine sands and
gravels, at the elevation of about 300 feet above the sea, The elevation of
Ketley village is 357-319 feet above the sea.
For the boulders of the neighbouring drift of the Severn valleys reference
may be made to an exhaustive paper by Mr. G. Maw (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xx. p. 1380).
The Geological Section of the Birmingham Natural-History Society has
commenced a systematic examination of the boulders of the Midland district,
and has favoured the Committee with the following preliminary Report :—
« The Ordnance Map of the neighbourhood of Birmingham has in the first
place been divided by ruled lines into squares of one inch side, each square
enclosing a representation of one square mile of country. Enlarged maps, on
the scale of six inches to the mile, were prepared from this; and on these
enlarged maps the boulders were to be marked by circles, the number of
concentric circles representing the diameter of the boulder in feet. For col-
lecting specimens of the rocks of which the boulders are composed, bags were
made, and numbered corresponding to each square on the map; at the same
time notes were to be made of any specimen that was of unusual interest.
For - at Crrnton Cor cee é fot wnenaee
ow bbe pore “. Whe. fe (FG 2 4.289.
. 192 REPORT—1873.
Finally, it was proposed to represent, on a duplicate map, the number, of
boulders and character of the rocks by disks of colour, so that a graphic re-
presentation of the boulders, as to position, numbers, and kind of rock, would
be given, and the source of any class of boulders (as granite e. g.) could be
readily traced. It was further proposed to number a rough relief-map of the
district, so as to judge in what way the configuration of the country had
affected the distribution of the boulders. Z
*‘ Considerable information has been already obtained, of which the follow-
ing is a summary :—
‘A difficulty was experienced in defining the term boulder ; and, after
much discussion, it was thought that for the district the following definition
would serve :—‘ A boulder is a mass of rock which has been transported by
natural agencies from its native bed.’ Respecting the size at which a rock
may be called a boulder, it is thought better not to assign any very definite
limit. Some specimens, measuring not more than a foot in some one direc-
tion, are both transported from great distances and glaciated, and fairly fall
into the category of boulders.
“ Distribution of the Boulders.—The district has not as yet been sufficiently
examined to report fully on this question. There are unquestionably some
places where great accumulations have taken place, separated by country
with only a few boulders per square mile. The places where large accumu-
lations (a thousand or so) occur, as far as has yet been ascertained, are :—
1, Tettenhall. 2. Bushbury. 3. Cannock.
Places where moderate accumulations (60 to 100 or 200 per square mile)
occur :—
Penkridge. Stone.
Shareshill. Shifnall.
Brewood. Harborne, near Birmingham.
Codsall. Bridgenorth.
“The south@rnmost point where boulders have been observed is on the left .
of the lane leading from Bromsgrove Station to the town, the most eastern
at Rugeley, where only two or three occur.
“Tt has been suggested that the cause of accumulations of boulders is due
to the stranding of an iceberg at the place in question ; but at present there
is not sufficient evidence to form any satisfactory opinion as to the cause of
the accumulation. .
“The boulders of the Midland district seem originally to have been im-
bedded either in clay or drift-sand ; but it is quite the exception to find them
in situ. They seem commonly to be disturbed by farmers in the district, who
meet with them when ploughing. If the boulder be of manageable size, it
is at once dug up and turned into the nearest ditch, or sometimes is buried,
or, it may be, carried to the road-side, and broken up for road-purposes,
Farmers find some of the boulders useful as horse-blocks, or for protecting
gate-posts or the corners of walls and buildings; and it is thus that many
are preserved. If the boulder be a very large one, it is generally left in the
ground, and the plough carried on each side of it. Since a plough may pass
over a boulder several times before the men will take the trouble to remove
the obstruction, there is every chance for the boulder to become marked by
striations ; and hence much care is required in forming a judgment as to the
origin of strie which may be found upon it. It should be mentioned here
that. boulders gradually ‘ work up’ to the surface. This is due no doubt to
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OR BOULDERS. 193
the denudation which is taking place. In a field near Red-Hill Farm, be-
tween Stafford and Stone, is one of the largest boulders of the district. This
boulder was not noticed until some twenty years ago, when it was found to
obstruct the plough, although still some depth underground. The obstruc-
tion became more and more serious each year, until a few years ago, when,
because of this impediment, the field was turned from an arable to a grazing
one. At this time the boulder rises about one foot above the level of the
field. The part exposed measures 6 feet by about 5, and evidently extends
under the turf for a much greater distance. This boulder is composed of
the grey granite of which so many other boulders in the neighbourhood
consist.
“The boulders consist mainly of white granite and of felstone; but many
other rocks occur, as may be seen by inspecting the specimens collected. In
the neighbourhood of Tettenhall there is a large percentage of granite boul-
ders ; but south of here there are very few indeed, the boulders being mainly
of felstone. In the Harborne district only one granite boulder has been
observed, while there are a hundred or so boulders of other rocks. The
contrast between the immense accumulation of granite boulders in the
Wolverhampton district and their comparatively small size and rarity around
Birmingham is most remarkable.”
Granite Boulder on the shore of Barnstaple Bay, North Devon.
Mr. Pengelly reports the following particulars respecting this boulder,
upon which the raised beach on the northern side of Barnstaple Bay rests.
So far as it is visible, it measures 75x 6x3 ft., and therefore, containing
upwards of 135 cubic feet, cannot weigh less than 10 tons.
It appears to have been first described by the late Rev. D. Williams, in
1837, as “ flesh-coloured, like much of the Grampian granite” and, in his
opinion, “neither Lundy, Dartmoor, nor Cornish granite.”
In 1866 Mr. Spence Bate, believing that very similar granite existed in
Cornwall, expressed the opinion that it was not necessary to go so far as
Aberdeen, but that some transporting power must have been required to
bring it even from the nearest granite district, and that it without doubt
occupied its present position before the deposition of the beach resting
upon it.
Recently Mr. Pengelly has been informed that red granite occurs on
Dartmoor, and therefore has no disinclination to say, with Mr. Bate, that we
need not go as far as Aberdeen to find the source of the boulder, although it
nevertheless may have come from the Grampians.
Assuming that the block may have come from Lundy, twenty miles towards
the west, or down the valley of the Torridge from the nearest point of Dart-
moor, thirty miles off as the crow flies, its transport in either case must have
been due to more powerful agencies than any now in operation in the same
district. Between Barnstaple Bay and Lundy there are upwards of 20 fathoms
of water, a depth at which no wave that ever entered the Bristol Channel
would probably ever move the finest sand.
Again, as the highest part of Dartmoor is but 2050 ft. above mean tide,
a straight line from it to where the boulder now lies would have a fall of
1 in 77 only, down which the Dartmoor floods would certainly not transport
a rock upwards of 10 tons in weight.
The foregoing considerations apply, of course, with at least equal force to
the hypothesis of any more distant derivation.
That such a block might haye been brought from Dartmoor down the Tor-
1873. 0
194 REPORT—1873.
ridge to the place it now occupies, had the actual heights been the same as
now and the climate as cold as that of Canada at present, will be ob-
vious to every one conversant with that country. It is only necessary to
suppose that the block fell from a cliff into a stream where the water was at
least sometimes of sufficient depth that when frozen round the mass the latter
would be lifted by the buoyancy of the ice. On the breaking up of the ice
the floods would transport the rock so long and so far as its ice-buoy was
capable of supporting it; and though the distance accomplished in a single
journey might, and probably would, be inconsiderable, by a repetition of the
process season after season it would become equal to any assigned amount.
Blocks of great size have been in this way transported in Canadian rivers ‘for
100 miles or more. Again, were Lundy Island capable of generating a
glacier and launching it into the sea as an iceberg, there would be no diffi-
culty in supposing that any number of boulders might be transported thence
to the mainland of Devon.
In short, whether the boulder came from Dartmoor or Lundy or any more
distant source, it must have been transported by ice-action; and hence its
presence where it now lies is good evidence of a climate in this country much
colder than that which at present obtains.
From the foregoing considerations it will be seen that, if the mass were
ice-borne, the land could not have been higher above the sea during the era
of the boulder than it is at present. There is nothing, however, to preveut
its being lower. The boulder may have been dropped by an iceberg on or
near the spot it now occupies when that spot was covered with deep water.
The only stipulation to be made on this point is, that the land which
furnished the mass was capable of supplying it with an ice-body.
For example, if the boulder was derived from Dartmoor, Devonshire as a
whole could not have been any thing like 2050 ft. lower than at present; for
that would have been to submerge the entire country, whereas there must
have been subaérial land sufficient to form the ice-raft whose buoyancy
floated the boulder.
It is hoped that the steps proposed to be taken by the Committee will
enable the boulders of one or two districts at least to be systematically
mapped, and the existence of other such remarkable boulders as the granite
boulder on the shore of Barnstaple Bay to be recorded. Any attempt at
systematic classification, however, must necessarily be deferred until the facts
are more largely accumulated.
Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland, drawn up by Dr. Bryce,
-F.G.S. The Committee consists of Dr. Brycr, F.G.S., Sir W.
Tuomson, F.R.S., Gro. Forses, F.R.S.E., and Mr. J. Broven.
THe conjecture hazarded in last Report, that “the state of quiescence”
therein referred to was “not likely to continue,” received a speedy fulfil-
ment. In a postscript to the Report, which was not, however, forwarded
in time to be read at the Meeting, it was noticed that “ while the Associ-
ation was in Session at Brighton an earthquake of considerable severity ” had
‘occurred in the Comrie district ;” and in April of the present year another
ON-EATHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 195
took place in the south of Scotland. Of these an account has now to be
given.—A few days after the occurrence of the earthquake, the Member of
Committee resident at Comrie communicated with me; and having seen in
the newspapers notices of other places where the earthquake had been felt,
I entered into correspondence with gentlemen in the various districts. In
the end of September I visited several of these districts, and made inquiries
in person. From the facts thus made known to me the following account
has been drawn up; but before proceeding with it, I have to express my
obligations to the following gentlemen for the kind manner in which they
complied with my request, and communicated at once all the observa-
tions made by themselves, and facts collected from others on whom they
could depend :—Dr. Campbell and Rev. James Muir, Bridge of Allan; Rev,
William Blair, Dunblane; Mr. J. Stirling Home-Drummond, of Ardoch,
Braco; Dr. William Bryce and Mr. David Cousin, both from Edinburgh, the
former happening to be at Crieff at the time, and the latter at Bridge of
Allan; Mr. P. Macfarlane and Mr. J. Brough, Comrie; Sir David Dundas,
of Dunira, Comrie; and Rev. J. E. H. Thomson, B.D., Blair Logie. Dr.
Campbell’s evidence is especially valuable, as he resided for some time in
Upper Strathearn, where earthquakes are of frequent occurrence and were
often experienced by him, and as he is in the constant practice of accurate
every-day observations of meteorological instruments for a register kept by
him at the usual hours. Mr. Macfarlane and Mr. Brough at Comrie possess,
of course, like advantages. Mr. Cousin also had the advantage of previous
experience in observations of this kind, an earthquake having occurred while
he was resident in Algeria. A similar advantage was enjoyed by the Rev.
J. KE. H. Thomson; at the instant when the shock occurred he was in con-
versation in his own house with two ladies, one of whom had resided for
some years in Valparaiso, where earthquakes are of very common occurrence,
as is well known.
The earthquake took place on the 8th of August, 1872, at from 8™ to 10™
past 4 o’clock in the afternoon. The day was warm and perfectly still. In
the early part of the day there had been alternations of a cloudy and clear
sky ; but at the hour mentioned only the western part of the horizon showed
cloudy masses, the sky overhead and eastwards was free from cloud of any
kind. The barometer rose slightly during the day, from 29-800 at 10 a.m.
to 29-975 at 10 p.m. The maximum temperature of the day, in the shade,
was 64°-3 F.; the minimum temperature of the night preceding was 53°°8 F.,
of the night following 51° F. No perceptible change in the temperature or
character of the atmosphere as to wind and cloud took place after the shock.
The successive phases, according to almost all the observers, were :—a
noise or sound, loud, heavy and rumbling; a shock with a shaking and
rattling of objects; and a wave-like motion of the ground. The noise or
sound is compared to the sound of thunder, to that made by 4 heavy waggon
on a stony street, to the emptying of a cart of small stones or rubbish, to
the noise one hears when under a bridge over which a heavy train is pass-
ing. Many who were within doors supposed that a heavy piece of furniture
had fallen on the floor of an adjoining room. A clergyman was standing on
the hearthrug in his study, and, hearing a sudden noise or crash, imagined a
chimney-stack was falling, and rushed instantly into a position of safety.
Finding this surmise incorrect, he referred the noise to the fall of a ward-
robe in the next room. This surmise also proving incorrect, he went imme-
diately down stairs and found his servants panic-stricken. In the nursery
the nurse had rushed to the window and screamed in alarm to her mistress,
02
196 REPORT—1873.
who was in the garden. So strong, indeed, and concurrent is the evidence
on this point that no doubt can remain about it, in regard to almost all the
localities from which communications have been received ; the slight discre-
pancy among the witnesses to the fact may be accounted for by some of
them being resident on a soil composed of soft alluvium, and others upon a
rocky surface. Some of the witnesses notice that the sound was instanta-
neously repeated with even greater violence.
The shock instantly followed the noise or sound; and its occurrence was
marked in many ways: houses were shaken, doors and windows made to
rattle, suspended objects to oscillate; in one house bells were set a-ringing
with violence, in another they were strongly agitated; jugs, basins, and
water-glasses in bedrooms, apothecaries’ bottles, phials, and pots, the glasses
in the pump-room at Bridge of Allan Spa were heard to knock against one
another and seen to move; a chimney-mirror, loosely fastened, was thrown
down ; and chimney ornaments were dashed upon the floor.
Next succeeded that most appalling of all the attendant circumstances of
an earthquake, the sensation as of a heaving impulse or wave, giving the
idea of a crest and declivity, instantly followed by a double vibration, the
whole duration being from three to four seconds. The statements of the ob-
servers (as made known in the various reports) on whom one feels that most
reliance is to be placed from their previous experience, habits of close ob-
servation, and the circumstances in which they were placed at the time,
all go to show that the undulation came from a direction W. or N.W., some
observers making the direction exactly opposite by not distinguishing the
first impulse from the recoil or restoration of the wave-surface. One ob-
server, on whom the utmost reliance can be placed, had the most distinct
feeling of vertigo or dizziness arising from the undulation, a sensation so
strong that a few moments’ continuance of it would have produced nausea—
a strong testimony to the reality of the wave-motion.
The extent of country throughout which this earthquake was felt is
greater than that of any which has occurred since this inquiry was under-
taken. The limits are marked by Stirling and Blair Logie on the 8.E., and
St. Fillans on Loch Earn and Glen Lednock on the N.W. The shock was
feebler at these limits than in the parts intermediate, as Bridge of Allan,
Dunblane, Greenloaning, Ardoch, and Crieff. In regard to the breadth of
country agitated, I have been unable to determine that it extended more
than two or three miles from the valley of the Allan Water, the concussions
recorded being greater to the east of that valley than in the opposite direc-
tion, while in the village of Doune, four miles west, they do not seem to
have been noticed. The want of self-recording instruments, the extreme
difficulty of determining the exact instant of the occurrence of an event so
sudden and startling, render it impossible to attempt any definite statement
as to the progress of the wave, which, so far as instrumental indication can
serve us, seems to have emanated from near Comrie. All the observers who
have attempted to specify an exact time have, to all appearance quite inde-
pendently, agreed that it was, as above stated, at 10™ past 4" p.m. Persons
trained to observe, or self-recording instruments, alone can furnish reliable
data in such a case for indicating the time occupied in the undulation pass-
ing from point to point. The intensity upon the Comrie scale, which ranges
from 1 to 10, was of a medium force, about 4.
The geological formation of the tract of country embraced within the
above limits varies greatly. The lower part of the village of Bridge of Allan
is situated upon the alluvium of the Forth valley, in which, as far up from
ON EARTHQUAKES IN SCOTLAND. 197
the present channel of the river as the streets of the lower part of the
village, skeletons of whales have been found. The upper or northern part
of the village stands upon a high terrace of Old Red Sandstone, traversed by
whin dykes, alongside one of which its famous Spa is discharged. The front
of this terrace runs east and west, and forms the former sea-margin, hewed
out by the waves of the old estuary, against which the alluvium rests to an
unknown depth. The town of Stirling stands upon the south side of the
Forth valley, partly on alluvium and partly on a trap ridge erupted through
Old Red Sandstone. Eastwards from Bridge of Allan by Blair Logie and
Dollar, the Ochill Hills, of which the terrace at Bridge of Allan is the first
ridge or step, are composed of the same Old Sandstone, broken through and
overlain by a vast body of trap rocks, clay-stones, and porphyries, and pre-
sent a wall-like front to the Forth valley on the south. They completely cut
off the Coal-measures, tilting up the strata at a high angle, altering the coal
to the state of coke, shale to Lydian stone, and sandstone to quartzite.
Dunblane, Greenloaning and Ardoch, and the wild moorlands N.W. to
Crieff are composed of Old Red Sandstone pervaded by traps; and Crieff and
Comrie are close upon the junction of the sandstone and old slates of the
mountain-region. Glen Lednock and a large area E. of it towards Crieff are
occupied by an eruptive granite which sends veins into the slate, and whose
outer edge approaches close to the boundary of the slate and sandstone.
Whatever the cause of this earthquake may have been—masses of rock fall-
ing from the roof of a vast cavern, or a sudden impact of high-pressure
steam emanating from the nether depths—all the strata were affected by it,
and sent the awful tremor, yet with varying intensity, alike along beds of
rock and alluvial strata.
The particulars in regard to the.earthquake in the south of Scotland have
been kindly supplied by Dr. Grierson and Mr. Henrison, Thornhill, Dum-
fries, and Mr. J. Shaw, Tyrnon parish. The earthquake took place on the
16th of April, 1873, at 9" 55" p.m. A smart concussion, producing a con-
siderable sound, noise, or crash, as it is variously described, and causing a
perceptible movement in fixed objects, and an oscillation of those suspended,
was experienced in the parishes of Tyrnon, Glen Cairn, Keir, Penpont, Mor-
ton, Closeburn, and Balmaclelland. Doors and windows were made ta
rattle ; there was a sensible vibration of walls and floors in many places; and
objects near one another (as glasses and china on shelves) were knocked
together. In some cases alarm was shown by the lower animals. But the
wave or undulation was not observed with any thing like precision, except
in one case, in which a floor was distinctly seen to have such a movement,
The late hour, however, was unfavourable for observation on the part of
many persons. One only of the observers whose accounts have been fur-
nished to me had any previous experience of earthquakes. This gentleman
had resided for some time in the East. Another witness, in every way com-
petent, experienced a repetition of the sbock at Thornhill at 2" 46™ a.m. on
the following morning; but no information regarding this second shock has
reached me from any other part of the district.
198 REPORT—1873.
Ninth Report of the Committee for Exploring Kent's Cavern, Devon-
shire, the Committee consisting of Sir Cuarues Lyr.y, Bart.,
F.R.S., Professor Puituies, F.R.S., Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart.,
F.R.S., Joun Evans, F.R.S., Epwarp Vivian, M.A., Guorce
Buss, F.R.S., Witt1am Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Witiiam AysH-
FORD SANFORD, F.G.S., and WittiaM Pence ty, F.R.S. (Reporter.)
Tur Committee, in opening this their Ninth Report, have to state that, since
reporting at Brighton in 1872, the work has been continued without inter-
mission, in the manner observed at the commencement. They have to add
that whilst it is still conducted, under the Superintendents, by the same
foreman (George Smerdon), the second workman (John Farr), believing that
the Cavern work was prejudicial to his health, has obtained other employ-
ment. Though reluctant to part with so satisfactory a workman, who had
faithfully served them for upwards of five years, the Superintendents felt un-
able to press him to remain under the circumstances ; and they had the satis-
faction of engaging in his stead a man (John Clinnick) who has proved most
efficient and trustworthy.
As in former years, the cavern has been visited by a large number of
persons, none of whom, when conducted by the guide only, has been allowed
to be taken to the excavations then in progress. The Superintendents have
had the pleasure of accompanying the following gentlemen during their
visits :—Major-General R. C. Schenck, Minister for the United States of
America to England; Lord Clifford, of Chudleigh ; Sir R. Anstruther, Bart.,
M.P.; Rev. Lord Charles Hervey, Rey. G. Butterworth, Rev. Dr. Hanna,
Rey. C. N. Kelly, Rev. R. Locker, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing ; Major-General
Huyshe, Captain Lovett, Professor W. K. Clifford, Dr. B. Collenette, Professor
W. King, Dr. R. Martin, Dr. W. Sharpey, Dr. Topham, Dr. C. Williams, of
Burmah; Mons. Wyvekens, of Brussels; and Messrs. A. T. Atchison, W.
Babington, N. Bell, of Queensland, C. A. Bentinck, L. B. Bowring, W. Buller,
E. L. Corring, of U. 8. America, J. A. Curtis, R. D. Darbishire, J. M. Dowie,
B. J. M. Donne, E. A. Field, 8. Gurney, C. W. Hamilton, H. W. Haynes, of
Boston, U.8., C. Sabapathi Jyah, of Madras, J. H. van Lennep, of Holland,
C. Lister, P. C. Lovett, C. Meenacshaya, of Madras, P. H. Mills, A.G. Nathorst,
of Lund, Sweden, P. Nind, A. Nesbit, A. Pengelly, of N.W.P. India, H. C. M.
Phillips, C. H. Poingdestre, F. P. Purvis, T. Rathbone, Dr. Richardson, R. B.
Shaw, British Commissioner, Ladak, J. H. Taunton, P. Watts, and J. E. Wolfe.
A. R. Hunt, Esq., M.A., F.G.8., being about to assist in exploring a small
cave on the coast of Kirkcudbright, visited the cavern in August 1873, for
the purpose of studying the mode of working.
As in former years, live rats have been observed from time to time in
various parts of the cavern. As soon as they are seen, the workmen, having
frequently suffered from such visits, set gins for them, and sometimes succeed
in taking three or four in a week. On one occasion four (two old and
two young ones) were found in the gin together. The adults were the
extremes of the series, and, being caught by the neck, were dead ; whilst the
others were held near the middle, and still alive. Though most prevalent
near the entrances of the cavern, they have been frequently observed far in
the interior ; and very recently they carried off a candle from a spot fully
300 feet from the nearest entrance.
The Long Arcade.—The Committee stated in their last Report, bringing the
work up to the end of July 1872, that they were then exploring the branch
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 199:
of the cavern termed by Mr. MacEnery “The Long Arcade,” and sometimes
«“ The Corridor” *, and that they had expended about ten weeks’ work on it T.
The exploration of this great thoroughfare has been the work of the entire
period since that date, and itis still in progress.
The Arcade commences in the south-west corner of the ‘‘ Sloping Chamber,”
and, after alength of about 252 feet, in a west-south-westerly direction, and
almost in a straight line, terminates in the “ Cave of Inscriptions,” or ‘‘ Cul-de-
sac.” Its height is variable—being in one place not quite 10, and in others
upwards of 20 feet, the measurements being taken from the bottom of the
excavation made by the Committee. The roof and walls are much fretted and
honeycombed, except at one part not far within the entrance, where the fall
of a very large block of limestone in comparatively recent times has left edges
tolerably sharp and angular.
Omitting blocks of limestone here and there, the surface of the deposit in
the Arcade when the Committee commenced its exploration presented but few
inequalities ; and when they had completed their excavation to the uniform
depth of 4 feet below the under surface of the Stalagmitic Floor, and up to the
distance of 134 feet from the entrance, the bottom of their section was no more
than 40 inches above that at the commencement—a mean rise of no more than
1in40. At the point just specified, however, the passage was almost entirely
closed with a vast mass of limestone in situ, covered in places by thick accu-
mulations of stalagmitic matter, and rising to the roof apparently from the
limestone bottom of the Arcade. The only opening in it was a narrow
aperture adjacent to the right or northerly wall; and to gain this it was
necessary to climb to the height of 8 or 9 feet. It proved to be about 6 feet
high, to have a floor of limestone, with occasional stalagmitic incrustations,
extending for a length of fully 20 feet ; whilst very near the entrance, on the
left or southerly side, was the elliptical mouth of a smoothly eroded tunnel,
measuring 30 inches in horizontal and 27 in vertical diameter, and having
the aspect of a watercourse. Beyond this tunnel, and also on the left side,
lay in wild confusion several very large masses of limestone, which had fallen
from the roof obviously in remote times; and beyond these the deposit of
Cave-earth again presented itself, but at a higher level than before.
Assuming the tunnel just mentioned to have been a watercourse, the stream
issuing from it must have had a sudden fall of several feet ; and it may not,
perhaps, be without interest to state that on excavating the deposits in the
Arcade, deep pot-holes were found in the right wall of the cavern, having the
position and character such a fall would have produced. The tunnel, fully
60 feet long, terminates in a branch of the cavern known as “The Laby-
rinth,” and in one part of its course is so small as to render it somewhat
difficult for even a small man to force his way. It has long been known as
“The Little Oven;” and when the cavern was visited by merely the idly
curious, it was regarded as an achievement to have made its passage.
One of the results of the work during the last twelve months has been to
show that the great mass of limestone, which, as already stated, almost com-
pletely closed the Arcade, extended downwards, not to the limestone floor,
but merely to the level of the earthy deposits which choked up the passage
beneath. The‘loose and confusedly grouped blocks of limestone already
spoken of have been blasted and taken out of the cavern; the blocked-up
passage has been reopened and is now the common thoroughfare; the mass
of rock overhead has been dignified with the name of “The Bridge,” and
the excavation has been completed far beyond it.
* See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 285 (1869). tf Brit. Assoc. Report, 1872, p. 44,
200 REPORT—1873.
The Arcade is very narrow in proportion to its length. From 17 feet wide
at the entrance, it narrows to 5 feet at about 27 yards within, then expand-
ing to 11 or 12 feet, and again contracting until, at 42 yards, it is no more
than 6 feet wide, it once more enlarges to an average width of 9 feet, and
beyond the Bridge it becomes an irregular chamber, upwards of 30 feet long
and about 15 wide. The exploration has been completed to the inner end of
this chamber ; but the Arcade, again much contracted, has a further prolonga-
tion of about 50 feet before reaching the Cave of Inscriptions.
In the left or southerly wall of the chamber just mentioned is the entrance
to the Labyrinth, and of another and smaller branch. Towards these the work-
men are now directing their labours.
As the earlier explorers had made some excavations here and there
throughout the greater part of the Arcade, and thus deprived the Committee
of the opportunity of studying it before disturbed by man, the following
description, compiled from Mr. MacEnery’s manuscripts, may be of interest :—
The floor was in great disorder, strewn with rocks having between them in
certain places natural reservoirs of water, and in others loose heaps of red
marl overspreading the stalagmite and containing fossil bones. The first
rhinoceros-tooth found in the cavern was met with in one of those heaps,
A peculiarity of this passage was a profusion of a white crumbling substance
not unlike half-slacked lime. Rock after rock, on being turned over, presented
patches of it on its surface; the loose mud also contained it ; and wherever
stalagmite had formed between the rocks, it, when ripped up, exhibited large
deposits of the same matter. In the crevices of the rock and near the surface
of the marl it occurred in balls partly crushed ; several balls were found in
some instances pressed together, in others uninjured, adhering, and exhi-
biting the tapering point they had when dropped by the animal; and they
were occasionally found singly. There was no doubt that they were copro-
lites, and no difference between these feecal deposits and those of the hyena
in Exeter Change, except in the far greater size of the fossil balls. The
osseous substance was the same in both; undigested particles of bone and
enamel were detected in some of them ; and the explorers were led to the con-
clusion that the Arcade was the chosen resort of the Cavern-hyznas for
purposes of cleanliness. In this they were subsequently confirmed by a letter
from Captain Sykes to Dr. Buckland, published in the Edin. Phil. Journal*,
descriptive of a recent hyzna-cave in India, where, from the almost exclu-
sive accumulation of faeces in particular spots, the writer inferred that certain
chambers were dedicated to cleanliness. In these retreats few or no bones
occurred, “This description,” says Mr. MacEnery, “is in its details quite
applicable to Kent’s Hole. It appears to have been preserved to us in its
actual state as when occupied by the extinct hywna,...... Whilst reading
his letter, I imagined myself reading the history of another, sealed one—the
duplicate of Kent’s Cave, and not the account of a living hysna’s den.”
Wherever this substance was found accompanying remains, the latter were
invariably broken, and always in the same uniform manner; and none of it was
found where they occurred entire. Dr. Buckland, to whom the material was
pointed out, gave the Arcade the name of the ‘* Hyzene Cloaca Maxima.”
About halfway in the length of the Arcade, and near the left or southerly
wall, three circular hollows were observed in the floor, about 3 feet in dia-
meter, lined down the sides with a thin waving crust. The greasiness of the
earth, and the presence of single teeth of bear in different states of preserya-
* Vol. xvi. pp. 878-9 (1827).
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 201
tion, at first suggested the idea that they were the beds of that animal, whose
habit itis to crouch in particular spots; but the occurrence of charcoal, and
other indications of the presence of man, in the vicinity of the hollows were
thought rather to lead to the opinion that they were rude hearths or ovens
scooped out by savages, around which they collected to cook and enjoy the
spoils of the chase *.
Before returning from this digression it may be well to offer a few remarks
on two or three points in the foregoing description, on which the exploration
now in progress is calculated to throw some light :—
1st. ‘‘ The loose heaps of red marl” in all probability consisted of material
deposited in the era of the Cave-earth, and over which no stalagmite had in
those particular spots ever been formed. If, however, they were actually
observed, and not merely inferred, to “ overspread the stalagmite,” the latter,
there can be little doubt, was the “ Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor,” older than
the Cave-earth, of which the Committee have found numerous portions in the
Arcade during the present year, as well as in other branches of the cavern in
previous years, some of them zm situ and others not.
2nd. The Committee have also found a considerable quantity of coprolitic
matter in the Arcade, never, however, more than 12, and rarely more than
6 inches below the surface. This material has been met with in all parts of
the cavern wherever the Cave-earth has presented itself, but in no instance
in any older or more modern deposit, whether of mechanical or chemical
origin. The ‘“ Lecture Hall” may perhaps be equally entitled to the name
of the Hyene Cloaca Maxima t.
3rd. There seems no reason to doubt that the “three circular hollows,”
instead of being the “ beds of bears” or “ hearths or ovens scooped out by
savages,” were natural basins in the stalagmite, such as were described in the
Committee’s Eighth Report +; for, to say nothing of the fact that several
such basins, even when not more than a very few inches in diameter, have con-
tained charred wood, possibly washed into them in rainy seasons (when such
basins are full to overflowing), or perhaps dropped into them accidentally by
recent visitors, it is difficult to understand why a savage should have selected
for his hearth a spot having nothing to recommend it but its darkness and
inconvenience, whilst so many others, in every respect more eligible, were
equally at his command. It is noteworthy that, in another part of his
memoir, Mr. MacEnery, replying to Dr. Buckland’s suggestion that “ the
ancient Britons had scooped out ovens in the stalagmite,” says, “ Without
stopping to dwell on the difficulty of ripping up a solid floor, which, notwith-
standing the advantage of undermining and the exposure of its edges, still
defies all our efforts, though commanding the apparatus of the quarry, I am
bold to say that in no instance have I discovered evidence of breaches or ovens
in the floor” §.
But waiving all this, the Committee, on March 31, 1873, in the course of
their work reached a hollow precisely similar to those Mr. MacEnery de-
scribes. It was of oval form, 4 feet long, 2 broad, and 9 inches deep, and
contained nearly ten gallons of beautifully pure water, but, instead of having
been formed by a bear or a human being, it was an example of Nature’s
handiwork, and in such a position as to render it certain that the foreman of
the exploration now in progress was the first human being who ever saw it.
It was in the stalagmite covering the deposit, which, as already stated, com-
* See Trans. Devon, Assoc. vol. iii. io pe: 235-7, 253-4, 270, 290, and 302-5 (1869).
t See Report Brit. Assoc. 1868, p } Ibid. 1872, p. 45.
§ See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. Ri oe , 334 (1869).
202 REPORT—1873.
pletely filled up the space beneath the Bridge, and was neither discovered nor
discoverable until the workmen had advanced 11 feet in the difficult work of
reopening this passage.
At the entrance of the Arcade, the Granular Stalagmitic Floor was con-
tinuous in every direction for considerable distances. At the right or
northerly wall its thickness exceeded that hitherto found in any other part of
the cavern, measuring fully 5 feet for a length of about 8 yards; but at the
opposite wall it was very rarely more than 2 feet thick. Beyond the point
just specified it became gradually thinner, disappearing entirely at 37 feet
from it on the right wall, but extending somewhat further on the left. Still
further in, such floor as ever existed appears to have been but thin and occa-
sional only, until reaching the Bridge, where it appeared again in considerable
volume*. Almost immediately beyond this, there rose from the Stalagmitic
Floor a large boss of the same material, in the form of a paraboloid, 2 feet
high and 6 feet in basal circumference. As it*bore no inscription, and was
in the direct line of the work, it was dislodged and broken up, when it was
found to consist of pure stalagmite without any extraneous substance. In
the earthy deposit adhering to its base were one tooth of bear, a fragment of
bone, a ball of coprolite, and a few bits of charcoal. Not far beyond it, but
near the right wall of the Arcade, a much larger boss presented itself, having
near its summit the inscription “ R. L. (or E.) 1604.” The mass has been so
mutilated by early visitors as to render it uncertain whether the remaining
part of the second letter is the lower portion of Lor E. The date, however,
which is quite distinct, and appears not to have been noticed prior to June 6,
1873, is the oldest at present known in the cavern, though there are several
others of the seventeenth century. In excavating, care was taken to leave
the mass, as well as the deposit on which it was formed, intact and undis-
turbed.
The only objects found in the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, in the Arcade,
since the Eighth Report was sent in, were a tooth of Hyzna, a few bones
and bone chips, a “charcoal streak” about 3 inches above the base of
the floor, where its total thickness was 42 inches at one end and 10 at the
other, a few pieces of charcoal, and a flint tool. The tool (No. 5990) is of
very white flint, having, as shown by an accidental fracture, a very chalk-like
texture. It may be described as a hammer-like “core,” broad at one end,
round-pointed at the other, and formed by several flakes having been struck
from the original nodule. Its pointed end shows that it has been used as a
hammer. It is 3:2 inches long, 2 inches in greatest breadth, 1-7 inch in
greatest thickness, and was found August 19, 1872.
As already stated, remnants of the old (the Crystalline) Stalagmitic Floor
occurred in situ in various parts of the Arcade, all attached to the right or
northerly wall, and above the level of the Granular Floor. The first of them,
about 60 feet within the entrance and 6 inches thick, had between it and the
Granular Floor an unoccupied space of 15 inches in height. The second,
20 feet further up the Arcade, was a very large mass displaying strikingly
the characteristic prismatic crystalline structure ; it has suffered much at the
hands of visitors ; and on one of its fractured surfaces is the date 1836. The
* Tt is worthy of remark that at the entrance of the Arcade, where the Stalagmitic Floor
is so very thick, the drip of water from the roof is at present very copious in rainy
seasons, and commences within a few hours of a great rainfall; whilst those parts of the
same branch of the cavern where there does not seem to have ever been any stalagmite
are perfectly dry at all times and seasons.
ON KEN'T’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 203
third and most important, about 30 feet long, lined the entire lower surface of
the mass of limestone forming the Bridge, and extended into the chamber
beyond. The less ancient, or Granular Floor, was in some places in contact
with it, and in others as much as 8 inches below. Numerous stones and a
few fragments of bone (representing the Breccia on which the Old Floor was
formed) were found firmly cemented to this, as well as to the first remnant.
The progress of the work has not rendered it necessary to remove or diminish
either of them.
The deposit below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor was typical Cave-earth
to the depth of at least 4 feet *, from the entrance of the Long Arcade to
about 24 feet within it, and contained a considerable number of blocks of
limestone, several of them requiring blasting in order to be removed... Beyond
the point just specified the deposit was everywhere “ Breccia” (the oldest
deposit the cavern is known to contain), except at most the uppermost foot,
which consisted of Cave-earth. The two deposits lay one on the other with-
out, as in the South-west Chamber ft, any stalagmite between ; and though
they are so very dissimilar in composition—the Cave-earth, or less ancient,
being made up of small angular fragments of limestone mixed with light-red
clay, whilst the Breccia, or older deposit, consists of rounded and subangular
fragments of dark-red grit imbedded in a sandy paste of the same colour—
it was not always, or, indeed, frequently, easy to detect a well-defined line of
separation. Each, however, was, as elsewhere in the cavern, characterized
by its distinct fauna—the Breccia containing remains of Bears only without
any indication of other genera, whilst the Cave-earth yielded bones and teeth
of Hyznas, with their teeth-marks and coprolites, as well as the osseous
remnants of the animals usually associated with them.
At the entrance of the Arcade Mr. MacEnery’s diggings were carried to a
depth of 3 feet below the bottom of the Granular Stalagmite ; they gradually
became less and less deep until at a distance of 15 feet they ceased. They ©
were resumed at 52 feet, and continued at intervals throughout the entire
length of the Arcade so far as the Committee have at present explored. They
were, however, on a very limited scale, never exceeding 18 inches, and com-
monly not more than a foot in depth, did not always extend from wall to wall,
and were not continuous. In short, he seems to have contented himself with
occasionally digging a small shallow trial pit, and, meeting with no speci-
mens, to have proceeded elsewhere ; and this is borne out by his own state-
ment. ‘ As we advanced in the direction of the Long Corridor,” he says,
“the bones became less and less numerous until they nearly disappeared,
rendering it not worth our while to prosecute our researches further in that
line” t+. He must, however, in some instances have broken up portions of the
Breccia as well as of the thin layer of Cave-earth lying on it ; for, as was his
wont, the materials he dislodged were not taken out of the cavern, but merely
cast aside; and these, on being carefully examined by the Committee, were
found to contain undoubted fragments of the older deposit, with bones and
teeth of Bear firmly imbedded in them.
The specimens recovered from this broken ground, and which had been
neglected or overlooked, belonged mainly to the Cave-earth. They were 72
teeth, 4 astragali, 5 ossa calcis, 15 phalanges, 1 claw, 3 portions of jaws, 2 ver-
tebrx, 1 portion of skull and 1 of antler, several fragments of bone, and 8
* The excavation is not carried to a depth exceeding 4 feet below the bottom of the
granular stalagmite.
+ See Brit. Assoc. Report, 1868, pp. 50-52. ¢ See Trans. Devon. Assoc. vol. iii. p. 290.
204 REPORT—1873.
flint flakes and chips. With them was a portion of an iron hammer, which,
on becoming useless, MacEnery or his workmen had no doubt thrown away.
Omitting those of Bear, at least some of which belonged to the era of the
Breccia as already stated, the teeth may be distributed as in the following
Table :—
Taste I.—Showing how many per cent. of the Teeth found in the dis-
turbed material in the Long Arcade belonged to the different kinds of
Cave Mammals.
Eiyeonay) foot. en 70 percent) MOx raleigh Pa ee 3 per cent.
iorsethis 226). 682 sf 10 3 Elephant ........ 15 ie
Rhinoceros ........ 10 55 Boxtey, pat hee 1:5 ps
Meer cheese 3 i.
The flint flakes mentioned above were of little value when compared with
many found in the Cave-earth.
Up to the end of August 1873, the Cave-earth which the Committee found
intact in the Long Arcade had yielded, when the few mentioned in the Eighth
Report (1872) are included, about 280 teeth, which may be apportioned as in
the following Table :—
Taste II].—Showing how many per cent. of the Teeth found in Cave-earth in
the Long Arcade belonged to the different kinds of Cave Mammals.
Biya |e. Siew dia 40 per cent. | Deer ............ 2:5 per cent.
UHOTSeNy. eckltie is wialelave < 24 as Megaceros........ 1:5 5
Rhinoceros ........ 11 3 Elephant ........ 15 -
IREan cs: Ais ose 9 3 DO Has, LMBOTE 1°5 be
HOKE SNe eR 5 a Hion seins, SRE Feens 1-0 as
iP Hie. Yan tla ange 3 Z Machairodus ...... only 1 incisor.
On comparing the foregoing Tables with those in previous Reports, the
following facts present themselves :—
Ist. That Hyzna is everywhere the most prevalent animal of the Cave-
earth era, and is followed by the Horse and Rhinoceros without any consider-
able variation in their ratios.
2nd. That the Bear is relatively more prevalent in the Long Arcade than
in any other part of the cavern explored by the Committee.
3rd. That teeth of Wolf, Badger, Rabbit, Reindeer, and Sheep *—all of
which presented themselves in the various branches of the Eastern Division
of the cayern—have not hitherto been met with in the Long Arcade.
None of the animal remains found in the Cave-earth during the last twelve
months require detailed description or special remark. Many of the bones
had been gnawed by the Hyena; some were much decayed; a few small
fragments had been burnt; and one (a phalanx) exhibited marks of disease.
The few remains of the Mammoth were those of immature animals; one
canine of Lion (No. 6020) was worn almost to the fang; and a right lower
jaw of Pig (No. 6098), found March 26, 1873, without any other specimen
near it, contained eight teeth, some of which had not risen quite above the Jaw.
Including the two (Nos. 5819 and 5829) mentioned in the Eighth Report
(1872), the Cave-earth in the Long Arcade has, up to the end of August
* The remains of Sheep are probably such as had been recently introduced by foxes and
other animals frequenting the cavern.
t This specimen has a very fresh aspect.
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 205
1873, yielded 25 flint implements and flakes, without counting those found
in Mr. MacEnery’s dislodged materials. Though many of them would have
attracted a large share of attention a few years ago, a description of a very
few will suffice at present :—
No. 6082 is a light-grey flint having a sharp edge all round its perimeter.
It is nearly flat on one side, and slightly convex on the other, from which
four principal longitudinal flakes have been dislodged. It belongs to the lan-
ceolate variety of implements, is about 3-5 inches long, 1:2 inch in greatest
breadth, and -25 inch in thickness. It was found February 22nd, 1873, without
any animal remains near it; and no stalagmite had ever covered the deposit
in which it lay.
No. 6086 may be said to belong to the same type; but it is more massive,
and is abruptly truncated at each end. It is 3°5 inches long, 1:6 inch
in greatest breadth, -6 inch thick, very concave on the inner face, on
which the “bulb of percussion ” is well displayed near what may be termed
the point ; and the outer very convex face has been rudely fashioned. It does
not appear to have been used; its edges are quite sharp and not serrated
or chipped. It was found March 4, 1873, with a tooth and a gnawed scapula
(No. 6086).
As in all other parts of the cavern in which it has occurred, the Breccia
in the Long Arcade differs from the Cave-earth not only in the mineral and
mechanical characters of its materials, as already pointed out, but also in the
absence of those films of stalagmite which so frequently invested bones and
stones at all levels in the less-ancient accumulation.
The deposits resembled each other in being entirely destitute of any ap-
proach to a stratified arrangement ; and the incorporated fragments of stone
lay with their longest axes in every possible direction.
Up to the end of August 1873 there had been found in the Breccia in the
Long Arcade upwards of fifty teeth, together with a considerable number of
bones, of Bear. As they were much more brittle than those found in the
Cave-earth, probably from their highly mineralized condition, and almost
invariably occurred where the materials were firmly cemented together,
it was impossible to prevent their being injured in the process of extraction.
Not unfrequently bones or teeth were found broken but having the parts in
contact and juxtaposition in the concrete, showing that they had been
broken where they lay and where they were found. Beyond a few teeth
still occupying portions of jaws, the remains did not lie in their natural ana-
tomical order; and isolated teeth frequently presented themselves com-
pletely encased with Breccia. In no instance was there any thing like an
approach to the elements of a complete skeleton, or distinct portion of
one, lying together.
The only noteworthy specimens are a left lower jaw (No. 6127) containing
two teeth, found June 18, 1873, and a palate (No. 6133) with the greater
part of the upper jaw, in which were four molars and the two canines. This
fine specimen was found June 25, 1873, and with it two other canines anda
few fragments of bone.
It is perhaps worthy of remark that as no trace of Machairodus has
been found in either of the deposits since the Eighth Report (1872) was
presented, the Committee can only repeat that, so far as the evidence goes at
present, that great Carnivore was a member of the fauna of the Cave-earth
era, but not of that of the Breccia.
In their Eighth Report (1872) the Committee stated that they had
206 REPORT—18783.
found two flint implements (Nos. 5900 and 5903) in the Breccia in the
‘Southern Branch” of the “Charcoal Cave;” and they pointed out the important
bearing of the fact on the question of Human Antiquity *. They have now
the pleasure of reporting the discovery, during the last twelve months, of
seventeen additional implements, flakes, and chips in the same deposit in the
Long Arcade; and they now propose to describe the most striking specimens.
No. 6022 is a fine kite-shaped flint tool, 5-1 inches long, 2-6 inches in
greatest breadth, and 2 inches in greatest thickness. On one side, especially
at the butt-end, it is very convex ; on the other it may be said to have a ten-
dency to flatness ; but as this inner face consists of two principal planes or
facets sloping in opposite directions from a transverse ridge about midway in
its length, the flatness is not strongly pronounced. At the butt-end, on the
convex face, it retains much of the original surface of the nodule, and shows
that it was made from a well-rolled pebble. The rest of the surface has a
somewhat orange-coloured ferruginous tint, derived, no doubt, from the
matrix in which it was found. On one or two small facets near the point, how-
ever, this tint does not appear, but the true whitish colour is displayed. A small
chip has been unfortunately struck from it by the tool of the workman and
thus displays the interior, which is of the same colour as the facets just
named, but differs from them in being somewhat granular, whilst they are
quite smooth. Within the substance of the implement and near the point
there is a small irregular quartz pebble, apparently the nucleus around which
the siliceous matter accumulated. This specimen was found on November
27, 1872, at a depth of 16 inches in the undisturbed Breccia under a block
of limestone measuring 24 x 14 x 14 inches, adjacent to the left wall of the
Arcade, and 73 feet from its entrance. No animal remains or other objects
of interest were found near it.
No. 6025 may be described as a fine implement, rudely foot-shaped, 5:4
inches long, 2-5 inches in greatest breadth, and 1:7 inch in greatest thick-
ness. It has undergone a considerable amount of chipping, is very convex
on one face, has a tendency to flatness on the other; and no portion of the
original surface of the nodule remains on it. It is of a yellowish drab colour,
and has a patina on the greater part of its surface. It was found on
December 9, 1872, not quite a foot deep in the Breccia, very near the left
wall of the Arcade, about 86 feet from its entrance, and without any animal
remains accompanying it.
No. 6081 is an orange-coloured flint implement, rudely elliptical in out-
line, very massive, about 6 inches long, 3-7 inches in greatest breadth, 2
inches in greatest thickness, very convex on one face, with a tendency to
flatness on the other, has a great number of facets on each face, but with
portions of the original crust of the nodule here and there. On the flatter
face there is a rugged elliptical hole, nearly central, ‘9 inch long, -65 inch
broad, and 7 inch deep; but instead of being artificial is structural, as the
original crust of the flint extends into it from a neighbouring patch on the
face of the tool. This specimen was found in the third-foot level of
Breccia, without any organic remains near it, on February 14, 18738, at
about 122 feet from the entrance of the Arcade.
No. 6103 is a coarse chert tool about 4 inches long, 2-3 inches in
greatest breadth, 1:6 inch in greatest thickness, very convex on both faces,
and worked to an edge allround. A large amount of labour has been bestowed
in fashioning it; and no part of the original surface of the nodule remains.
It was found, without any animal remains near it, May 7, 1873, in the
* Report Brit. Assoc. 1872, pp. 43-44.
ON KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 207
fourth- or lowest-foot level of the Breccia, a small portion of which ad-
heres to it.
No. 6110, apparently of the same variety of chert, is rudely semilunar in
form, 2°9 inches long, 1:8 inch in greatest breadth, and 1-2 inch in greatest
thickness. It has a thin edge on its rectilineal margin, but attains its
greatest thickness at its curvilineal margin, and seems to have been used as a
seraper. It was found May 28th, 1873, at about 166 feet from the entrance
of the Arcade, without any organic remains near it, in the second-foot level
of the Breccia, traces of which still remain on it.
No. 6128 may be said to be at once a rude parallelogram and an oval. It
is 2-9 inches long, 1-9 inch in greatest breadth, ‘8 inch in greatest thickness,
slightly and irregularly concave on one face, and convex on the other. Its
greatest thickness is very near one margin, whence it slopes to a compara-
tively thin edge on the other, Its internal structure is somewhat chalk-
like ; and it has probably been somewhat rolled. It was found about 172
feet from the entrance of the Arcade in the first-foot level of the Breccia,
without any noteworthy objects near it, on June 18, 1873.
No. 6129 is a fine implement of the same form as No. 6022. It is 55
inches long, 2:8 inches in greatest breadth, 1°6 inch in greatest thickness,
approximates flatness on one face, and is very protuberant on the other,
which retains a portion of the original surface of the nodule. It is of a
somewhat coarse cherty structure and a dull pinkish colour. It was found
on June 20, 1873, in the fourth-foot level of the Breccia, almost immediately
under No. 6128, but 3 feet deeper in the deposit, and without any bones or
teeth near it.
No. 6139 is a faint pink unshapen lump of flint, the surface of which has
nevertheless been artificially produced. It may be a “core,” or an imple-
ment spoiled in the ‘attempt to make it. It was found about 128 feet from
the entranee of the Arcade, without any objects of interest near it, in the
third-foot level of the Breccia, on July 2, 1873.
No. 6174, like Nos. 6110 and 6128, is thickest at.one margin, and
slopes thence to an edge at the other, and, like them, has probably been
used as a scraper. It is 2°6 inches long, 1:6 inch in greatest breadth, and
1:1 inch in greatest thickness. It was found, with a tooth of Bear anda
few bones, on August 19, 1873, in the second-foot level of the Breecia, at
about 128 feet from the entrance of the Arcade.
The facts disclosed since the Committee sent in their Eighth Report, and
which have been described above, point to certain conclusions and sug-
gest a few speculations to which it may not be out of place to call attention.
The remnants of Crystalline Stalagmitic Floor in the Long Arcade, with
stones still cemented to their under surfaces, like those in the Gallery opening
out of the Great Chamber* and in the branches of the Charcoal Cavey, are
capable of but one explanation. They point to a time when the Breccia was
introduced ; and they mark or define the height it reached ; they show a sub-
sequent period when this accumulation was sealed up with a calcareous sheet
of which they are the remnants; and they make known the facts that a por-
tion of the Breccia was dislodged, and vast masses of the Floor which covered
it were broken up. This was followed by the introduction of the Cave-earth,
and that by the formation of another Floor of Stalagmite, differing from the
former in being granular instead of crystalline.
That the Breccia was derived from without the cavern is certain from the
* See Report Brit. Assoc. 1867, pp. 4-5. T Ibid. 1872, pp. 41-42.
208 REPORT—1873.
fact that the Cavern-hill contains no rock capable of furnishing the mate-
rials composing it. Such materials, however, are derivable from loftier adja-
cent eminences.
That these materials were introduced with comparative rapidity is pro-
bably indicated by the paucity, to say the least, of angular fragments of
limestone, as well as of films of stalagmite on the stones or bones, both of
which the walls and roof of the cavern would in all probability have sup-
plied during a protracted period.
That the conditions of the surface of the district adjacent to the cavern
must have changed between the period of the Breccia and that of the Cave-
earth, is manifest from the fact that such materials as formed the staple of the
earlier deposit did not find access during the later.
The scantiness of the Cave-earth in the Arcade, and its immense volume in
the eastern division of the cavern, especially in the branches of it into
which the external entrances open, as well as those immediately adjacent,
indicates that this deposit was derived largely, if not entirely, from external
sources, and not from the wasting of the walls and roof of the cavern, since
there is no reason to suppose that the rate of disintegration or decomposition
would differ so very greatly in the different Chambers and Galleries. It
may be worthy of remark, moreover, that, all other things being the same,
the thickness or depth of a deposit derived from the waste of the walls and
roof of a chamber must be greatest in the narrowest chamber, whilst the re-
verse obtains in the present case.
A glance at the implements from the two deposits shows that they are
very dissimilar. Those from the Breccia are much more rudely formed, more
massive, have less symmetry of outline, and were made by operating, not on
flakes purposely struck off from nodules of flint or chert, as in the case of
those from the Caye-earth, but directly on the nodules themselves, all of
which appear to have been obtained from accumulations of supracretaceous
flint-gravel, such as occur about four miles from the cavern. There seems
no doubt, then, that the Breccia men were ruder than those of the Cave-
earth ; and this is borne out by the fact that whilst the men represented by
the later deposit made bone tools and ornaments—harpoons for spearing fish,
eyed needles or bodkins for stitching skins together, awls perhaps to facilitate
the passage of the slender needle or bodkin through the tough thick hides,
pins for fastening the skins they wore, and perforated Badger’s teeth for
necklaces or bracelets—nothing of the kind has been found in the Breccia.
In short, the stone tools, though both sets were unpolished and coeval
with extinct mammals, represent two distinct civilizations.
It is equally clear that the ruder men were the more ancient; for their
tools were lodged in a deposit which, when the two occurred in the same ver-
tical section, was invariably the undermost. In fact the Breccia in which
each of the implements was deposited actually had Cave-earth lying on it.
That the chronological interval separating the two deposits, tools, men,
and eras was a great one is indicated by the several facts which have been
enumerated. The altered condition of the surface of the adjacent district
manifested by the dissimilar mineral and physical characters of the deposits,
the sheet of Crystalline Stalagmite which usually separated them and some-
times attained a thickness little short of 12 feet, the destruction of great
masses of this sheet, the dislodgment of a considerable portion of the Breccia
on which it was formed, and the distinctness of the two Cavern-faunz are
phenomena very significant of an amount of time incapable of compression
within narrow limits.
ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS PROM KENT’S CAVERN. 209
When the cavern-hauntmg habits of the Hyena are remembered, it can
scarcely be unsafe to conclude from the absence of any trace of him in the
Breccia that he was not an inhabitant of Britain during the era of that de-
posit. The same argument can by no means be applied with equal force to
the Horse, Ox, Deer, &c., whose absence is equally pronounced ; for it may
be presumed that their bones occur in caverns at least mainly because their
dead bodies were dragged there piecemeal by the Hyzena; and this could not
have occurred before his arrival. The Ursine remains met with in the
Breccia present no difficulty, as the Bear, like the Hyzena, is a cave-dweller*.
The fact that though he was not a member of the British fauna during the
era of the Breccia, he had become very prevalent during that of the Cave-earth,
may probably be taken as indicating that after, but not during, the period of
the Breccia, Britain was a part of continental Europe, and thus rendered his
arrival possible. If this be admitted, it follows that the early men of Devon-
shire saw this country pass from an insular to a continental state, and again
become an island.
The Superintendents of the work, struck with the great development of the
Breccia in the innermost parts of the cavern, as well as with the numerous
remains of Bear which it contains, are strongly inclined to the opinion that
there must be an external entrance hitherto unsuspected, and at present
choked up, in the direction in which the work is progressing. It must be
admitted that this would solve several problems of interest; but the complete
exploration of the cavern can alone show whether or not such an entrance
exists,
The Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay,
Devonshire. By W. Preneutty, F.R.S., F.G.S.
[A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
THoueu there are said to be persons capable of believing that the so-
called flint and chert implements, found in Kent’s Hole and other caverns,
are merely natural products, it is not my intention in this brief paper to say
one word on that question. It has been treated so fully and so ably by
various writers as to deprive me of any pretence for attempting to add any
thing to the literature of the subject, and also of any hope that such additions
as I might be able to make would convince those still remaining in a sceptical
* Dr. A. Leith Adams, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., so well known as a naturalist and cavern-
explorer, has been so good as to favour me with the following note on the habits of the
Brown Bear of the Himalayas :—‘ The Brown Bear of the Western Himalayas hybernates,
choosing chiefly caverns and rock-crevices, which it abandons in spring to wander about ; but
old individuals, when no longer equal to the same amount cf exertion, take to a secluded life,
and usually select a cavern ona rocky mountain-side, at the base of which there is abundant
verdure and shade, with a pool or spring, where they bathe frequently or recline during
the heat of the day to escape annoyance from insects. Such retreats are easily discovered
by the animal’s footprints on the soil and turf. They are seen like steps of stairs leading
from the pool in the direction of the den, being brought about by the individual always
treading in the same track. Thus these patriarchs or hermit bears spend their latter years
in one situation, pursuing the even tenor of their ways to the little stream or pond below,
and grassy slopes to feed on the rank vegetation, returning regularly to the cayerns where
they end their days.”—See Wanderings of a Naturalist in India, Western Himalayas, and
Cashmere, pp. 232-241 &e.
1873. P
210 REPORT—1873.
state. My present object is to call attention to the fact that whilst all the
noteworthy flint and chert implements which Kent’s Hole has yielded are
unpolished, and all found with the remains of the extinct Cave mammals,
they belong to two distinct classes, eras, and states of civilization.
It may be well at the outset to describe briefly the successive deposits
and their contents met with during the exploration of the cavern by the
Committee appointed by the British Association in 1864, whose labours have
extended without interruption from March 1865 to the present time, and are
still in progress. They are as follow :—
1st, or uppermost, Blocks of limestone, from a few pounds to upwards of
one hundred tons each, which had fallen from the roof, from time to. time,
and were occasionally cemented together with stalagmite.
2nd. Beneath and between the blocks just mentioned lay a dark-coloured
mud, from 3 to 12 inches thick, and known as the Black Mould.
3rd, A Stalagmitic Floor of granular texture, varying from an inch to
upwards of 5 feet in thickness, and frequently containing large blocks of
limestone similar to those mentioned above. This was known as the Granular
Stalagmite.
4th. An almost black layer, composed mainly of small fragments of
charred wood, and about 4 inches thick. This, termed the Black Band,
was a local deposit oceupying an area of about 100 square feet, and, at its
nearest approach to it, about 32 feet from one of the entrances to the cavern.
oth. An accumulation of light-red clay, containing :—on the average, about
50 per cent. of small angular fragments of limestone, with occasional blocks
of the same substance as large as those lying on the surface as already stated ;
large isolated masses of stalagmite having a very crystalline texture ; suban-
gular and rounded fragments of quartz and red grit, derivable not from the
Cavern hill, but from the adjacent and greater heights ; and a very few granitic
pebbles. This, known as the Cave-carth, was usually of unknown depth,
but it certainly, and perhaps greatly, exceeded 4 feet in most cases.
6th. Wherever the bottom of the Cave-earth was reached, however, there
was found beneath it a Floor of Stalagmite, having a crystalline texture
identical with that of the detached isolated masses incorporated in the Cave-
earth as just stated. This, designated the Crystalline Stalagmite, was in
some instances little short of 12 feet thick.
7th. Below the whole there lay, so far as is at present known, the lowest
and oldest of the Cavern deposits, consisting of subangular and rounded
pieces of dark-red grit, imbedded in a sandy paste of the same colour. This,
the thickness of which is unknown, is denominated the Breccia.
The lumps of stalagmite and fragments of grit found imbedded in the
Cave-carth were undoubtedly portions of the two older deposits (the Crystal-
line Stalagmite and the Breccia), and show that these accumulations had
been broken up by natural agency before the introduction of the Cave-earth,
and that they were formerly of greater volume than at present.
Excepting the overlying blocks of limestone, No. 1, all the deposits just
described contained remains of animals. In the Black Mould, or most modern,
they were those of species still existing, and almost all of them now occupying
the district. They were man, dog, fox, badger, brown bear, Bos longifrons,
roe-deer, sheep, goat, pig, hare, rabbit, water-rat, andseal. In the Granular
Stalagmite, Black Band, and Cave-earth, and especially the last, extinct as
well as recent animals presented themselves, the Cave-hyzna being the most
prevalent, but followed very closely by the horse and rhinoceros. Remains
of the so-called Irish elk, wild bull, bison, red deer, mammoth, badger, the cave-,
ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS FROM KENT’S CAVERN. 211
grizzly, and brown bears, were by no means rare ; those of the caye-lion, wolf,
fox, and reindeer were less numerous; and those of beaver, glutton, and
Machairodus latidens were very scarce. The presence of the hyzna was also
indicated by his coprolites, by bones broken after a manner still followed by
existing members of the same genus, and by the marks of his teeth found on
a very large proportion of the osseous remains in the cavern. In the lower
deposits (the Crystalline Stalagmite and the Breccia) remains of animals
were less uniformly distributed. In some places there were none throughout
considerable spaces, whilst in others they were so crowded as to form 50 per
cent. of the entire deposit. So far as is at present known, they were ex-
clusively those of bear. Not only were there no bones of hyzna, there
were none of his feces, none of his teeth-marks, and no bones fractured
after his well-known fashion. Remembering his cavern-haunting habits, it
may in all probability be safely concluded that the era of the Crystalline
Stalagmite and of the Breccia it covered, was prior to the advent of the
hyzena in this country. The same inference cannot with certainty be drawn
with respect to the horse, ox, deer, &c., whose absence is equally pro-
nounced ; for it may be presumed that their bones occur in caverns simply
because their dead bodies were dragged there piecemeal ; and this would not
have occurred, even though they had occupied the country, before the arrival
of the great bone-eating scavenger which we call the cave-hyena. The
bear, being a cave-dweller, presents no difficulty.
The bones found in the uppermost deposit, the Black Mould, were of
much less specific gravity than those in the lower accumulations, and were
generally so light as to float in water. Those in the Cave-earth and Breccia
had lost their animal matter, and adhered to the tongue when applied to it,
so as frequently to support their own weight; but those from the Breccia
(the lowest or oldest deposit) were much more mineralized and brittle than
those found in the Cave-earth, and usually emitted a metallic ring when
struck.
The following general statements may be of service here, by way of reca-
pitulation, before proceeding further :—
1st. Omitting the overlying blocks of limestone and the local Black Band,
the cavern contained three distinct mechanical accumulations :—the Black
Mould, or uppermost, or most modern; the Cave-earth; and the Breccia, or
lowermost, or most ancient. Their mode of succession was never transgressed ;
and the materials of which they consisted were so very dissimilar as to cha-
racterize them with great distinctness.
2nd. These three accumulations were separated by two distinct floors of
Stalagmite having strongly contrasted characters. That between the Breccia
below and the Cave-earth above it was eminently crystalline, whilst that
dividing the Cave-earth from the Black Mould was granular.
3rd. Animal remains occurred in all, but were much more abundant in the
mechanical deposits than in the Stalagmites.
4th. The period represented by the Breccia and Crystalline Stalagmite (the
most ancient period) may, as a matter of convenience, and so far as the cavern
is concerned, be termed the Ursine period, these deposits having yielded
remains of bears only. It must be understood, however, that bears are re-
presented in all the deposits.
5th. The period of the Cave-earth and Granular Stalagmite may be deno-
minated the Hycnine period, the remains of hyzna being restricted to these
deposits and being more prevalent than those of any other genus.
6th. The period of the Black Mould (the most modern period) may be
P2
212 REPORT—18783.
called the Ovine period, remains of the sheep being restricted to this accu-
mulation.
7th. The bones of each period were distinguishable by their physical con-
dition—those from the Black Mould being lighter, and those in the Breccia
more mineralized, than the products of the Cave-earth.
Flint and chert implements presented themselves in each of the mecha-
nical deposits; and, as in the case of the bones, those belonging to any one
were easily distinguishable from those of the other two.
The implements of the Black Mould, the uppermost deposit, were of the
ordinary colour of common flints. They were mere flakes and “ strike-
lights,”’ the latter probably used and cast aside or lost by those who during
a long period, and before the invention of lucifer-matches, acted as guides to
the cavern. All further notice of them may be omitted as not being note-
worthy.
Omitting mere flakes, of which there were great numbers, the principal
flint implements found in the Cave-earth were ovoid, lanceolate, and tongue-
shaped, produced by fashioning, not flint nodules, but ales ele off
them. They were of comparatively somewhat delicate proportions, usually
of a white colour and poreellaneous aspect, and had, through metamor-
phosis, a granular chalk-like internal texture.
Flint implements were not the only human industrial remains found in the
Cave-earth, as it had yielded a bone needle with a well-formed eye, three
bone harpoons (one of them barbed on both sides, and the others on one only),
a bone pin, a bone awl, and a badger’s tooth having its fang artificially
perforated for the purpose apparently of being strung “with other objects to
form a necklace or bracelet, thus indicating that the Cave-dwellers of the
hycenine period occupied themselves in making ornaments as well as objects
of mere utility.
The implements from the Breccia are much more rudely formed, more
massive, less symmetrical in outline, and have been made by operating, not
on flakes, but directly on nodules derived from supracretaceous accumula-
tions, and generally retain some traces of the original surface. One of
the specimens, however, is a mass of flint which may have been a “ core”
from which flakes were struck, or, what seems not less probable, the useless
result of an abortive attempt to make a tool.
No such implements have been found in the Cave-earth, nor have any of
the comparatively slender, symmetrical, and well-finished tools of the more
modern deposit been met with in the more ancient. They are by no means
so abundant as those of the Cave-earth ; that is to say, a given volume of
Breccia does not yield so many implements as an equal volume of the more
modern accumulation. Whether equal periods of time are represented by
equal volumes of deposit in the two cases, or whether equal periods of time
represent equal numbers of human cave-dwellers or tool-makers in the two
eras, are questions into which it is not possible to enter at present.
Omitting rude flakes and mere chips, as well as the “core” just mentioned,
the Breccia up to this time has yielded no more than eleven specimens. It
must be remembered, however, that the time during which the Committee
have been excavating Breccia is comparatively very short.
That the implements from the Breccia belong to a ruder age than those
from the Cave-earth may probably be safely concluded from their much
ruder form and finish, and also, if negative evidence be trustworthy, from
the entire absence of bone tools of any kind. That they belong to an earlier
period is obvious from the position they occupied: they were lodged in a
ON FLINT AND CHERT IMPLEMENTS FROM KENT’S CAVERN. 213
deposit which, when the two were found in the same vertical section, in-
variably underlay the Cave-earth. In fact, the Breccia in which every one
of the tools was found actually had Cave-earth vertically above it.
That the chronological interval which separated the era of the older ruder
tools from that of the others was a great one is indicated by several facts :
Ist. The conditions under which the two accumulations were deposited
on the same area were so dissimilar, that the older mass consisted of sub-
angular and rounded pieces of grit imbedded in a sandy paste produced by
the attrition and disintegration of the same materials, whilst the less ancient
deposit was formed of angular fragments of limestone oe in fine
clay.
Qnd. The two deposits were separated by a sheet of crystalline Stalagmite,
in some places almost 12 feet thick.
3rd. After the Breccia had been sealed up with the Stalagmite just men-
tioned, the latter was, in extensive parts of the cavern, broken up by some
natural agency, and much of the Breccia was dislodged, before the first instal-
ment of Cave-earth was introduced.
4th. The faunze of the two periods were also dissimilar: that of the Breccia
did not include the hyena, which played so important a part in the
cavern-history during the Cave-earth period, and whose agency, next to that
of man, has made cavern-searching an important branch of science. His
absence in the one fauna and his presence in the other, may probably be
safely taken as indicating that after, but not during, the period of the
Breccia, Britain was connected with the continent, and thus rendered it
possible for him to reach this country. In other words, the earliest human
Devonians at present known to us saw this country an island as at present ;
but it had become part of continental Europe before the arrival of the Cavern-
hyena amongst their descendants.
Without attempting to estimate the amount of time represented by the
less ancient Cavern deposits (the Black Mould, the Granular Stalagmite, and
the Cave-earth), it seems impossible to doubt that the period indicated by
the formation of the Breccia and the Crystalline Stalagmite, and the
destruction and dislodgment of much of them, must be at least as great.
In other words, and speaking only for myself, however far back in time
the fabricators of the Cave-earth tools take their stand, I cannot hesitate to
place those of the implements of the Breccia as much further back. Most
of us remember, and perhaps few of us can be surprised at, the alarm occa-
sioned by the antiquity of man made known by the researches in Brixham
Cavern in 1858; and now I cannot doubt that cavern-researches growing out
of those just mentioned make a reasonable and irresistible demand to have
that antiquity at least doubled.
What may be the relation of the Cave-men oake eleven tools are now
before us to preglacial times, I will not presume to say; but I cannot divest
myself of the idea that a complete exploration of Kent’s Hole is calculated
to give a definite reply to that question.
Meanwhile it may not be without interest to remark that, up to the pre-
sent time, as the Cavern exhibits to us more and more ancient men, it shows
us that they were ruder and ruder as we proceed into antiquity. The men
of the Black Mould had a great variety of bone instruments; they used
spindle-whorls, and made pottery, and smelted and compounded metals.
The older men of the Cave-earth made a few bone tools ; they used needles,
and probably stitched skins together; but they had neither spindle-whorls,
nor pottery, nor metals; their most powerful weapons were made of flint
214 REPORT— 1873.
and chert, many of them symmetrically formed and carefully chipped; but it
seems never to have occurred to them to increase their efficiency by polish-
ing them. The still more ancient men of the Breccia have left behind them
not even a single bone tool; their flint implements are rude and massive,
show but little attempt at regularity of outline, and are but rudely chipped.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Guapstonn, Dr. C. R. A.
Wraicut, and W. CuanviER Ropers, appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of
Essential Oils. Drawn up by Dr. Wricut.
Since the last Meeting of the Association, a number of points connected with
the experiments then made have been fully worked out, and some interesting
information gained on the subject of isomerism among bodies of the terpene
class and their derivatives.
The action of nitric acid on the terpene of turpentine-oil has been shown
by Schwanert to give rise to a non-crystalline acid (camphresic acid), which
is tribasic, and is expressed by the formula C,,H,,0_; the terpene of nutmeg-
oil has been found to give rise by similar treatment to oxalic acid, and an
acid resembling honey when freshly prepared, but solidifying to a crystalline
mass on standing for some months. This has been termed Myristisie acid ;
its analysis agrees with the formula C,,H,,0,,, 2H,O, the 2H,O being lost at
100° C., and 6 of the 26 proportions of hydrogen being replaceable by calcium.
Simultaneously, toluic and terephthalic acids are produced by the oxidation
of the cymene naturally admixed with the terpene.
Hesperidene, the terpene of orange-oil, when treated in the same way, gives
neither toluic nor terephthalic acid; oxalic acid, and an acid much resem-
bling myristisic acid but containing more oxygen, are formed; this acid,
which has been termed Hesperisic acid, is expressed by the formula C,,H.,,0,,,
2H,0, the 2H,0 being lost at 100°, and 6 proportions of hydrogen being
replaceable by calcium.
From the character of the oxidation products, it thus seems that the ter-
penes of turpentine, nutmeg-oil, and orange-oil are not identical, but only
isomeric—a conclusion already drawn from their different physical proper-
ties (e.g. their boiling-points, 160°, 163°-164°, and 178° respectively) ;
turpentine-oil when oxidized also gives rise to small quantities of terephthalic
acid ; this, however, without doubt arises from the presence of cymene in
ordinary turpentine (vide infra).
Although hesperidene contains no cymene ready formed (as proved by the
non-formation of toluic and terephthalic acids from it by oxidation, and the
failure in extracting cymene by a method which readily yields that hydro-
carbon when applied to oil of turpentine or to the mixed hydrocarbons of
nutmeg-oil) it is nevertheless closely related to that substance ; by cautiously
adding two equivalents of bromine to one of hesperidene, a dibromide is
formed (with evolution of heat): on attempting to distil this product it
breaks up into hydrobromic acid and cymene, thus,
C,,H, Br, =C,,H,,Br+HBr=C,,H,,-+ 2HBr.
An intermediate unstable body, C,,H,,Br, appears to be formed ; but three or
four distillations suffice to break up the dibromide almost wholly into cymene
ON THE CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 215
and hydrobromic acid: a small quantity of non-volatile resinous matter is
formed ; otherwise the yield of cymene approaches the theoretical quantity.
Precisely the same result takes place on adding two equivalents of bromine
to the lowest-boiling fraction of nutmeg hydrocarbons (boiling at 163°-164°,
and containing 10 to 12 per cent. of cymene ready formed), with these dif-
ferences—that the yield of cymene is much less in this case, half the terpene
present being converted into non-volatile black resinous substances, and,
secondly, that much more heat is generated by the union of a given quantity
of bromine with the nutmeg-terpene than is with the same amount of hes-
peridene. The higher the boiling-point of the original terpene, the more
readily does its dibromide break up into cymene and hydrobromic acid: thus
hesperidene dibromide gives not far from the theoretical yield; nutmeg-ter-
pene dibromide about 50 per cent. only; whilst turpentine dibromide is but
little affected by heat alone (Oppenheim), although it does yield some cymene
by this treatment (Greville Williams; Barbier),—the boiling-points of the
three terpenes being respectively 178°, 163°-164°, and 160°.
The same difference between hesperidene and the nutmeg-terpenc is notice-
able when equal quantities of the two are shaken up with their own bulks of
strong sulphuric acid : the terpenes are polymerized, much heat being evolved,
this evolution being much greater in the case of the nutmeg-terpene. Attempts
to estimate quantitatively the difference in heat-development did not lead to
any trustworthy results, beyond indicating the bare fact that there is a great
difference.
Taking into consideration these circumstances, together with the researches
of Fabre and Silbermann on the heats of combustion of acids of the acetic
series and compound ethers isomeric with them, and on the hydrocarbons of
the olefine family, it appears extremely probable that the higher the boiling-
point of any member of a series of isomerides, the greater is the “ affinity ”
between its constituent elements (7. ¢. the greater is the work performed in
their union), and consequently the less is what may be termed the intrinsic
chemical energy of the compound (i. ¢. the less work can be obtained by the
conversion of a given weight of the compound into other constant products) ;
or in other words, the heat of combustion of an isomeride of higher boiling-
point is less than that of one of lower boiling-point. It has not yet been found
practicable to test this point in the case of the isomeric terpenes, first, on
account of the difficulty of obtaining perfect combustion, and other experi-
mental errors, and, secondly, on account of the difficulty in getting terpenes
free from cymene to operate on. It is, however, hoped that some satisfac-
tory evidence on this head may be obtained whenever the experiments on
various oils &e. have disclosed the existence of a terpene which, like hesperi-
dene, appears to be one single homogeneous body of formula C,,H,,; in the
mean time the author cordially invites all chemists who are interested in this
point, so vitally connected with the subject of isomerism, to submit it to the
test of experiment in any cases that may seem to them promising.
In order to make sure that the cymenes thus obtained from hesperidene and
nutmeg-terpene are identical with the ordinary cymene from cummin-oil, a
careful examination was made of specimens of cymene derived from every
available source. Fittig, Kébrich, and Jilke have shown that the cymene ob-
tained from camphor by the action of zine chloride is mixed with a large
number of other substances ; this circumstance appears to have misled Kekulé
and others into the belief that there are two distinct isomerides, a conclusion
entirely negatived by the experiments described below.
The cymenes from the dibromides obtained as above were purified by frac-
216 REPORT—-1873.
tional distillation, and their optical properties were determined by Dr.
Gladstone; their corrected boiling-points were accurately determined; com-
bustions were made of them; and the products of their oxidation by chromic
acid were carefully studied. Other cymenes from the undermentioned sources
were also submitted to the same treatment.
A. Cymene from Myristicol by the action of Zine Chloride.—When myristicol
is treated with solid zine chloride in a small retort, a powerful action takes
place before the boiling-point is reached, water and cymene distil over, and
a non-volatile resinous mass is left in the retort. This resinous mass appears
to be formed by the reaction
2n(C,,H,,0)=nH,0 + (C,,H,,0),.
After purification by shaking up with sulphuric acid and distillation over
sodium, the distillate yields tolerably pure cymene.
B. From Myristicol by the action of Phosphorus Pentachloride.—As stated
in last year’s Report, myristicol, when treated with phosphorus pentachloride,
undergoes the reaction
PCI, +C,,H,,0=POCI,+HCI1+C,,H,,Cl;
10°15
the resulting body, C,,H,,Cl, breaks up on heating into hydrochloric acid and
tolerably pure cymene.
C. From Camphor by Phosphorus Pentachloride.—Louguinine and Lippmann
have shown that the chlorinated body, C,,H,,Cl, obtained by Gerhardt and by
Pfaundler by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on camphor, breaks up
readily on continued distillation, forming hydrochloric acid and apparently
pure cymene ; their experiments were repeated, and their results confirmed in
every respect.
D. Cymene from Hydrocarbons of Nutmeg-oil (preexisting).—As stated in
last year’s Report (Appendix), by treating the lowest-boiling fraction (163°—
164°) of nutmeg hydrocarbon with strong sulphuric acid, the terpene is poly-
merized ; the resulting mass, when diluted with water and distilled, furnished
a crude cymene, which may be purified by repetition of the process and frac-
tional distillation over sodium.
E. Cymene preeaisting in Turpentine-—Turpentine-oil was distilled over
sodium, and found to boil at 156°-159°; on treatment with sulphuric acid
&e., about 3 per cent. of cymene was isolated.
Recently Riban has published some experiments almost identical in their
result with the foregoing observations (made in September and October 1872);
he, however, concludes that the cymene is derived from the terpene through
the oxidation of H, by the sulphuric acid. The author dissents from this con-
clusion for various reasons, the two chief ones of which are that hesperidene
yields no cymene whatever by this treatment (although it does by bromine
and heat), and that cymene may be obtained from nutmeg hydrocarbons or
from oil of turpentine without evolution of sulphur dioxide, if very great care
be taken.
Kekulé, also, has recently obtained cymene from oil of turpentine by con-
tinued distillation along with iodine; he considers that a diiodide is formed
and split up into hydriodic acid and cymene by the heat employed: this is by
no means improbable; but it is not impossible that the iodine simply poly-
merizes the terpene present, leaving the cymene originally present unaltered.
F. Cymene from Cummin-oil—Cummin-oil was distilled, a non-volatile
resin of empirical formula C,,H,,O being left in the retort; the distillate was
shaken with sodium bisulphite and the uncombined cymene purified by treat-
ment with sulphuric acid and distillation over sodium.
ON THE CONSTITUTION ETC. OF ESSENTIAL OILS. 217
G. Cymene from Hesperidene Dibromide.
H. Cymene from Nutmeg-terpene Dibromide.—This cymene, of course, also
contained the cymene which preexisted in the hydrocarbon used; the pre-
existing cymene was about 10-12 per cent, whilst the total cymene obtained
was 55 per cent. of the hydrocarbon used.
The following were the physical characteristics of these specimens :—
Corrected
Boiling-point
(corrected). Specific gravity Specific refractive Specific
(at about 15°). | energy (line A). dispersion.
173-177 0-842 0-5586 0-0374
176 -178 0-862 0°5596 0:0404
175 -178 0°862 0-5628 0-0424
173 -177 0-863 0:5561 0:0401
174 -177 0-855 0-5581 0:0393
175:5-177°5 0°857 0:5623 0-0414
175°5-177°5 0-862 0:5607 0-0414
176 -178
Each of these eight specimens gave analytical numbers agreeing with the
formula C,,H,,. On oxidation with dichromate of potassium and sulphuric
acid the same result was obtained in each case; viz. pure terephthalic acid
was obtained in quantity varying from 30 to 60 per cent. of hydrocarbon
used, no isophthalic acid being formed, and acetic acid perfectly free from
higher homologues was obtained, the results being verified by analysis of the
products.
It is hence inferred that only one kind of cymene exists, and that that
boils at very close upon 176°5, having a specific gravity of 0-860, a specific
dispersion of 0:0405, and a refraction-equivalent of 75:0. The production
of this cymene from fowr isomeric terpenes, viz. turpentine-oil (Williams,
Barbier, Oppenheim), citrene (Oppenheim), hesperidene (Wright), and nut-
meg-terpene (Wright), gives rise to many speculations as to the mutual
relations of these substances. It may be noticed as regards their formulariza-
tion in accordance with modern conventions, that Kekulé’s formula for benzene
permits of the ascription of three formule only for bodies that are dihydrides
of cymene if this hydrocarbon be viewed as a 1-4 benzene derivative, but of
siw if it be considered a 1:2 derivative or a 1°3 derivative. If, there-
fore, it be assumed, as seems most probable, that cymene belongs to that
series to which 1:4 formule are ascribed, it must be supposed that at any
rate one of these four terpenes is either a 1-2 or a 1-3 derivative. Now,
whatever may be the actual nature of the process symbolically indicated by a
transference of a group of symbols from one part of a “structural” formula
to another, it is pretty evident that it must correspond to the performance of
work of some kind, and hence is intimately connected with the subject
touched upon above, viz. the relations between “ Intrinsic Chemical Energy ”
and Isomerism. Were it possible to estimate the amounts of heat involved
in the reactions
C,H. + Br,=C,,H,,Br,
C,,H,,.Br, =2HBr+C,,H,,
218 REPORT—1873.
in various cases, some light might be thrown on this question; but unfortu-
nately this appears to be impracticable.
With a view to obtaining another variety of cymene for comparison with
the above, some experiments were made with citronella-oil, which was found
by Gladstone to contain a substance boiling at 199°-205°, and agreeing in
composition with the formula C,,H,,0; it was expected that this body would
behave like myristicol on treatment with zine chloride or phosphorus penta-
chloride. On examining about 600 grams of pure oil of citronella obtained
from Messrs. Piesse and Lubin, however, no quantity of this constituent
could be isolated; the great majority of the oil is made up of a substance
which agrees tolerably accurately with the formula C,,H,,O, and boils at near
210°; the action of heat on this substance, however, alters it, converting it
into substances of higher boiling-point, and finally into a resin not volatile at
the limits of the mercurial thermometer : this resin appears to be a polymeride
of C,,H,,O minus the elements of a portion of water.
The examination of the citronella products is not yet complete, and the
account of them is therefore deferred until next year; the following points,
however, appear to be made out.
By the action of zine chloride the body C,,H,,0 splits up partially into
water and a hydrocarbon, or mixture of hydrocarbons, boiling between 170°
.and 180°, and approximating to the formula C,,H,,; so that apparently the
action is mainly
C,,H,,0 =H,0 ai C,H.
A large quantity of a resinous body which approximates to the composition
(C,,H,,,)n 18 simultaneously formed.
By the addition of two equivalents of bromine to the body C,,H,,0 heat is
developed ; on distillation of the resulting brominated liquid (which does not
crystallize on standing) it breaks up into water, hydrobromic acid, and a
hydrocarbon which appears to be cymene, formed thus—
C,,H,,0+ Br, =C,,H,.Br,O,
C,H, ,Br,O=H,0+2HBr+C,.H.,.
It is proposed to continue these researches in whatever direction may seem
most promising for the fulfilment of the object in view, viz. the obtaining of
additional knowledge on the subject of isomerism in the terpene series and
their derivatives. The strong tendency of most of these substances to poly-
merize and alter, forming resinous non-volatile masses, renders working on this
subject somewhat difficult, large quantities of raw material being requisite in
order to obtain sufficient of any given derivative to submit it to careful study.
From what has been already done, together with the results obtained by
Baeyer, Oppenheim, Kekulé, Barbier, &c., it appears that the constituents of
the “ Essential Oils” (which are most frequently either terpenes or deriva-
tives from terpenes) are intimately connected with the benzene series of
hydrocarbons; it is proposed to study these connexions more minutely
wherever practicable.
APPENDIX.
Further experiments, made since the above Report was written, have con-
firmed the formula C,,H,,O as that of the main constituent of the sample of
citronella-oil examined; phosphorus sulphide acts on this substance just as
zinc chloride, producing a terpene boiling at 160°-165°, and polymerides of
higher boiling-point. The cymene obtained by the action of bromine appears .
ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS. 219
to be identical with that obtained from the cight sources described in the
above Report.
The main constituent of oil of wormwood (termed by Gladstone Absinthol,
and indicated by the formula C,,H,,0), when treated with zine chloride or
phosphorus sulphide, splits up in exactly the same way as its isomerides
myristicol and camphor, water and cymene being formed, thus,
C,,H,,0 =H,0 +C,,H, ;
the cymene thus formed is identical with that obtained from the other sources
examined. The action of phosphorus sulphide also gives rise to the produc-
tion of a sulphuretted compound apparently identical with the thiocymene,
C,,H,,.SH, recently obtained by Flesch from the products of the action of
phosphorus sulphide on camphor. Further details are postponed until next
year’s Report.
From the circumstance that different observers have frequently obtained
different results in the examination of certain kinds of essential oils (e. g. the
different properties and compositions of myristicol and the oxidized consti-
tuent of citronella-oil found by Gladstone and by the writer), it would seem
that the composition of such oils is subject to variation, probably with the
age of the plant, the season, climate, &c.
Report of the Committee, consisting of W. CuanniER Roserrs, Dr.
Mitts, Dr. Boycort, and A. W. Gavespun, appointed for the pur-
pose of inquiring into the Method of making Gold-assays, and of
stating the Results thereof. Drawn up by W.Cuannir Rozerts,
Secretary.
Tux attention of the Committee was first directed to a series of experiments
instituted with a view to ascertain to what extent the weights of pieces of
pure gold would be affected by submitting them to the process of assaying,
and consequently how far the results of assay operations are trustworthy.
These results showed* that the maximum error in no case exceeded one
hundredth per cent. of the original weight of the assay piece, and conse-
quently that the results obtained by assaying gold represent the composition of
the portions of metal under examination to the a part—a fact which will
doubtless appear remarkable to all who are accustomed to the ordinary
methods of quantitative analysis.
The Committee are not unmindful that, although it is possible to attain this
high degree of accuracy, it is nevertheless well known that a comparison of
the assay reports of different assayers as to the composition of the same
ingot often discloses discrepancies of 1 parts. Thus portions of metal
from nineteen gold ingots were assayed by the Mint Assayert, and were
then sent to five assayers, each of whom furnished an independent report.
Two assayers alone agreed as to the value of fifteen of these ingots; in
the case of three ingots, three assayers were in accordance, while in one
instance all the assay reports differed; and viewing the reports generally,
e : e 2 10 Sark: 6
» 41 Ee = 2 ao a
the discrepancies varied from to jpop OF an average deviation of F755
' 10,000
parts.
* Appendix I. + Appendix IT.
220 REPORT—1873.
These small variations assume serious proportions when they affect the
value of large quantities of bullion ; for instance, the value of gold coined at
the Mint during the past year was £15,200,000, and a persistent error in
the assay reports of only ings part would have been attended with a gain or
loss to the Department of no less than £1500.
The Committee hope that their labours will ultimately result in a clear
definition of the conditions under which errors arise.
The method of gold-assaying, as practised in the Mint, is given in the
Appendix*; and this method, known as the parting assay, has been de-
liberately adopted by all assayers, with slight variations of manipulation,
which have not as yet been minutely examined, as the Committee considered
that when widely divergent results are obtained the gold employed by one or
other of the assayers as “ check pieces” is impure, and that either the amount
of impurity has not been ascertained with accuracy, or it altogether escapes
detection. It follows, therefore, that the weight of the check “ cornets,” when
compared with the initial weight of the portion of metal operated upon, ap-
pears to indicate the presence of an amount of gold which is in excess of
the true amount of precious metal present in the alloy.
The Committee obtained specimens of gold from different sources*, and
tested them side by side with gold prepared, in accordance with the direc-
tions of the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, by the Chemist
of the Mint for use as trial-plate for testing the coinage.
Great care was taken in the preparation of this gold, 80 ounces of which
were precipitated from 100 gallons of chloride of gold; and as experiments
have already shown that it is very pure, the Committee propose to adopt it
as the basis for a new series of comparisons, and, further, to invite assayers
to submit samples of the gold used by them in order that they may be
tested side by side with this standard plate.
APPENDIX.
No. I.
Experiments to determine the effect produced on the weight of assay pieces
of fine gold (each weighing 1000) by submitting them to the process of
assay.
Weight of each portion
Experiment. | of fine gold =0°5 grm., Final weight of gold
or 1000-0 assay units. obtained.
I. 1000-0 999-98
ie 1000-0 1000-08
III. 1000-0 1000-06
IN’, 1000:0 1000-10
We 1000-0 1000-04
VI. 1000:0 1000-09
VIL. 1000-0 1000-09
VIII. 1000:0 999-92
IX. 1000-0 1000-04
X. 1000:0 1000-05
Mean......... 1000-045
|
* Appendix III.
ON THE METHOD OF MAKING GOLD-ASSAYS. 221
No. II.
Maximum
Mint . Assayers, difference
Assays. ars. in pg
A B C. D E Milliéme.
No
997-4) 15. | 997-3) 997-1] 996-9} 997-4] 997-4
997-6} 16. | 997:8| 997-8) 997-6} 998:5] 998
997°6| 17." | 997°8| 997-9} 997:5| 997-2} 997-9
997°7| 18. | 997-4) 997-5| 997:7| 997-5] 997-6
9967} 19. | 997 | 997 | 997 | 997-4] 997-2
996°3| 20. | 9963} 996-4] 996-4| 997 996-1
997-4| 21. | 997-6) 997:8| 997-2| 997:8| 997°8
998-1] 22. | 998 | 997-4) 997:6| 997-4] 998 {
997-4] 23. | 997-5! 997-5| 998 | 998 9078 {
986°6| 24. | 987 | 987-1} 987-4| 987-4] 987-2
990-4) 25. | 9898; 989-1} 989-4! 989-8] 989:3
9848} 26. | 985 | 9848} 985-4) 985°6| 985
986°1| 27. | 986:2) 986:°3} 986-1) 986-8} 986-3
989 28. | 989 | 989°3| 989-4| 989-8] 989-4
988°3] 29. | 988°6 | 988°5} 988-8} 989-1} 988-7
984-9} 30. | 9853) 985 | 985-4) 985°3} 985-1
980°2} 31. | 9806) 980-6} 980°8| 980-6} 981
978:1| 32. | 978:83| 978 | 9781) 9786] 978-1
979-2| 33. | 979°8| 979-5| 979-9} 980 979'5
977°9| 34. | 9788) 977-9} 978-9} 978-8} 978:3
——s
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No. III.
Gold-assaying.
The process of gold-assaying comprises six distinct operations :—
1st process.—The portion of metal to be assayed is adjusted to an exact
weight by cutting and filing.
2nd process.—The accurately weighed portions of alloy are added to
molten admixtures of lead and silver contained in porous cups or ‘ cupels”’
of bone ash, which are arranged in rows in a muffle or small oven. The pro-
portions of the latter metals are calculated so as to bear a definite relation
to the supposed amount of gold and base metals present in the alloy.
Result.—The lead oxidizes and is absorbed by the porous “ cupel,”’ together
with the copper and other oxidizable metals, and the silver and gold remain
in the form of a button, which may also contain platinum, iridium, or metals
possessing similar properties.
3rd process.—The button is reduced by rolling to a thin strip, which is
annealed and bent into a loose coil or ‘‘ cornet.”
4th process.—The “cornet” is placed in nitric acid of the specific gravity
of 1:25, and the acid is maintained at incipient ebullition for 15 minutes ;
the coil is then treated in a similar manner with nitric acid of specific
gravity 1:4,
222 REPORT—1878.
Result.—The silver is removed by the action of the acid; and the gold
remains in a spongy state. ‘
5th process.—The sponge of gold retains the original form of the coil; but
it is necessary to impart a certain degree of coherence to the metal by
annealing it at a dull red heat.
It may be observed that a small quantity of silver is invariably retained by
the gold. It is necessary therefore to make check assays on pure gold or on
standards of known composition, upon which the accuracy of the result will
in a great measure depend.
6th process.—This, the concluding process, consists in weighing the gold
“cornet.” The weights implied bear a decimal relation to the original
weight of the assay piece operated upon; and therefore the amount of gold
present in the alloy is at once indicated without further calculation.
Table showing the Relative Purity of Samples of Gold prepared by
different Methods.
>
Sample.
ee
From a dilute solution of chloride of gold } 1000-00
by sulphurous acid gas ............--
e
at
B. | From chloride of gold by oxalic acid ....| 999-98
The trial-plate, prepared by same process } 999-95
EAS DISHEN Calo] (ed Wah Wesel BRCUPL OD cackeWons: OlseSicab.-
or
eae
BP repamed. Bye wesc so cha vache ids tenes 999-93
i 2) SPrepaweay Dye. sices 2 atce ple e+ eee 999-80
Hein Prepared by yy so oc%. bo. Cate. ohalevt tee 999-70
| PROpATed DY: Oop npein clay orks eps seeeecs 999-60
First Report of the Committee for the Selection and Nomenclature of
Dynamical and Electrical Units, the Committee consisting of Sir
W. Tuomson, Professor G. C. Foster, Professor J. C. MaxweE tt,
Mr. G. J. Stonry, Professor Firemine Jenkin, Dr. Sremens, Mr.
F. J. BramMwe.., and Professor Everrrt (Reporter).
We consider that the most urgent portion of the task intrusted to us is that.
which concerns the selection and nomenclature of units of force and energy ;
and under this head we are prepared to offer a definite recommendation.
A more extensive and difficult part of our duty is the selection and nomen-
clature of electrical and magnetic units. Under this head we are prepared with
a definite recommendation as regards selection, but with only an interim
recommendation as regards nomenclature.
ON DYNAMICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS. 223
Up to the present time it has been necessary for every person who wishes
to specify a magnitude in what is called “ absolute” measure, to mention the
three fundamental units of mass, length, and time which he has chosen as
the basis of his system. This necessity will be obviated if one definite selec-
tion of three fundamental units be made once for all, and accepted by the
general consent of scientific men. We are strongly of opinion that such a
selection ought at once to be made, and to be so made that there will be no
subsequent necessity for amending it.
We think that, in the selection of each kind of derived unit, all arbitrary
multiplications and divisions by powers of ten, or other factors, must be
rigorously avoided, and the whole system of fundamental units of force, work,
electrostatic, and electromagnetic elements must be fixed at one common
level—that level, namely, which is determined by direct derivation from the
three fundamentrl units once for all selected.
The carrying out of this resolution involves the adoption of some units which
are excessively large or excessively small in comparison with the magnitudes
which oceur in practice ; but a remedy for this inconvenience is provided
by a method of denoting decimal multiples and submultiples, which has
already been extensively adopted, and which we desire to recommend for
general use.
On the initial question of the particular units of mass, length, and time to
be recommended as the basis of the whole system, a protracted discussion has
been carried on, the principal point discussed being the claims of the gramme,
the metre, and the second, as against the gramme, the centimetre, and the
second,—the former combination having an advantage as regards the simpli-
city of the name metre, while the latter combination has the advantage of
making the unit of mass practically identical with the mass of unit-volume
of water—in other words, of making the value of the density of water prac-
tically equal to unity. We are now all but unanimous in regarding this latter
element of simplicity as the more important of the two; and in support of
this view we desire to quote the authority of Sir W. Thomson, who has for a
long time insisted very strongly upon the necessity of employing units which
conform to this condition.
We accordingly recommend the general adoption of the Centimetre, the
Gramme, and the Second as the three fundamental units ; and until such time
as special names shall be appropriated to the units of electrical and magnetic
magnitude hence derived, we recommend that they be distinguished from
“‘ absolute” units otherwise derived,. by the letters ““C.G.S.” prefixed, these
being the initial letters of the names of the three fundamental units.
Special names, if short and suitable, would, in the opinion of a majority of
us, be better than the provisional designations ‘* C. G. 8S. unit of . .. .”
Several lists of names have already been suggested ; and attentive considera-
tion will be given to any further suggestions which we may receive from
persons interested in electrical nomenclature.
The ‘‘ ohm,” as represented by the original standard coil, is approximately
10° C. G. S. units of resistance; the “ volt”? is approximately 10° C.G.S.
units of clectromotive force; and the “ farad” is approximately a of the
C.G.8. unit of capacity. '
For the expression of high decimal multiples and submultiples, we recom-
-mend the system introduced by Mr. Stoney, a system which has already
been extensively employed for electrical purposes. It consists in denoting
the exponent of the power of 10, which serves as multiplier, by an appended
224, REPORT—18783.
cardinal number, if the exponent be positive, and by a prefixed ordinal
number if the exponent be negative.
Thus 10° grammes constitute a gramme-nine ; a of a gramme constitutes
a ninth-gramme ; the approximate length of a quadrant of one of the earth’s
meridians is a metre-seven, or a centimetre-nine.
For multiplication or division by a million, the prefixes mega * and micro
may conveniently be employed, according to the present custom of electricians.
Thus the megohm is a million ohms, and the microfarad is the millionth part
of a farad. The prefix mega is equivalent to the affix siv. The prefix mero
is equivalent to the prefix sith. ;
The prefixes kilo, hecto, deca, deci, centi, milli can also be employed in their
usual senses before all new names of units.
As regards the name to be given to the C. G. 8. unit of force, we recom-
mend that it be a derivative of the Greek dvrapis. The form dynamy appears:
to be the most satisfactory to etymologists. Dynam is equally intelligible,
but awkward in sound to English ears, ‘The shorter form, dyne, though not
fashioned according to strict rules of etymology, will probably be generally
preferred in this country. Bearing in mind that it is desirable to construct.
a system with a view to its becoming international, we think that the termi-
nation of the word should for the present be left an open question. But we
would earnestly request that, whichever form of the word be employed, its.
meaning be strictly limited to the unit of force of the C. G. 8. system—that
is to say, the force which, acting wpon a gramme of matter for a second, gene-
rates a velocity of a centimetre per second.
The C. G. 8. unit of work is the work done by this force working through a
centimetre ; and we propose to denote it by some derivative of the Greek
épyov. The forms ergon, ergal, and erg have been suggested ; but the second
of these has been used in a different sense by Clausius. In this case also we
propose, for the present, to leave the termination unsettled; and we request
that the word ergon, or erg, be strictly limited to the C. G.S. unit of work,
or what is, for purposes of measurement, equivalent to this, the C. G.S. unit
of energy, energy being measured by the amount of work which it represents.
The C. G. 8. unit of power is the power of doing work at the rate of one erg
per second; and the power of an engine, under given conditions of working,
can be specified in ergs per second.
For rough comparison with the vulgar (and variable) units based on ter-
restrial gravitation, the following statement will be useful :—
The weight of a gramme, at any part of the earth’s surface, is about 980
dynes, or rather less than a kilodyne.
The weight of a kilogramme is rather less than a megadyne, being about
980,000 dynes.
Conversely, the dyne is about 1:02 times the weight of a milligramme at
any part of the earth’s surface; and the megadyne is about 1-02 times the
weight of a kilogramme.
The kilogrammetre is rather less than the ergon-eight, being about 98
million ergs.
The gramme-centimetre is rather less than the kilerg, being about 980 ergs.
For exact comparison, the value of g (the acceleration of a body falling in
vacuo) at the station considered must of course be known. In the above ~
comparisons it is taken as 980 C. G.S. units of acceleration.
* Before a yowel, either mey or megal, as euphony may suggest, may be employed
instead of mega.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 225
One horse-power is about three quarters of an erg-ten per second. More
nearly, it is 7-46 erg-nines per second; and one force-de-cheval is 7°36 erg-nines
per second.
The mechanical equivalent of one gramme-degree (Centigrade) of heat is
41-6 megalergs, or 41,600,000 ergs.
APPENDIX.
Mr. Stoney has requested the insertion of the following extract from one
of his letters, written subsequently to the presentation of the foregoing
Report :—-
* Would you oblige me very much by putting on record, either in the
Report or as a footnote to it, that the centimetre was recommended as the
unit of length against my earnest remonstrance, and that I am in no degree
responsible for this decision. I would be glad to have the objections I urged
against it stated also. They were, ‘that it is far too small, and that its mul-
tiples and submultiples cannot be briefly designated. From its being too
small, it, in conjunction with the gramme and second, lands us in quite
out-of-the-way mechanical units—the unit of force which results being but
little more than the pressure of a milligramme, and the unit of work being
but little more than the hundredthousandth part of a grammetre. This
I deem a very serious objection.’
“T still think that these awkward consequences, and the footing which
the metre has already gained in science, will prove fatal to the recommenda-
tion of the Committee, and that experience will show that the metre must in
the end be accepted as the standard unit of length.”
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Purturrs, LL.D.,
F.R.S., Professor Harkness, F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S.,
Jamus Tomson, Joun Brice, and L. C. Mratn, on the Labyrin-
thodonts of the Coal-measures. Drawn up by Li. C. Miaux, Secretary
to the Committee.
[Puates I, II., I1T.]
Tur Committee have to report that some of their number have personally
examined all the more important examples of Labyrinthodonts in European
collections, including at least one example of every species recorded from the
British Isles. They desire to thank many private collectors and officers of
public museums for facilities afforded.
The preparation of a memoir on the classification of the Carboniferous
species is in progress; meanwhile the Committee offer a preliminary sketch
of the structure of the Labyrinthodonts.
The Skull (general).—The general figure of the skull varies greatly in this
order. It is usually triangular, with a rounded anterior end, and a concave
posterior border, but may be oval, parabolic, pyriform, or hexagonal. In
one species of Archegosaurus (A. Decheni) it is greatly produced, so that the
length exceeds twice the breadth. More commonly the greatest breadth is
nearly equal to the length. In Brachyops the greatest breadth is rather
more than the length. The upper and lower surfaces of the cranium are
usually crushed flat. Rarely, as in the single skull of Zygosawrus and in
one example of Loaomma, is the original contour preserved.
1873. Q
226 REPORT—1873.
The following bones have been identified in the skulls of Labyrin-
thodonts :—
Premaxillaries (one or two), Supratemporals (two).
Maxillaries (two). Quadrato-jugals (two).
Nasals (two). Supraoccipitals (one or two).
Lachrymals (two). Exoccipitals (two).
Frontals (two). Parasphenoid.
Prefrontals (two). Pterygoids (two).
Postfrontals (two). Palatals (two).
Postorbitals (two). Vomers (two).
Jugals (two). Quadrates (two).
Parietals (two). Mandible (each ramus consisting
Squamosals (two). normally of three pieces, viz.
Epioties (two). articular, angular, and dentary).
There may thus be forty-seven distinct elements present; and this is appa-
rently the number in Lowvomma (Pl. I.).
In Trematosaurus the premaxillaries are united. According to Cope*
there is no quadrato-jugal in Pariostegus, but the maxillaries have a free
termination behind. Pteroplax appears, from at least three well-preserved
specimens, to have no maxillaries, resembling in this respect the recent
Siren ; it wants also the postero-lateral ossifications external to the level of
the orbitst. In Batrachiderpeton the maxillaries are undoubtedly absent,
and the premaxillaries have a free posterior termination ¢. All the well-
preserved mandibles hitherto examined have consisted of three pieces only
in each ramus. Burmeister has described six elements as present in a
shattered mandible of Zrematosaurus § ; and Mr. Hancock records a splenial
piece in the mandible of Anthracosaurus ||. The jaw upon which this latter
determination is founded is fragmentary, and the internal plate in question
may prove to be part of the articular bone. At the time of the publication of
the ‘ Paliontologie Wiirtembergs,’ Von Meyer seems to have attributed six man-
dibular elements to Mastodonsaurus (pp. 18, 25) ; but this is certainly erroneous,
Prof. Huxley speaks of a splenial in Pachygonia and Gonioglyptus.
The general disposition of these bones is similar to that of the Crocodilian
skull. The resemblance is closer as regards the bones of the upper surface
than with respect to those which compose the palate, and it does not hold
good at all of the axial elements of the skull. The occipital and sphenoidal
ossifications differ essentially from those of the Crocodile or any other reptile.
The superior surface of the skull is interrupted by five openings, viz. two
nasal apertures or external nares, two orbits, and a parietal foramen. The
apertures of the ears are situate at the junction of the superior and posterior
surfaces, adjacent to the epiotics. There are no lateral-temporal { or supra-
temporal fossee, as in Crocodilia, nor any of the spaces unoccupied by bone
which, in addition to the nasal apertures and orbits, break up the roof of the
cranium in most existing Amphibia. (Dasyceps has a “ facial fontanelle”**.)
* Trans. American Philosophical Society, vol. xiv. N.S. pt. 1, p. 10 (1870).
t Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. pt. 1, p. 216 (1871).
¢ Ibid. p. 216.
§ Die Labyrinthodonten aus dem bunten Sandstein, pt. 1, pp. 38-41 (1849).
|| Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. pt. 2, p. 388 (1872).
§| Lateral-temporal fossee haye been supposed to occur in Zygosawrus. See p. 235
(footnote).
** See appendix by Prof. Huxley to Howell’s “Memoir on the Geology of the Warwick
Coal-field,” Mem. Geol. Survey, p. 54.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 227
The posterior or occipital surface is more or less vertical. It may present
an occipital foramen, a pair of occipital condyles, the apertures of the ears,
which are directed backwards, and the large openings of the palato-temporal
or pterygoid fosse. On each side of the occipital bones there may project
horizontally backwards the postero-internal or epiotic cornua. The articular
surface for the lower jaw forms the external and inferior angle, when it is
well preserved. It appears to have been often in great part cartilaginous.
The inferior or palatal surface of the cranium is rarely exposed. A para-
sphenoid, as in Teleostean and Ganoid fishes and recent Amphibia, extends
forwards from the occipital region, and passes into a rostrum or processus
cultriformis in front. The posterior part of the parasphenoid is usually ex-
panded, and presents lateral wings which are continuous with the pterygo-
palatine processes. The palatine foramina, which are oval and usually of
large size, are separated from each other by the processus cultriformis, or by
this and the vomers together. A transverse bridge of bone, consisting of a
pterygoid, or of a pterygoid and a palatal, divides the palatine foramen from
the palato-temporal fossa. A narrow slip, furnished by the maxilla, and
containing a row of teeth, lies along the outer edge of the mouth, and has
the elongated palatal on its inner side as far forwards as the posterior nares.
There are a pair of vomers, as in recent Amphibia. Like the palatals, they bear
teeth. The posterior nares are oval or rounded apertures, varying a good
deal in position. In Yrematosaurus* they lie between the palatal, vomer,
and maxilla, towards the fore part of the snout. In Anthracosaurus they
are placed much further back, though probably bounded by the same bones.
The longitudinal distance between the external and posterior nares may be
considerable, as in Labyrinthodont, or very short, as in Dasycepst. The
latter genus must have had nearly vertical nasal passages, like recent Batra-
chia. In no Labyrinthodont is the prolongation backwards of the nasal
passages at all comparable to that which obtains in Crocodilia. A pair of
cavities lying in or adjacent to the premaxillaries may represent pits for the
reception of mandibular tusks, or spaces occupied by membrane. The first
explanation was proposed by Burmeister in his remarks on Trematosaurus ;
but Von Meyer observes that the apertures do not in all species of Labyrin-
thodonta correspond with the position of the large teeth of the mandible. If
this supposition be rejected, we must regard the apertures as anterior palatine
foramina.
The subcutaneous surface of the cranial bones is ordinarily sculptured.
This sculpture may take the form of pits arranged in each bone round the
centre of ossification. The pits sometimes pass into grooves towards the
margin of the bone, and are then placed radially, all the grooves pointing
towards one centre, which does not, however, in the adult necessarily, or
indeed usually, occupy the middle point of the bone. The skull of Zovomma
has a honeycomb surface ; and in Hylonomus§ the cranial bones are smooth.
Besides these local systems of pits or grooves, a series of more continuous
“mucous canals” is seen in some genera, taking the form of semicylindrical
grooves which pass from before to behind along the face. These canals vary
much as to their extent and prominence. They may be confined to the
muzzle, or may be found in the temporal and maxillary regions also. They
are usually visible between and in front of the orbits, approaching each other
* Burmeister, ‘Die Labyrinthodonten aus dem bunten Sandstein. I. Trematosaurus
(1849).
+ Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol, Soc.’ vol. vi. 2nd series, p. 531 (1842). {| Huxley, loc. cit. p. 56.
§ Dawson, ‘ Acadian Geology,’ 2nd ed. p. 371 (1868).
a2
228 REPORT—1873.
in the interorbital space, and receding from each other over the parietal
tract. Sometimes they are seen to converge once more towards the anterior
or external nares, completing thus the figure of a lyre, which they have been
thought to resemble. They become deeper and more defined with age.
In Trematosaurus, Burmeister* distinguishes frontal, malar, and maxillary
canals (“‘Stirn-, Backen-, und Mundrand-Furchen”). The frontal canals are
first conspicuous between the anterior nasal apertures, running parallel to
each other at this point. They pass in diverging curves backwards across
the snout, are approximated towards the orbits, immediately behind which
they diverge again, and then terminate. The malar canals are somewhat
broader. They pass forwards from the aperture of the ear to the centre of
the postorbital, curve downwards to near the angle of the-mouth, where they
touch the maxillary canals, and then take a nearly straight course across
the jugal and supratemporal to the posterior margin of the skull. The
maxillary canals are faintly marked at their origin near the tip of the
snout, but become gradually broader and deeper. ‘They rise a little upon
the side of the skull halfway between the nasal apertures and the orbits,
but are contiguous to the edge of the mouth throughout the rest of their
course. They disappear gradually near the angle of the mouth. The mucous
canals of Mastodonsaurus are very similar, but the lyra is more dilated and
more regularly oval. In Gonioglyptust the facial canals are strongly angu-
lated, curving outwards and forwards from the interorbital space, and then
suddenly becoming parallel.
In Archegosawrus the mucous canals are visible only in the large skulls.
They are distinct along the inner border of the orbit, passing thence for-
wards upon the prefrontal, and backwards upon the postfrontal and supra-
temporal. Burmeister’s restorationt seems to exhibit the canals too pro-
minently upon the preorbital part of the face.
In Lovomma the canals pass in simple curves from the inner borders of
the orbits to the posterior external angles of the premaxillaries, and are
united in front by a slightly curved canal which runs along the free border
of the premaxillaries above the alveolus. A short maxillary canal is pre-
sent in this genus.
The skulls of Crocodilia agree with those of the Labyrinthodonts in haying
a pitted sculpture, though in the former order the pits and grooves are not
usually radiate. Mucous canals are not found in Crocodilia. Both kinds
of sculpture are, in all probability, related to the nutrition of the cutis.
The cranial bones (with the exception of the quadrate and parts of the
occipital segment in many Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts) are fully ossified,
and this from the time that the animal leaves the shell. As a rule, no inter-
spaces or fontanelles are visible at any age§, though examples of Archego-
saurus of embryonic size, in which the skull was not more than one twentieth
of the length of the adult state, have been examined with reference to this
point.
This mode of development of the skull is not confined to Labyrinthodonts.
In Crocodilia the same thing is observed. A recently hatched Crocodile pre-
sents no cranial interspaces or fontanelles. Not only are the sutures of the
Crocodilian skull closed before the end of embryonic life, but the frontals and
* Trematosaurus, p. 6.
t Huxley, “Vertebrate Fossils from the Panchet Rocks,” Palsontologica Indica, p. 5,
t. vi. f. | (1865).
} Archegosaurus, p. 8. t. iv. fig. 1.
§ A membranous interspace, or “ facial fontanelle,” exists in Dasyceps.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 229
parictals, originally paired bones, are respectively united at that early period.
This rapid formation of a solid and compactly articulated skull does not pre-
clude the further growth of every separate bone. In both Crocodilia and
Labyrinthodonts the skull ultimately becomes many times as large as it was
at birth, retaining all the time its accurately closed sutures, and increasing
by additions to all the borders of each ossification. The growth of the Cro-
codilian skull appears to be quite indefinite, ending only with the life of the
individual ; and the same may have been true of the Labyrinthodont. This
mode of enlargement is compatible with great progressive changes in the
proportions of the skull. In Crocodilia and Labyrinthodonts alike, the face
increases more rapidly than the brain-case ; so that the orbits may recede
from near the centre to the junction of the posterior and middle thirds of the
skull. This is the case, for example, with Archeyosuurus Decheni.
All these peculiarities of the skull—the early ossification and junction by
suture of the cranial bones, their indefinite or, at least, protracted growth, the
generally persistent sutures which are implied thereby, the ever-increasing
ratio of the entire skull to the chamber in which the brain is lodged, and,
lastly, the pitted sculpture of the subcutaneous surfaces—are interesting
points of physiological resemblance between the Labyrinthodonts and Cro-
codilia ; but they are too directly associated with mode of life and external
conditions to support any argument as to zoological affinity.
The orbits vary much as to size, position, and form. In Loxomma they
are 36 of the length of the skull along the middle line; in Dasyceps not
more than -1. In Metopias they lie in the anterior half of the skull; in
Mastodonsaurus they are nearly central; in Capitosaurus they lie in the
posterior half. As to form, they may be round, oval, elliptical, or irregular.
In Pteroplax and Batrachiderpeton the outer bony wall (at least) of the orbit
seems to be deficient.
The interorbital space and the external nasal apertures are equally variable.
The Occipital Seyment.—It is to be regretted that the occipital region of
the Labyrinthodonts, especially of the Carboniferous genera, is so imperfectly
known. No part of the skull would yield characters of greater zoological
significance were its structure fully revealed. In most of the Carboniferous
examples examined nothing is shown of the occipital segment, except one or
two supraoccipital plates. The deficiency of occipital condyles in Archego-
saurus, of which many singularly perfect specimens have occurred, seems to
show that, like the vertebral centra of that genus, they were never ossified,
but remained cartilaginous throughout life. Lowomma, on the contrary,
which has well-ossified centra, has also ossified condyles; they are small,
very convex, and closely approximated. In the Triassic Labyrinthodonts the
occipital region was fully ossified; and these are our best guides to the
structure of the occipital segment in the whole order. Even in the Triassic
species the basioccipital is concealed by a parasphenoid, and the form of the
occiput, with its numerous cavities and processes, is not favourable to the
complete preservation of details. 2
The boundaries of the component parts of the occipital segment have in no
case been traced. It is probable that in the Mastodonsauria (e. g. T'remato-
Saurus) a pair of exoccipitals surrounded the foramen magnum*, and sup-
ported the occipital condyles, that a cartilaginous supraoccipital, ultimately
replaced by a pair of membrane-bones, surmounted the segment, and that in
the basioccipital tract the cartilaginous primordial skull was never ossified,
but was underlain and finally absorbed by the parasphenoid plate. In
* Burmeister, Trematosaurus, p. 24.
230 REPORT—1878.
Archegosaurus the elements of the occipital segment proper may have been
persistently cartilaginous, except so far as they were encroached upon by the
supraoccipital and parasphenoid ossifications. The condyles were most
probably entirely cartilaginous. Professor Owen* supposes that “the head
was connected by ligament, as in Protopteri, to the vertebral column of the
trunk, and chiefly by the basioccipital part.”
The existence of two lateral occipital condyles in this order is a feature of
great morphological importance and zoological value. If, as Von Meyer and
many other writers have supposed, the Labyrinthodonts are true Reptilia, they
constitute the one exception to the rule that in each of the four higher classes
of Vertebrata the number of occipital condyles is constant.
The Parasphenoid (sphenoideum of Yon Meyer+ and Burmeistert).—In
Trematosaurus a large undivided bone underlies the base of the cranium,
giving off on either side a postero-lateral process which joins the suspensorial
peduncle. In front it passes into a rostrum or processus cultriformis, which
separates the palatine foramina, and articulates in front with the vomers.
Between the postero-lateral and the cultriform processes there is on each side
a broad outstanding extension of the parasphenoid, which joins the pterygoid,
and, together with that bone, separates the palatine foramen from the palato-
temporal fossa§. Burmeister describes lateral ascending processes of the
bone as passing upwards to join the margins of the parietals on the under-
side of the cranial roof and extending forwards to about the level of the
parietal foramen ||. The parasphenoid of Mastodonsaurus has in general the
same form and relations.
In Archegosaurus a similar bone is found, but so displaced that its con-
nexions cannot be accurately made out. It is of spatulate form—the posterior
end being dilated and of rounded triangular or polygonal outline, while the
anterior end is extended into a long slender processus cultriformis. The ex-
panded end is often displaced backwards so as to project beyond the base of
the skull. The connexions of this bone with the pterygoid are shown in one
of the examples figured by Von Meyer§. Its position with respect to the
palatine foramen and the palato-temporal fossa appears to have been much
the same as in Z’rematosaurus; but there is no trace of any postero-lateral
process given off to join the quadrate. That bone has not, indeed, been
identified in any specimen of Archegosaurus; nor is the mandibular articula-
tion known in this genus**, The fore part of the parasphenoid of Anthraco-
saurusisknowntt. It agrees in all essential points with that of Archegosaurus.
Prof. Owen has figured a detached parasphenoid of Dendrerpeton associated
with other bones; but no mention is made of it in the texttt.
In Loxomma the upper surface of the parasphenoid has been examined.
About an inch in advance of the spheno-occipital suture are two broken
processes 3 of an inch apart, which are directed towards the parietal bones.
Again in advance is a strong median ridge, extending as far as the anterior
third of the palatine foramen, which may have supported an interorbital
septum, .
There is no ground for doubting that this element of the Labyrinthodont
* Comp. Anat. of Vertebrates, vol. i. p. 85.
t Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, p. 19. t Trematosaurus, p. 29.
§ Burmeister, Zrematosaurus, § 14. || Loe. ett. p. 30.
| Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, t. v. fig. 7.
** The parasphenoid of Archegosaurus is described by Von Meyer, ‘Reptilien’ &e., p. 19.
tt Husley, “Description of Anthracosaurus Russelli,” Quart. Journ, Geol, Soe. vol. xix.
p. 56 (1863).
tt Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. ix. p. 58 (1853); see also pl. ii. fig. 2.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTs. 231
skull is homologous with the parasphenoid of recent Teleostean Fishes,
Ganoids, and Amphibia*,
The Pterygoid.—A pterygoid element may be recognized in a bone which
is found to lie contiguous to the parasphenoid of Archegosaurus in several
examples}. The two bones are shown but little disturbed in plate v. fig. 7
of Von Meyer’s great work. In Z'rematosawrus the boundaries of the bone
haye not been traced, though its position is not doubtfult. The pterygoids
of Mastodonsaurus, Metopias, and others, are known in the same way.
In Archegosaurus, as probably in all Labyrinthodonts, the Amphibian plan
of structure prevails in the pterygoidregion. There are two pterygoids; and
these are nowhere in contact, but are separated by the parasphenoid. Each
pterygoid has a broad surface which divides the palatine foramen in front
from the palato-temporal fossa behind, passing transversely, but somewhat
obliquely, from the parasphenoid internally to the palatal on the outer side.
In addition to this transverse plate there is in Archegosaurus, Batrachiderpeton,
and Loxvomma, at least, a long slender process, which is continued forwards
along the outer margin of the palatine foramen; its anterior termination is
unknown.
The Palatal.—The lower surface of the palatal presents the form of a long
and narrow slip interposed between the maxilla and the produced anterior
part of the pterygoid. Its boundaries have not been accurately traced in any
Labyrinthodont ; but it appears to reach the vomer in front, and to form part
of the boundary of the posterior nasal aperture, while behind it may help to
bound the palato-temporal fossa. The palatal usually bears a series of teeth,
which increase in size from the ordinary size of maxillary teeth behind to
large tusks in front§.
In recent Batrachia the palatal is transverse, dividing the palatine from
the posterior nasal foramina; but in Gymnophiona it closes the posterior
nares behind, and then extends backwards along the inner side of the maxilla,
as in Labyrinthodonts ||.
The Vomer.—In Labyrinthodonts (as in Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Ophidia,
and all recent Amphibia, excepting a few Batrachia{]), the vomer is
double. It is usually bounded by the premaxillaries in front, by the
maxilla, posterior nasal aperture, and end of the palatal externally, and
along the middle line by its fellow of the opposite side. The posterior
margin appears to be usually connected with the processus cultriformis
mesially, and with the palatal on the outer side; while between these
points it forms part of the anterior boundary of the palatal foramen. The
vomer in Labyrinthodonts is of great proportionate breadth, forming an
unusually large part of the bony palate.
A row of vomerine teeth of varying number, some of which are of large
size, is disposed longitudinally along the bone in Trematosaurus, Archego-
* “One thing [in the skull of the Bullfrog, Rana pipiens, L.] appears to be quite
unique, although it will perhaps turn up in some other type and, perchance, in the extinct
‘Labyrinthodont.’ This is the presence of an anterior ‘parasphenoid,’ the fore part of the
‘rostrum’ being separately ossified.””—W. K. Parker “‘ On the Structure and Development
of the Skull of the Common Frog,” Phil. Trans. vol. elxi. pt. i. p. 193 (1871). This an-
ticipation still waits for fulfilment.
t+ Von Meyer, ‘ Reptilien’ &c., t. ii. fig. 4, t. v. f. 1, t. vi. f. 7, 8. t{ Burmeister,
§ The fragment (of Labyrinthodon?) figured by Professor Owen (Trans. Geol. Soc. vol.
vi. 2 ser. t. xliii. fig. 4) appears to include a portion of the palatal; and there are traces
upon it of a row of palatal teeth.
|| Huxley, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,’ p. 179; Dugés, ‘Recherches sur l’ost. ct
la myol. des Batraciens,’ t. xiv. fig. 93.
{| Pipa, Dactylethra, Pelobates.
232 REPORT—1873.
saurus, and Anthracosaurus. In Labyrinthodon this longitudinal row
terminates in front with a large tusk, which is at the same time the
outermost of a short transverse series*.
In the remarkable genus Batrachiderpetont+ a very different type of
palatal structure is presented. Here the vomers form a pair of large,
somewhat triangular plates, which support the premaxillaries in front, and
pass to the pterygoids on either side behind. A large central tract of the
vomerine surface is thickly covered with minute conical teeth, while the outer
margin of what is apparently the same bone bears a series of ten or more
stronger compressed teeth+. The structure here described is most nearly
paralleled by the Perennibranchiate Amphibia and by certain fishes, the
Carboniferous Megalichthys among the rest.
The Premaxillary—The premaxillary is usually double in Labyrin-
thodonts, but single in Zvrematosaurus§. Its proportions vary greatly
according to age and species.
On the superior surface of the skull the premaxillary articulates with the
nasal and maxillary of the same side, and bounds in part the external nasal
aperture. On the palatal surface it is supported behind by the vomer and
ordinarily by the maxillary also. The row of maxillary teeth is continued
along the premaxillary border, in most cases without interruption or marked
difference in size. There may be eleven or more premaxillary teeth on each
side; the number is not constant beyond the limits of the species.
Elliptical cavities have been observed upon the under surface of the
premaxillary ; and these have been compared to the dental pits of Alligator
by Burmeister, who supposes that they received the large mandibular teeth |].
This view harmonizes well with the structure of 7rematosaurus, in which
there are large tusks internal to the serial mandibular teeth. In Archego-
saurus, however, there are no tusks in the mandible, yet the cavities in the
palatal plate of the praeemaxilla are plainly visible. It is possible that these
apertures, as well as the similar one in Anthracosaurus, may have been
yacuities occupied in the living animal by membrane4].
The premaxillary of Batrachiderpeton appears to differ essentially from
the bone as it exists in other Labyrinthodonts. It is produced outwards for
a short distance beyond the end of the series of teeth, and appears to have
terminated in a free point unconnected with a maxilla, as in Menobranchus,
Siren, and Proteus.
The Maxilla—The maxilla in Labyrinthodonts takes the form of a long
narrow slip of bone, comprising nearly all the marginal alveoli of the teeth
* Owen, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soe.’ vol. vi. part 2.
+ Hancock and Atthey, ‘ Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iy. p. 208.
{ This outer slip, reaching to the pterygoid, is possibly a palatal.
§ Burmeister, doc. cit. p. 8. “Two premaxillary bones are usually ascribed to the
Batrachia ; but in many Salamanders they are confluent. Thus, while they are double in
Salamandra, they are single in Hemisalamandra, Triton, and Diemyetylus. In Ambly-
stomide they are double. Among Plethodontide they vary. Of Plethodontine genera,
Batrachoseps and Stereochila have them single and Plethodon double. Of Spelerpine
forms, Manculus, Gidipus, and Spelerpes have but one, and Geotriton and Gyrinophilus
have two premaxillaries. Desmognathus and Amphiuma have single premaxillaries.”—
ree ae Cope, ‘Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of North America,’ p. 4
ootnote ).
f \| Loc. cit. p. 9. See also Prof. Huxley, ‘Anat. of Vert. Animals,’ p.183. “In many of
the Labyrinthodonts, again, two of the anterior mandibular teeth take on the form of long
tusks, which are received into fossee, or foramina, of the upper jaw, as in most existing
Crocodilia.”
q In the description of Anthracosaurus, Prof. Huxley refers to this cavity as the
anterior palatine foramen,
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 233
and but little else. It usually extends on either side from the premaxillary
to the angle of the mouth, and is in contact with the quadrato-jugal behind.
In front, and upon the upper surface of the skull, the maxilla may be some-
what expanded so as to occupy an obtuse angle bounded by the nasal and
lachrymal. It generally adjoins the external nasal aperture for a greater or
less distance ; and its internal facial border is successively contiguous to the
nasal, lachrymal, and jugal. Upon the inferior or palatal surface it may
reach forwards to the posterior nasal foramen, or be exeluded therefrom by
the junction of the palatal and vomer. No palatine plate of appreciable
breadth is developed; and the maxilla of opposite sides are nowhere
in contact.
Batrachiderpeton and Pteroplax have no maxille ; and Pariostegus may have
had imperfect maxille ending behind in a free point, as in Salamandra &e.
The maxillary teeth are usually of small size, and form a regular series,
diminishing slightly towards the angle of the mouth. The number in
Archegosaurus is upwards of thirty; and the gaps represent about as many
more. In Baphetes and Labyrinthodon there are anterior maxillary tusks,
while in Anthracosaurus both the premaxillary and two or more of the
anterior maxillary teeth are of unusual size and strength, almost equalling
the vomerine and palatine tusks.
The Nasal.—The nasal bones are double in this order. They bound the
external nasal apertures behind, and extend backwards to join the
frontals. In front, where they are contiguous to the maxilla or are inter-
posed between the maxilla and the premaxillary, they are broadest, while
they gradually contract backwards in proportion to the increasing breadth of
the lachrymal.
Like all the bones of the face, not only in Labyrinthodonts but in
Vertebrata generally, the nasals become longer and longer relatively to the
brain-case as age advances. This is notably the case with long-snouted
animals, such as the Crocodilia, and is most apparent in those species of
Labyrinthodonts which have elongated skulls (e.g. Archegosaurus Decheni).
The facial bones of Labyrinthodonts, and particularly the nasals, are as a rule
unsymmetrical and variable in form. This is another peculiarity of much-pro-
duced skulls; it is exemplified by Ichthyosauria and by Crocodilia, especially |
old individuals of Crocodilus intermedius and Rhynchosuchus Schlegelit.
The Lachrymal.<-When present, the lachrymal lies anterior to the jugal ;
it is bounded by the maxilla on the outer side, and by the nasal and
prefrontal internally. In Trematosaurus Burmeister represents it as reach-
ing the orbit ; but in reality it is excluded therefrom by the junction of the
prefrontal and jugal, as in most other Labyrinthodonts.
The Frontal, Prefrontal, and Postfrontal.—Three sets of frontal ossifica-
tions are normally present, viz. a pair of frontals proper, which lie between
the nasals and the parietals in the median or coronal series, and on each side
of the head a prefrontal and a postfrontal, which bound respectively the
anterior and posterior part of the inner margins of the orbits. The prefrontal
_ and postfrontal generally unite to exclude the frontal proper from the orbit.
Externally the prefrontal is, as usual, adjacent to the lachrymal when that
bone is present.
The froutals increase more rapidly in length than in breadth as age
advances ; but the relative change is not so marked as in the case of the
nasals. It is most apparent in those species which have, when adult, a much-
roduced snout. The frontals are always more or less unsymmetrical.
The following diagram, intended to illustrate the general disposition of the
234 REPORT-—1873.
bony plates which roof in the cranium of the Labyrinthodonts, is also
applicable in great part to the lower Vertebrates generally. The Crocodilia
and the Ganoid fishes agree well with the typical arrangement; but in
the latter order other ossifications are intercalated, especially around the
orbit. In Crocodilia the postorbital and supratemporal are wanting, the
lateral temporal fossa occupying their place, and the epiotic is not externally
visible. The postorbitals and supratemporals are not found in any existing
Amphibian.
Lasyrintnopont Tyre.
La PFr
Mr... | yr
Fa Pto PLES
Pa
QU ST Sy
ee ieee :
Qu SO
The Parictal—tIn all Labyrinthodonts the parietals are paired bones,
occupying the normal position between the supraoccipitals and the frontals.
The most striking peculiarity which they present is perhaps the parietal
foramen, an oval or circular cavity of small size, lying in the interparietal
suture. A parietal foramen is known to exist in all the genera in which the
parietal bones are sufficiently well preserved to determine the point. As the
parietals lengthen with age, the foramen is placed further and further back
in the interparietal suture. This is well exemplified by <Archegosaurus
Decheni, a species with a much elongated skull, of which an extensive suite
of specimens, differing greatly in age, can be compared. It is relatively large
in Zygosaurus, and very small in Mastodonsaurus.
A parietal foramen is unknown in recent Amphibia*. It is present in
Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria, and many Lacertilia.
In Batrachiderpeton the parietal, occipital, and some other adjacent bones
are defined by strong raised lines. In this genus the parietals extend
unusually far forwards.
The underside of the coronal bones is sometimes smooth (Mastodonsaurus) ;
it may present ridges which pass in pairs forwards and backwards from near
the parietal foramen. The anterior pair run nearly parallel; but the posterior
pair generally diverge rapidly. This aspect of the coronal bones as revealed
in a slab of coal-shale, has often a most deceptive resemblance to the para-
sphenoid of Ctenodus. The ridges probably indicate the lines of attachment
* The so-called “fronto-parietal fontanelle” of many recent Batrachia is not to be
confounded with the parietal foramen.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 235
of vertical plates connecting the roof and floor of the skull. That these
plates were in the Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts usually cartilaginous,
is shown by the complete flattening together of the two faces of bone in
nearly all the examples which have occurred *,
. The Jugal.—When present, the jugal intervenes between the maxilla and
the quadrato-jugal. Its relation to the outer side of the orbit is very
constant. The jugal is deficient in Pteroplaw and Batrachiderpeton, and
probably in Pariostegus.
The Supratemporal and Postorbital_The presence of supratempora]l and
postorbital bones is one of the distinctive features of the Labyrinthodont
skullt. In the recent Gymnophiona the lateral temporal fosse do not exist ;
and the Labyrinthodonts are the only Amphibia, recent or fossil, in which
the fosse are closed by special ossifications. The supratemporal and post-
orbital are not uniformly present in this order.
The “supratemporal foramen,” described by Prof. Huxley as occurring in
Anthracosaurus, appears to be a small perforation in the supratemporal bone.
It has no analogy with the supratemporal foramen or fossa of the Crocodilia.
Rhinosaurust has a small round foramen at about the same place.
The Squamosal.—The relation of the squamosal to the external auditory
meatus renders it highly probable that the internal ear underlies this bone.
A squamosal occurs in all the genera of Labyrinthodonts which are accu-
rately known, except in Pteroplax.
The Epiotic—The pair of membrane-bones named “epiotic” by Prof.
Huxley are adjacent to the aperture of the ear and to the supraoccipital plates.
They are often pointed behind, like the corresponding ossifications of some
Teleostean and Ganoid fishes. Epiotic horns are present in Lowomma, Uro-
cordylus §, Pteroplax, Batrachiderpeton, and Keraterpeton. In the last-
mentioned genus they form great ‘‘ postero-internal cornua,” constituting
«‘ about two sevenths of the extreme length of the skull, and are pointed and
curved, so as to be slightly convex outwards; their surfaces are rounded from
side to side, and longitudinally striated” ||.
The aperture of the ear is adjacent to the epiotic, and usually indents the
occipital or posterior border of the skull.
The Quadrato-jugal._—The quadrato-jugal is to be looked for at the postero-
external angle of the skull. In front it articulates with the jugal, and may
touch the maxilla. The degree of backward extension of the quadrato-jugal
varies greatly, according to the species and, in Archegosaurus, according to the
age of the individual.
The outer surface is strongly marked with radiating sculpture. Little is
known of the under surface ; it was probably applied to the mandibular sus-
* Small skulls are sometimes preserved which are nearly free from distortion ; and
Mr. George Maw has a large skull of Loxomma which exhibits the original convexity of
the upper surface.
+ It has been stated (Hichwald, ‘Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou,’
tom. xxi. 1848) that Zygosaurus has lateral temporal fossz ; but neither the description
(p- 167) nor the plates (2, 3) render it quite clear what the structure of this part of the
skull really is. The original surface of the bones has been removed by fracture. It seems
probable that a broad groove for muscular attachment existed on each side of the parietal
tract. ‘There is a trace of the same structure in Loxomma. No postorbital aperture, like
that of the Crocodilia, is shown ; and the temporal region may have been composed of the
ossifications usual in Labyrinthodonts.
+ Fischer de Waldheim, ‘Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou,’ tom. xx.
pt. 1 (1847), p. 364, t. v.
§ Hancock and Atthey, ‘ Nat. Hist, Trans. Northumberland and Durham,’ vol. iii. p. 310.
|| Huxley, ‘Collection of Fossil Vertebrata from Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny,’ p. 5 (1867).
236 REPORT—1873.
pensorium in great part, but may have furnished points of origin to some of
the mandibular muscles.
The relations of the quadrate and quadrato-jugal have not been determined
accurately ; but there is little chance of error in supposing that the quadrato-
jugal represents a membrane-bone investing the mandibular suspensorium, of
which the quadrate, when present, constitutes the ossified part. In some cases
at least (Mastodonsaurus, Archegosaurus, T'rematosaurus) the quadrato-jugal
furnishes the outermost part of the articular surface for the mandible.
The Quadrate-—The quadrate of the Labyrinthodonts is as yet very imper-
fectly known. In Trematosawrus, which has yielded the best materials for exa-
mination, it is described by Burmeister* as generally similar to the quadrate
of the Crocodile, and as contributing the two inner of three rounded depending
ridges for the articulation of the mandible, the quadrato-jugal supplying the
outermost. No other important details have been distinctly made out.
In Micropholis “ the articular end, ;%, of an inch broad, and flattened from
above downwards, exhibits a condyloid surface, which is divided by a groove
into a stronger internal and a less prominent external portion. In front of
the condyles the quadratum is very thin, but it rapidly expands so as to cover
all that remains of the flat lateral face of the suspensorium, and extends
forward to about midway between the articular condyle for the mandible and
the posterior margin of the orbit. At this point the bony matter disappears ”’}.
The suspensorium has a downward and backward direction, as in the adult
Batrachia. It probably remained more or less cartilaginous in many of the
Carboniferous species, as in most recent Amphibia.
The Mandible.-—The rami of the mandible are long and straight, of con-
siderable vertical extent near the condyle, and gradually tapering forwards.
The upper and lower edges are nearly straight ; but in some genera there is a
low coronoid process, which rises as an elongated triangle from the upper
border, sloping very gradually in front, but rather more rapidly behind.
Each ramus is made up of three elements $; (1) a dentary bone, which
receives the teeth, and, in some cases, constitutes the upper half of the ramus
throughout the greater part of its length; (2) an angular piece, which forms
the slightly marked angle of the mandible, and is continued forwards along
the lower border, both on the inner and outer side, to near the symphysis,
supporting the dentary bone by a groove upon its upper edge. The angular
bone is usually ornamented with a strong sculpture, radiating from the angle
itself. The articular element (3) comprises the condyle and the upper part
of the posterior end of the ramus. Its structure, as revealed by a fine
example of the mandible of Anthracosaurus, is thus described by Messrs.
Hancock and Atthey :—‘The articular piece stands well up; the neck is
short and stout; the process bearing the glenoid surface is massive, and is
transversely elongated, measuring two inches and a quarter long, and an inch
wide; the glenoid cavity is deep, and takes a slight sigmoid curve ; behind
at the outer margin there hag been a stout projecting process; and in front
towards the inner margin there has been a similar projection of the lip of the
articular cavity. It would therefore seem evident that the attachment of the
mandible to the tympanic trochlea must have been very firm, rendering the
movements of the jaw secure and precise” §. The glenoid cavity of Loxomma
is described by the same authors as “ transversely elongated, deep, and con-
siderably elevated”’||. It has no postarticular process.
* Trematosaurus, pp. 28,29. + Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’ vol. xv. p. 650 (1859).
t See p. 226.
§ Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. p. 389. | Ibid. p. 392.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTH ODONTS, 237
The mandible of Mastodonsaurus has a strong inwardly projecting process,
which supports an extension of the glenoid cavity, and a well-developed post-
articular process of Crocodilian form and proportions.
These differences might serve to arrange the Labyrinthodonts into two or
more groups. In Mustodonsaurus, Anthracosaurus, Trematosaurus, &c. the
postarticular process is strong, and projects far backwards. In Archegosaurus
the process is short and comparatively weak ; it is wanting in Lovomma.
Mere size will not explain these variations of structure. There is no ex-
traordinary difference of size of cranium among the genera mentioned; and
Loxomma, which alone wants the postarticular process, is neither the largest
nor the smallest. But the structural differences are not improbably due to
peculiarities of mode of life. The genera which have the ramus of the
mandible produced beyond the glenoid cavity have strong conical teeth, very
unequal in size, the largest being set at definite intervals. Zoaomma, on the
contrary, has flattened teeth with two cutting-edges; and the inequality of
size which they present is apparently due to irregular replacement. The first
group may have had the habits of many Crocodiles, feeding chiefly on dead
bodies or terrestrial animals, and consequently requiring strength in masti-
cation rather than special rapidity in opening and closing the jaws. Lovomma,
on the contrary, may have been a sort of Gavial among the Labyrinthodonts,
a fish-eater, whose supply of food depended upon dexterity in snapping up
small, quick-moving objects, gaining therefore by a structure of jaw which
gives velocity at the expense of force.
The dentary bone supports a row of teeth—and in Labyrinthodon a short .
inner series also, consisting of one, two, or three large tusks which are confined
to the symphysial end. This is also apparently the case with Trematosaurus,
and may be true of other examples, in which the mandible is distorted by
lateral compression so as to show tusks apparently in series with smaller
teeth. Dendrerpeton acadianum is represented as having in the lower jaw
“a uniform series of conical teeth, not perceptibly enlarged toward the front,
and an inner series of larger and plicated teeth, as in the upper jaw” *.
A large oval aperture has been observed upon the inner side of the lower
jaw, a little posterior to the middle of the ramus. It is bounded by the
articular bone above, and by the angular bone below. Such an internal
mandibular foramen exists in Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Pachygonia,
Gonioglyptus, and in undescribed specimens from the Keuper of Warwick,
No trace of an external mandibular foramen has been discovered. In Croco-
dilia both are present.
The mandibular symphysis was incomplete, and the rami were united by
ligament or fibro-cartilage, if we may judge from their constant separation in
a fossil state. In Pteroplax the opposed symphysial ends are expanded by an
inwardly directed process from the inferior border of each ramus.
A mucous canal has been observed to run along the lower margin of the
outer surface of the rami in Pteroplax, Lowomma, and others. A descending
eanal is strongly marked upon the external surface of the articular and angular
bones of some Triassic specimens. The sculpture, commonly present upon the
angular bone, may cover the entire subcutaneous surface, as in Loaomma.
The outer surface of the posterior end of the mandible is overlapped by the
quadrato-jugal, and in some cases by the maxilla also. In Rhinosaurus the
quadrato-jugal descends for a considerable distance over the mandible, as far
as the upper border of the angular bone.
* Dawson, ‘ Acadian Geology,’ 2nd ed. p. 365.
t Hancockand Atthey, ‘ Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham,’ vol. iii. p. 70,
238 REPORT—1873.
Sclerotic Orbital Ring.—In Archegosaurus Decheni* and A. latirostrist, a
series of ossicles, which undoubtedly constituted a bony sclerotic ring, has
been found. As many as twenty-three ossicles have been observed in one
specimen ; but, owing to their scattered position and the perishable nature of
the contiguous parts, no example shows the series in its true position. The
annular arrangement is distinctly visible in one specimen. The individual
ossicles are of nearly quadrilateral form f.
Teeth.—lt appears from the observations of Von Meyer that the tooth of a
Labyrinthodont (Archegosaurus) consists at first of a minute hollow cone of
enamel armed with two vertical diametrically opposite ridges. This, the true
crown of the tooth, retains its original structure and size until it disappears
by abrasion or fracture§. It does not, however, remain in its original
position, sessile upon the alveolar surface, but is gradually elevated upon a
conical base. This base, which is often the only part of the tooth preserved,
has the general form of a hollow cone of dentine, coated thinly with enamel,
and enclosing a pulp-cavity. The dentinal wall in a well-characterized
Labyrinthodont becomes folded longitudinally ; and some or nearly all of the
folds may be again plaited. In a much convoluted tooth the folds are very
compact, and leave only linear spaces between them. In this way the thick-
ness of the dentinal wall is greatly increased, and the central cavity much
encroached upon.
In Labyrinthodon, Prof. Owen describes a layer of cement as penetrating
such of the interspaces between the dentinal folds as communicate with the
exterior ||. This structure is certainly wanting in the Carboniferous Laby-
rinthodonts, where neither enamel nor cement is present between the folds of
dentine. A cross section of such a tooth as has been described exhibits a set
of sinuous and, it may be, branched interspaces communicating with the ex-
terior, and corresponding series (separated from the other by the dentinal
wall) of sinuous processes of the pulp-cavity.
In some of the Carboniferous species there are no secondary dentinal folds ;
and it would appear from the descriptions that in some of the “‘ Microsauria ”
of Dr. Dawson the dentine is not folded at all. Externally the tooth is
grooved, and sometimes ridged also. It is frequently compressed in the
direction of the axis of the jaw, so as to present an oval or elliptical section.
Vertical edges (anterior and posterior) extending downwards upon the basal
portion are found in Lovomma. In Pteroplaw they are confined to the apex,
but are larger than usual. As a rule they are minute and not persistent.
The teeth were attached to shallow depressions, which take the form of the
base and are often marked by radiating ridges corresponding with the den-
tinal folds. The mandibular alveolus is generally bordered by an external
ridge, which may be as much as a quarter of an inch high.
There is always a premaxillary series, and, except where the maxilla is
wanting, a maxillary series also, The maxillary teeth may form an unin-
terrupted row; or large tusks and depressions may occur at intervals. The
vomer and palatal are always dentigerous, giving attachment to an inner
longitudinal series, parallel with the outer or maxillary series. In Batra-
* Goldfuss, Beitrige, p. 7, t. 3. figs. 1,2; Von Meyer, ‘Reptilien’ &e., p. 21, t. vi.
+ Tbid. p. 125.
t A sclerotic ring is present in Lacertilia, Chelonia, Ichthyosauria, Pterosauria, and
Birds, absent in all existing Fishes and Amphibia, Plesiosauria, Crocodilia, and Ophidia.
§ In Loxomma the crown of the tooth is of great size, and extends far down upon the base.
| Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. 2nd series, p. 507, and ‘Odontography,’ pp. 201, 203.
paar is no mention of inflection of the enamel, which, it is stated, “‘ ceases at the base of
the crown.”
—_—
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 239
chiderpeton the vomerine plates are armed with clustered teeth, resembling
the aggregated teeth of Siren and Siredon. The mandible bears a row of
teeth, which may be continuous, or interrupted by large tusks and depressions.
A pair of tusks is frequently found near the anterior end of the rami. In
Labyrinthodon, Trematosaurus, and some other genera a short inner series
of large teeth is found near the symphysial end of the mandible. Among
recent Amphibia a double row of mandibular teeth occurs in Hpicriwm and
Siredon: it is present in many fishes,
Most commonly a number of teeth are represented only by gaps, or scars
upon the alveolar border; the vacant places frequently alternate. with the
standing teeth, rendering it probable that about half the teeth were normally
efficient at the same time, and that they were replaced alternately. The
substitution of the palatal teeth was less regular: new teeth appear to have
been usually developed upon vacant spaces; but in some instances. the
successional tooth appears in front, behind, or to the inner side of its
predecessor.
Vertebral Column.—tThe following general features of the vertebral column
of Labyrinthodonts may be noted :—
a, The number of vertebre is large.
b. There are at least two kinds of vertebree—thoracic and caudal.
c. The centra are biconcave.
_ d, A superior arch and spine are present in all the vertebre which are ac-
curately known.
e. Inferior arches are present in the caudal region.
f. Where zygapophyses are present, the anterior look more or less inwards
and generally upwards also..
g. The spinal foramen is much contracted.
The chief variations which occur in the corresponding vertebre of different
species are these :—
The centra vary greatly with respect to their degree of ossification. In
Archegosaurus, for example, the notochord is persistent, and the only osseous
parts of the vertebre are the superior arches, superior spinous processes,
transverse processes (proceeding from the laminz of the superior arches),
inferior arches, inferior spinous processes, and lateral wedge-bones (‘seitliche
-Keile” of Von Meyer = “‘interneural and interhemal pieces”?). It has
been suggested by Professor Huxley * that the inferior arches and lateral
wedge-bones may represent osseous rings, like those which remain of the
centra of Megalichthys, and that “they have broken up into the separate
pieces described by Von Meyer in the process of fossilization.” In Mastodon-
sauria, on the contrary, and most of the undoubted Carboniferous Labyrin-
thodonts, the centra are well ossified. In Zoxomma and Anthracosaurus a
small notochordal foramen is apparently persistent. A neuro-central suture
appears to have been permanently present in some, if not in all.
The centra of the Carboniferous species are usually discoidal, the antero-
posterior length being small; but the vertebree of Ophiderpeton and Lepter-
peton, as well as those of Labyrinthodon} and some of the Microsauria of
Dawson have hourglass-shaped centra of considerable longitudinal extent.
There are usually two articular facets for the ribs, both situate on the
neural transverse process. In Mastodonsaurus, however, the lower facet is
continuous with the centrum; and an example of the vertebral column of
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xix. p. 67 (note) (1863).
+ L. leptognathus (Owen, ‘Trans. Geol. Soe.’ vol. vi. t. xlv. figs. 5-8).
t Paliontologie Wiirtembergs, t. iv. fig. 8, and p. 58 (1844),
240 REPORT—18758.
a Labyrinthodont from the Northumberland coal field, which Mr. T. P. Barkas
has permitted us to study, seems to exhibit the same feature *.
The superior and inferior spinous processes differ greatly as to length
and form. In Archegosaurus and many others the spinous processes, both
superior and inferior, are broad and quadrilateral. In Urocordylus and
Cstocephalust the superior and inferior spinous processes of the long tail are
elongate and fan-shaped, being dilated, compressed, and truncated at the
distal ends, so as to suggest great swimming-power.
The inferior arches are rarely seen to advantage ; but in Archegosawrus they
are large and complete, forming a spacious canal for the caudal vessels f.
By study of young specimens of Archegosawrus it has been ascertained that
the superior vertebral arches ossify before the inferior, and the anterior ver-
tebre before the posterior. Von Meyer thinks it probable that the superior
arches were ossified to a considerable extent before the close of embryonic
life §.
The atlas of Muastodonsaurus has been figured and described ||. It is a
flattish disk, presenting two oval cavities to the occipital condyles, and nearly
smooth behind. Above, the lamine enclose the chief part of the spinal
foramen, ascending to form a spinous process of considerable but unknown
height. A cavity for the odontoid occupies nearly the centre of the bone,
between the articular facets, and communicates with the spinal foramen by a
constricted passage.
Ribs.—No Labyrinthodont is known to have been devoid of well-developed
ribs. They are generally attached to all the vertebre in advance of the
pelvis, and in some cases, at least, are present in the anterior part of the
caudal region also.
As to form, they are usually compressed (transversely to the axis of the
trunk) at either end, but are nearly cylindrical in the centre of the shaft.
They are short, relatively to the probable dimensions of the thorax, and
strongly curved. A capitulum and tuberculum are present in all well-
preserved examples. Both articular surfaces are slightly concave and
adjacent, and in most of the Labyrinthodonts both appear to have articulated
with the vertebral transverse process; a notch or groove commonly separates
them, and is usually continued for some distance along the shaft of the rib.
Sternal or abdominal ribs are not known to occur in this order.
It appears from the extensive suite of specimens described by Von Meyer],
that the ribs of Archegosaurus were developed and partially ossified at a very
early period, perhaps before the close of embryonic life, Some very young
* This fossil is named Macrosaurus polyspondylus by Mr. Barkas; but its generic
or specific distinctness cannot as yet be affirmed.
+ It is impossible not to suspect the identity of these genera. Prof. Cope remarks
(Trans. American Phil. Soc. vol. xiv. N. S. p. 16):—* Tt [ Qstocephalus| differs [from
Urocordylus] only in the presence of elongate lizard-like ribs, and in the absence of
‘oat-shaped scales’ of the lower surfaces.” But Urocordylus has slender ribs, of more
than usual length. Were the absence of oat-shaped scutes from the ventral surface of the
American examples of @stocephalus established, little could be proved thereby. In the
Northumberland coal-field Labyrinthodonts abound, yet the scutes appear not to have
been hitherto discovered. On the following page of his ‘Synopsis,’ however, Prof. Cope
says of (Estocephalus:—‘ The skin has been occupied by a great number of closely packed,
curved, spine-shaped scales. They have occupied the ventral integument, passing from
the median line of the belly outwards and posteriorly, having acute tips, which may or
may not have penetrated the skin on each side.” This structure cannot differ essentially
from the chevron pattern of oat-shaped scutes found in Urocordylus.
+ Von Meyer, ‘ Reptilien’ &c., p. 107, t. xii. fig. 7. § Reptilien &e., p. 29.
| Paléontologie Wirtembergs, t. v. figs. 4, 5, and p. 67. {| Reptilien &e., p. 33.
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 241
examples afford evidence of cartilaginous vertebral extremities, this evidence
consisting of the separation of the proximal ends of the ribs from the vertebral
column by a regular interval, and the hollowing-out of the ends as if for
junction with cartilage *. At this stage a transverse process may be seen to
project for a short distance from the lamina of the corresponding superior
arch. The junction is not completed by a true bony articulation until the
animal is nearly adult.
Shoulder-girdle.—The shoulder-girdle of the Labyrinthodonts includes
three thoracic plates (which represent the clavicles and interclavicles), one or
more scapular bones, and a coracoid. In form and arrangement these parts
differ much from the pectoral arch of any recent Amphibian, but correspond
generally with the structure which prevails in some Reptilia, such as the
Lacertilia (e.g. Trachydosaurus, Monitor, Iguana) and the Ichthyosauria.
The resemblance between the shoulder-girdle of the Labyrinthodonts and
that of the Ichthyosauria is close and striking.
The thoracic plates are eminently characteristic of the true Labyrintho-
donts. They are three in number, a median and two lateral. The median
plate is elongated, and more or less rhomboidal; it is placed longitudinally.
On each side it is overlapped by the lateral plates to a considerable degree,
especially upon the antero-external borders ; and frequently only the hinder
end is exposed. The free part ordinarily exhibits sculpturing. The lateral
plates have been compared as to form to the elytra of beetles. They are
often, but not always, triangular in form—the base, which is directed inwards,
being rounded, and the remaining sides set at an angle of 90 degrees or more.
A sculptured pattern is sometimes seen to radiate from the angle ; and this is
the thickest and strongest portion of the plate.
The thoracic plates extend nearly from side to side, and may protect a
third, or even more, of the ventral surface of the trunk. They vary greatly
as to form and relative size.
The median plate represents the interclavicle, and the lateral plates the
elavicles. All are dermal bones, forming no part of the true axial and ap-
pendicular endo-skeleton.
Behind these (that is, nearer to the pelvic arch) and in a deeper plane are
the remains of the scapula and coracoid. These are most completely pre-
served in Archegosaurus, and much resemble the corresponding parts in the
recent Siren.
The coracoid is ventrally situate, semilunar in form, haying a concave
thickened posterior margin, a thickened postero-external angle, and a regu-
larly rounded anterior edge. There is no reason to suppose that this does
not retain, approximately, its natural position. On the outer side of the
coracoid there lies in an oblique position a long, narrow, flattish slip of bone ;
its posterior end, which is expanded and a little twisted, is adjacent to the
postero-external angle of the coracoid; while the other or anterior end is
produced at great length forwards and inwards, generally passing beneath the
thoracic shield. Another bone, which may, however, be a detached part of
the same, is seen in several examples of Archegosaurus. It lies somewhat in-
ternal to the last described bone, immediately behind the edge of the thoracic
plates, andhasa slightly expanded end. There can be little doubt that we
have here a scapula, and probably a suprascapular bone also. The glenoid
cavity was probably cartilaginous in Archegosaurus, and is not shown in the
* Reptilien &c., t. iv. fig. 5, and t. vi. fig. 10. : wd,
- This end is directed backwards (i.e. towards the pelvis). The other extremity is nof
shown.
1873, R
242 ; REPORT—1873.
fossil specimens. It seems to have been at the postero-external angle of the
coracoid.
Von Meyer and Burmeister have described the bone here named coracoid
as the scapula, and the scapula (or suprascapula) as the coracoid.
The coracoid of Z'rematosaurus is known; it closely resembles that of
Archegosaurus. A detached scapula of Pholiderpeton has also occurred. No
scapula or coracoid has been found in the other genera. ‘The thoracic plates
of Mastodonsaurus, Trematosaurus, Archegosaurus, Loxomma, Pholidogaster,
Pteroplax (?), Keraterpeton, and Urecordylus (?) are known; but none have
hitherto been discovered in any of the species which constitute the “ Micro-
sauria” of Dr. Dawson.
Pelvic Girdle-—Archegosaurus still remains the only source of exact
knowledge respecting the pelvis of the Labyrinthodonts. The ischia are
elongate, flattened bones, which meet along the middle line. Their antero-
external angles are overlapped by the expanded ends of the hatched-shaped
ilia, while the straight shafts of these latter bones are continued backwards,
outwards, and upwards. Similar, but larger, hatchet-shaped ilia occur in the
Neweastle coal-field. They may belong to Lowomma or Anthracosaurus.
The connexion of the ilium with the vertebral column appears to have been
very slight ; and there is no indication of specially modified sacral vertebrae.
The pubis is straight, and has much of the form of the femur or humerus,
being narrowed at the middle and broad at each end. The situation and
composition of the acetabulum is unknown.
It would be highly interesting to know that the ilium described and
figured by Professor Owen* was actually the ilium of Labyrinthodon pa-
chygnathus, or of any other Labyrinthodont; but the evidence derived from
the place of discovery is not cogent, and the bone is remarkably reptilian in
character.
Bones of the Limbs.—In the Carboniferous Labyrinthodonts the bony
elements of the limbs of vertebrates higher than fishes appear in their most
generalized form. The manus and pes are pentadactyle, and there is but
little differentiation of the digits. Each of the long bones has expanded ends,
and is contracted towards the middle of the shaft. In the Carboniferous
species the articulations seem to have been very lax. There are no articular
processes, condyles, cups or trochlez; and the bones appear to have been
connected in the simplest way, by igaments and integument. The long
bones of Hylonomus and some other “ Microsauria” are tubular, and consist
of a uniform osseous crust, enclosing a central cavity, which in the living
animal was probably occupied by cartilage?. In several other Labyrintho-
donts, however, of Carboniferous age, true cancellous tissue is present in the
long bones.
If the limb-bones attributed to Mastodonsaurus have been so determined
correctly, it would appear that in the Triassic Labyrinthodonts the long
bones and phalanges were, as in the Carboniferous species, dilated at the
ends and contracted in the centre. There is no indication of bony epi-
physes; and the muscular impressions are few and simple.
In all the species whose limbs are accurately known from their occur-
rence together in the same matrix and in something like the natural position,
the corresponding parts of the fore and hind limbs (e.g. the femur and hu-
* Trans. Geol. Soe., 2nd series, vol. vi. p. 533, t. xlv. figs. 16, 17.
t Ahumerus of Dendrerpeton shows cancellous tissue towards the extremities (Dawson,
€ Acadian Geology,’ 2nd ed. p. 365).
¢ Paliontologie Wiirtembergs, t, iii. figs, 4-8,
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS, 243
merus) are very similar in form and present no uncommon difference of size*,
The hinder limb is larger and stronger than the other, as is usual with qua-
druped vertebrates, On the whole the structure and proportions of the ex-
tremities of Labyrinthodonts are similar to those of urodele Amphibia, and
indicate low-bodied aquatic animals.
It is well known that the examination of the bones found in the Keuper.
of Leamington and Warwick, together with a comparison of the footprints
named Cheirotheriwm, led Professor Owen to the belief that Labyrinthodon
exhibited a striking disproportion between the fore and hind limbs, This
view accords well with the opinion that the Labyrinthodonts were anurous
Batrachia, But such a disproportion implies more than a near affinity with
the Batrachia: it is in this class (Amphibia) a mechanical provision for
activity in leaping; and the inference from Professor Owen’s hypothesis
would be that the Triassic Labyrinthodonts at least had in some measure the
habits of the frog. The supposition will not stand a moment’s consideration.
That a Labyrinthodon, with its greatly expanded and prolonged head could
have leaped a yard without a severe shockis improbable. But if we suppose.
that it possessed the thoracic plates and the loosely articulated shoulder-
girdle of other Triassic Labyrinthodonts, and if, with Professor Owen, we
interpret the structure of its extremities according to the Cheirotherian foot~
prints, the difficulty is greatly increased. The Labyrinthodon would be a
leaping animal of gigantic size, weighted with protective scutes, having little-
expanded toes, and not provided, to our knowledge, with a single one of
those special provisions which enable large animals to leap great distances
with safety.
No one will explain the assumed disproportion of fore and hind limbs as
indicative of peculiar browsing or climbing propensities, such as those attri-
buted to Iguanodon or Hadrosaurus. The aquatic and predatory character
of the Labyrinthodonts is well established.
Since the hypothesis under discussion involves such difficulties, it will be
desirable to reexamine the ground upon which it rests.
Professor Owen’s position is this:—Anisopus scutulatus, a presumed
Labyrinthodont, has a hind limb at least twice as large as the fore limb.
An ilium and head of femur, presumed to belong to Labyrinthodon
pachygnathus, are greatly larger in proportion than a humerus referred to
the same species.
In some Cheirotherian (presumed Labyrinthodont) footprints the tracks of
one foot are much larger than those of the other.
The species of Labyrinthodon differ considerably in size, as also do the
footprints of Cheirotherium.
It is hardly necessary to discuss.the distinctness of the species of Labyrin-
thodon or of Cheirotherium. The whole weight of the argument rests upon
the suppositions that (1) the bones named Anisopus scutulatus, (2) the ium
and femur found at Warwick, (8) the humerus found separately at the same
place, (4) the footprints named Cheirotherium, belong to Labyrinthodonts—
and, further, that the ilium and humerus found at different times in the same
quarry belong to the same individual, or to individuals of the same species
and age,
- This chain of suppositions has not been strengthened by the further evi-
* There is no conclusive evidence that Anisopus is labyrinthodont. The rhomboidal
sculptured scute attached to the slab containing this specimen might seem confirmatory of
Prof. Owen’s determination; but, besides the Crocodilia, the Scelidosauride had dermal
armour,
R2
Q44 REPORT—1878.
dence brought to light since the date of Professor Owen’s memoir. We still
know very little about the limbs of Triassic Labyrinthodonts. What is known
of the limbs of the Carboniferous species does not at all agree with the deter-
minations in question. But it is now placed beyond dispute that in Triassic
rocks, and in this very Keuper quarry at Warwick, the remains of Dinosauria
occur. The ilium assigned to Labyrinthodon pachygnathus * agrees with the
ilium of Deinosauria in the remarkable projection of the bone in front of the
acetabulum, and in the character of the acetabulum itself. It wants, it is
true, the pre- and postacetabular processes of a well-characterized Dino-
saurian ilium ; but in‘no particular does this bone agree with the ilium of
any known Labyrinthodont. There is nothing in the structure of any one of
the limb-bones or vertebre attributed to LZ. pachygnathus which does not
accord at least as well with the Dinosauria as with the Labyrinthodonts ft.
Nor is there a single distinctive Labyrinthodont feature about Cheirotherium.
Some of the footprints included in this heterogeneous group may have been
Labyrinthodont ; but others are, not improbably, Dinosauriant. Shortness
or deficiency of the outer digits §, and inequality of fore and hind limb, are
characteristic of this reptilian order ||.
It may be said, summarily, that the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures
had the limbs of aquatic animals similar to the urodele Amphibia, and that
the limbs of the Triassic species are practically unknown.
No limbs have been discovered belonging to specimens of Ophiderpeton,
although several examples belonging to this genus have occurred in the coal-
fields of Kilkenny and Northumberland.
Hyoid.—We have no certain knowledge of the hyoid of any Labyrinthodont,
A fragment of a styloid bone which sometimes appears between the para-
sphenoid and the median thoracic plate of Archegosaurus, associated with one
or two pairs of lateral appendages, may belong here.
Branchial Arches.—Goldfuss ¥ first observed that some young examples of
Archegosaurus exhibit distinct traces of branchial arches; and this determi-
nation is confirmed by Von Meyer. The evidence consists of minute ossicles
lying scattered in the region of the throat, between the thoracic plates and
the skull. Some of the ossicles exhibit a pectinate edge. They are variously
discoidal, semilunar, or quadrangular in outline, but always flattened. Von
Meyer believes that the branchial arches were attached to the hyoid, and
were disposed in two or more curved rows. ‘Traces of branchial arches have
only been detected in young specimens ; and they do not increase in size with
* “The remarkable ilium ascribed to Labyrinthodon pachygnathus is also a reptilian
bone, intermediate in its characters between the ilium of a Teleosaurian and that of a
Lizard.”’—Husley, ‘Geol. Journ.’ vol. xxvi. p. 47 (1870).
+ The fragmentary vertebra ascribed by Prof. Owen to L. pachygnathus is believed by
Prof. Huxley to be Dinosaurian (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1870, vol. xxvi. p. 47).
¢ The Cheirotherian footprint figured and described by Prof. W. C. Williamson (Quart.
Journ. Geol, Soe. vol. xxiii. p. 56) exhibits numerous impressions of scales. This is a
reptilian feature, though not conclusive against the Labyrinthodont supposition.
§ Iguanodon has left large three-toed impressions in the Wealden. Scelidosaurus had
four toes and a rudimentary fifth,
|| “From the great difference in size between the fore and hind limbs, Mantell, and more
recently Leidy, have concluded that the Dinosauria (at least Zgwanodon and Hadrosaurus)
may have supported themselves for a longer or shorter period upon their hind legs. But
the discovery made in the Weald by Mr. Beckles, of traces of large three-toed footprints, of
such a size and at such a distance apart that it is difficult to believe that they can have
been made by any thing but an Jguanodon, lead to the supposition that this vast reptile,
and perhaps others of its family, must have walked temporarily or permanently upon its
hind legs.” —Husley, ‘Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc,’ vol. xxvi, p. 18 (1870).
| Beitrage, p. 8.
ON THE STRUCTURE’ OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS, 245
age. It is therefore highly probable that the branchial respiration of Arche-
gosaurus was not persistent, but was restricted to the larval state.
It is somewhat remarkable that while Von Meyer interprets these remains
as traces of a branchial apparatus, he nevertheless refuses to recognize the
zoological significance of such a structure. His comment is, that the hyoid
itself is a relic of branchial apparatus, yet“its presence in the higher verte-
brates is not allowed to interfere with their systematic arrangement *. The
serial homology of the hyoid and branchial arches, upon which Von Meyer
perhaps relies, would prove too much for his purpose. ‘The study of deve-
lopment shows that “the branchial arches have the same morphological value
as the hyoid, and the latter as the mandibular arc;” + further, that the tra-
beculee cranii (‘ Schiidelbalken” of Rathke) are serially homologous with the
visceral arches. Ifthe argument rests, not upon homology, but upon function,
it is clear that the common association of branchiostegal rays with the hyoid
arch in branchiate vertebrates would not justify us in describing a part whose
function in the higher classes is so various as a remnant of branchial appa-
ratus. It would be as reasonable to speak of the humerus as a relic of a
swimming-organ.
Until an example is cited of osseous branchial arches in an abranchiate
vertebrate, we may regard the presence of such a structure in the young
Archegosaurus as a remarkable Amphibian character.
Dermal Armour.—In nearly all the known species of Carboniferous Laby-
rinthodonts a ventral armour has been found. The armour consists of very
numerous, elongated, osseous scutes, and is generally, perhaps always, confined
to the inferior surface of the body between the fore and hind limbs. The
scutes are usually disposed in oblique rows, which meet at an angle along
the middle line and make a chevron pattern. Such an arrangement occurs
for example in Pholidogastert, Urocordylus§, and Ichthyerpeton||. In Ar-
chegosaurus the pattern is reversed in the hinder part of the trunk, so that
the rows of scutes in the front part are approximately at right angles to those
placed further back on the same side.
Lepidotosaurus, if a true Labyrinthodont, presents striking deviations from
the rest in the character of its dermal armour. But there are many difficul-
ties in the way of obtaining an adequate knowledge of this remarkable form,
The state of the single specimen hitherto discovered does not permit more
than a superficial examination. Messrs. Hancock and Howse 4] have done all
that care and skill can do towards elucidating its structure ; and we cannot
but accept, provisionally, their decision that it must be placed among the
Labyrinthodonts. Nevertheless the difficulties are considerable, especially
with respect to the scales or scutes. The oblique and uniform direction of the
very numerous and prolonged rows of scales is an argument against Prof.
Husley’s view that they represent a ventral armour shifted (after death and
some amount of decay) to one side. Upon that supposition we should expect
to find the rows of scales either transverse (an arrangement not yet discovered
in any Labyrinthodont) or converging from opposite sides to a straight line
* “@enau genommen liesse sich selbst das Zungenbein als Ueberrest einer friiheren
Athmungsvorrichtung betrachten, und doch wirkt dessen Gegenwart nicht stérend bei der
Classification der hcheren Thiere.”’—Reptilien aus der Steinkohlenformation, p. 86,
+ Huxley, Croonian Lecture, ‘Proc. Roy. Soe.’ yol. ix. p. 433.
+ Huxley, ‘Quart. Journ, Geol. Soe.’ vol. xviii. ’
From undescribed specimens in the British Museum from Kilkenny.
|| Huxley, ‘On a Collection of Fossil Vertebrata’ &c., p. 18,
“| Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv. p. 219; and Quart, Journ.
Geol. Soe. vol, xxvi. p. 556 (1870).
(as in Archegosaurus, Urocordylus, &e.). Moreover the scales are quite
unlike those of any well-established Labyrinthodont genus, and both in dis-
position and extent they are anomalous. The ribs and the (presumed) long |
neck are also difficult to reconcile with the Labyrinthodont character of this
interesting fossil.
As to form and size the scutes of the Labyrinthodonts vary much. They
may be oval, rhomboidal, lancet-shaped, or oat-shaped. They may be as much
as two inches long, or so minute as to be barely visible. When thick and
large, they exhibit a cancellous bony structure in cross section ; in many cases
they are coated with an enamel-like layer ; and when the scute is very thin,
this layer seems to compose its entire substance.
Such an armour cannot be exactly paralleled by any thing known among
recent Amphibia or Reptilia. The Crocodilia have bony scutes, which in
Caiman and Jacare lie along the belly ; but neither these, nor the bony scales
of certain lizards (Ophisaurus, Pseudopus, Cyclodus), are restricted to the
ventral surface. The dermal ossifications of Chelonia are dorsal as well as
ventral. Ina few recent Batrachia (Ceratophirys cornuta, C. ornata, Brachy-
cephalus ephippium*) there is a partial dorsal shield. In the cutis of some
Gymnophiona there are minute flexible scales f.
Granular, shagreen-like scales have been found to cover other parts of the
body of a few Labyrinthodonts. Dr. Dawson has figured and described a
remarkable covering of horny scales as forming dorsal and lateral appendages
to Hylonomus Lyellit ; but there does not appear to be conclusive evidence as
to their disposition.
Nature of Food and Mode of Life.—The character of the teeth and the
structure of the skull, so similar as a prehensile and masticatory organ to the
skulls of Crocodilia, indicate plainly that the Labyrinthodonts were predacious
animals. Patches of Acanthodian scales found on the inner side of the ven~
- tral armour have led Burmeister to suppose that Archegosaurus at least was
a fish-eater§. Von Meyer quotes instances of the occurrence of fragments
of Archegosaurian plates in coprolites assigned to the same species. Dr,
Dawson has found near the bones of Hylonomus portions of coprolite contain-
ing remains of insects and myriapods ||; while numerous bones of the same
Labyrinthodont genus occur in coprolitic masses attributed to Dendrerpeton 4.
The Amphibian affinities of Labyrinthodonts and the presence of a branchial
apparatus in the larva render it plain that these animals were wholly aquatic
in their earliest stages. The proportions of the skull, and the weak limbs of
all the known Carboniferous species, at least, furnish reasons for believing
that throughout life they frequented water, and sought their food in it. The
analogy of all other Amphibia would lead us to suppose that the Labyrintho-
donts were fluviatile, not marine. The character of the deposits in which
their remains are usually found confirms this view. .
There is ground for believing that the largest Labyrinthodonts attained a
length of seven or eight feet, though accurate data are wanting. Some of
the smaller examples, though adult and perfect, do not exceed as many inches
in length.
Zoological Affinity—In the present state of paleontological knowledge it
246 REPORT—1873.
* Formed in this case by the dilated processes of six dorsal vertebrae,
T These are wanting in Cecilia annulata.
} Acadian Geology, 2nd ed. pp. 372, 375, fig. 144; and restoration, p. 352.
2 Sane p. 60, t, iii. figs. 3, 4. Von Meyer regards this as doubtful (Reptilien
re. pp. 6, 7).
|| Acadian Geology, 2nd ed., p. 376, {| Ibid. p. 379.
A . ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE LABYRINTHODONTS. 247
’ would not be easy to frame an unexceptionable statement as to the zoological
position of the Labyrinthodonts. Were they now alive, they would doubtless
be considered Amphibia. The double occipital condyle, the parasphenoid
ossification, and the presence of a branchial apparatus in the young or larval
state would overpower such considerations as the Crocodilian scutes or the
Crocodilian character of the exposed parts of the cranium. But in dealing
with a long extinct group we are not altogether justified in trusting simply
to those characters which suffice to define the classes and orders of existing
animals. On any theory of descent with modification there would thus be
danger of coordinating an extinct group with its own modified or differentiated
descendants. Even if all such theories be discarded, it remains to be shown
that we can legitimately impose a division into Classes and Orders based on
the study of recent Vertebrates upon generic forms of Carboniferous or
Triassic age.
Paleontologists have not not held themselves bound to refer every ancient
type to existing classes. The Labyrinthodonts were regarded by Goldfuss as
intermediate between Crocodilia and Lacertilia, afterwards as intermediate
between Ichthyoda (Perennibranchiata), Crocodilia, and Lacertilia. Burmeister
considers them to have affinity to all the orders of Amphibia (Amphibia + Rep-
tilia), taking the same view of the position of the Trilobita among Crustacea.
Now that the writings of Darwin have given greater definiteness and coherence
to such views of zoological relation, and have rendered it possible to regard
all natural history as a pedigree, speculation has become bold indeed.
Heeckel* is able to assure us that the Ganocephala diverged from the Peren-
nibranchiate Amphibia (which make the thirteenth step in the descent of
man) during the Carboniferous period, that they developed Proterosawrus and
the Labyrinthcdonts (branches which soon died out), and that the Ganocepha~
lous line is continued down to our own day by the Gymnophiona. It is
hardly necessary to point to Heckel’s “ Stammbaum” of the Ganoid Fishes and
the Dipnoi, which recent discoveries have done so much to impugn, in order
to inspire distrust of these “far-reaching Phylogenies.” Speculation as to
the derivation of ordinal types, though undoubtedly legitimate, has hitherto
proved extremely hazardous.
If we restrict ourselves to such statements as may be maintained by evi-
dence, we can at present say nothing more definite than this:—that the
Labyrinthodonts were in nearly all important respects like recent Amphibia ;
that their most striking peculiarities are those which adapted them for a
predatory life; that certain species, or certain details of structure, recall
the recent Urodela, others the Gymnophiona, while the resemblance to the
Batrachia is hardly ever so close as to one or other of the lower orders of
existing Amphibia.
Distribution —Remains of Labyrinthodonts have occurred in England,
Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Russia, Central India, South Africa, Australia,
and North America, In the British Museum and in the Museum of the
College of Surgeons undescribed specimens of Labyrinthodonts are pre-
served, which have ‘been obtained from the Rhetie beds of the Severn.
One genus (Rhinosaurus) has occurred in the Oolitic strata of the Goyern-
ment of Simbirsk (Russia). It is there associated with Ichthyosauria and
Gryphea dilatata.
* Schdpfungsgeschichte, 2nd ed: compare pp. 524, 586, and tab. xii.
248
REPORT—1873.
Table of Distribution.
pa 1s eel wile lane Jodt wort yor yon) V9 7) wt aN oes 7 ae ae
Carboniferous.
Batrachiderpeton,
Han.
4 Loxomma, Hux.
Ophiderpeton, Hix,
Pholiderpeton, Hux.
(Pteroplax, Han.
\Urocordylus, Hus.
Anthracosaurus, Hux,
England
eeeeeeeee
Anthracosaurus, Hue.
Loxomma, Huz.
Pholiderpeton, Hus.
Pholidogaster, Hw,
Pteroplax, Han.
Scotland
\Dolichosoma, Hur.
Erpetocephalus, Hux.
Ichthyerpeton, Hux.
Keraterpeton, Hux.
Lepterpeton, Hus,
Ophiderpeton, Hus.
Urocordylus, Hux.
Apateon, Meyer.
Archegosaurus,
Goldf.
[Osteophorus, Meyer. ]
IEMIEBIA hemes fence eavee's|>
Central India......
s Beara mater eeeeeretetarane
South Africa
deen enle etter eenaeetarenseeeearens
Australia,..........
(|Amphibainus, Cope.
Baphetes, Ow.
Brachydectes, Cope.
Colosteus, Cope.
Dendrerpeton, Ow.?
Eosaurus, Marsh?
Hylerpeton, Ow.?
Hylonomus, Daws. ?
Molgophis, Cope.
Cistocephalus, Cope
| (Urocordylus).
Raniceps, Wyman?
Sauropleura, Cope.
North America . {
|
Ichthyocampsa, Cope.
Permian. Triassic.
Dasyceps, Hua, |Labyrinthodon, Ow,
Lepidotosaurus, |Diadetognathus,
Han, Miall.
Mastodonsaurus,
Jaeg.
——— |
Capitosaurus, Miinst.
Mastodonsaurus,
Jaeq.
Metopias, Meyer.
Trematosaurus,
Braun.
Xestorrhytias, Meyer.
Zygosaurus,
Hichw. Melosaurus, Meyer.
[Brachyops, Ow. |
Gonioglyptus, Hua,
Pachygonia, Hux.
Micropholis, Hux.
Dictyocephalus,
Leidy.
Eupelor, Cope.
Pariostegus, Cope,
Unde-
Chalcosaurus, Meyer.
[Bothriceps, Haw. ]
Rhztie. Jurassic.
scribed
specimens.
Rhinosau-
rus, Waldh.
*,* No opinion is for the present expressed as to the validity of these genera. The
systematic position of those marked ?, and the stratigraphical position of those included
in brackets, haye been questioned.
4372 Report Brit: Assoc: 1873. Plate T.
Brit: Asso c:-Report on/ Labyrinthodonts.
ee,
Skull of Loxommnea (restored }
Engra ved by (hat Tneranv.
Ly
pe
:
Be aore Brit:Assoc-1873. Plate 2.
B 116.4880: Rep ori or Lab rVVln thodorts.
Arhiacatlar end of manathle
LOLONUNA.
=
Diadetognathus.
7 $ as ,
Shull of Locomma/) side -view ie
a
at
Enagraved by that Ingram,
VN At Se NASI iy } ty
‘ey
rh
oo hey
ed
i 1873. . Plate 3.
Brit: Assoc: Report on Labyrinthodonts.
| fy
Dorsal vertebra i i
of Pleroplax Vee, | : okies
c&
SS A)
Y) =
Y
4 i
BN
“Ae
*
Enanaved by thatTnoram
Labyvrinthodont Vertebre.
ON CATALOGUES OF SPECTRAL RAYS, 249
Note.—Since the preceding Report was presented, additional information
has been obtained from various sources, particularly by means of a detailed
examination of the Labyrinthodont fossils in the Museum at Warwick. The
nature of the mandibular articulation of Mastodonsaurus, for example, is
more clearly revealed by undescribed specimens in the Warwick collection
than by any of the Wiirtemberg fossils. A special paper, containing an
account of the results arrived at, will shortly be published. Some notice of
the structure of the osseous ear-chamber, as exhibited by the large skull of
Capitosaurus from the Keuper sandstone of Wiirtemberg, should have been
included in the Report. The essential facts are given by Quenstedt (Die
Mastodonsaurier im griinen Keupersandsteine Wiirtemberg’s sind Batrachier,
p. 14, t. ii. fig. 1, and t. iii. figs. 16, 18). On a future occasion the Com-
mittee hope to give the results of a microscopic examination, now in progress,
of the teeth of various Labyrinthodont genera.
January 1874,
EXPLANATION OF PLATES I.-II1.
Prater I.
Skull of Loxomma (restored). The contours are chiefly taken from a fine uncompressed
specimen in the possession of Mr, George Maw, F.L.S.
Puate IT.
Fig. 1. Side view of skull of Loxomma.
2. Posterior extremity of mandible of Loxomma, showing the absence of a post-
articular process (Report, p. 237).
3. Posterior extremity of mandible of. Diadetognathus, showing a well-developed
post-articular process.
Puate III.
Fig. 1. Atlas of Mastodonsaurus, front view (Paliontologie Wiirtembergs, t. v. fig. 4).
2. Restored cervico-dorsal vertebra of Mastodonsaurus, seen from before, showing
the articular facet upon the centrum (Report, p. 239).
3. Dorsal vertebra of Pzteroplax (?), seen from behind (Hancock and Atthey, Nat.
Hist. Trans. Northumberland and Durham, vol. iii. t. ii. fig. 2), The vertebra
is slightly restored, and shows the two facets upon the transverse process (Re-
port, p. 239). For comparison of vertebra of Anthracosaurus (?), see Huxley,
‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xix. p. 63.
4, Antero-posterior section of vertebral centra. (a. Mastodonsaurus. b. Pteroplag.
ec. Pholiderpeton.)
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues
of Spectral Rays arranged upon a scale of Wave-numbers, the
Committee consisting of Dr. Huaeins, J. N. Lockxyrr, Professor
Reynoups, Professor Swan, and G. JounstonE Stoney (Reporter).
‘Tur Committee, appointed to construct and print catalogues of spectral lines
arranged upon a scale of wave-numbers, had hoped to present the catalogue
of solar lines, and of a large number of metallic lines, at the present Meeting
of the Association ; but a delay having arisen about the engraving of the
maps which should accompany the catalogues, they have not been able to go
to press in sufficient time.
The whole of the solar spectrum is now ready for the printer; and the
reduction of those positions of metallic lines which Thalen determined by the
(250 ' - REPORT—1873.
method of direct superposition upon the solar spectrum is in a forward state.
The solar lines have been thrown into the groups which catch the eye in ob-
serving the spectrum ; and the position of each line has been corrected for the
dispersion of the air. Both Kirchhoff’s arbitrary number and Angstrém’s
determination of wave-length will be given along with the wave-number for
each line ; so that it is hoped that, when these catalogues are printed, ob-
servers will find in them, ina collected form, the best materials which yet
exist for the identification of lines, and for reducing fresh determinations,
either to wave-lengths in air or wave- -numbers in vacuo.
The Committee had taken Angstrom’ s determinations of the wave-lengths
of about a thousand solar lines, published in his ¢ Recherches sur le Spectre
Solaire,’ as the foundation of their catalogues. They are therefore glad to
‘be able to state, on the authority of the Astronomer R oyal, that his criticism
of Angstrém’s labours in the Philosophical Transactions for 1872, pp. 90
& 109, refers to preliminary measures made by Angstrom i in 1863 with im-
perfect apparatus, and does not affect the determinations which have been
relied on by the Committee.
The small final corrections mentioned by Angstrém at p. 29 of his memoir
have been applied throughout to the numbers of his catalogue. The correc-
tion for each line was ‘ascertained by a diagram constructed by plotting
down the corrections corresponding to the lines of the select list which he
gives on pp. 31 & 32, The Association Catalogue may therefore be regarded
as representing Angstrém’s work in its finished state.
The corrections to be applied for the dispersion of the air have been
deduced from Ketteler’s determinations of the refractive indices of air cor-
responding to the positions of the lithium, sodium, and thallium lines. These
give only three points on the curve; but as they lie nearly in a straight line
when referred to a scale of wave-numbers, the extension to the limits of the
‘visible spectrum is tolerably safe. Nevertheless it would be very desirable
that a determination of this important correction should be made, extending
over the whole spectrum. One of the members of the Committee hoped to
execute this work, and planned the apparatus which seemed necessary; but
-he could not command sufficient time to carry out his intention.
Since your Committee have not finished the task intrusted to them, they
recommend that they be reappointed ; they would request that Messrs. 'Spot-
tiswoode and De La Rue be invited to serve along with them.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Joun Lupzock, Bart., Pro-
fessor Puriutps, Professor Hucuers, and W. Boyp Dawkins, Secre-
tary, appointed for the purpose of exploring the Settle Caves.
Drawn up by Mr. Bory Dawx1ns.
Tux Committee appointed by the British Association at the last Mecting,
at Brighton, to cooperate with the Settle-Caye Committee in carrying on the
exploration of the Victoria Cave, has expended the grant intrusted to them,
with but negative results. Since the last Report was published, in which
the discovery of the Pleistocene caye-earth underneath the grey clay at the
entrance was recorded, their attention was directed to the examination of the
OE pe eee
i
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE SETTLE CAVES. 251
Pleistocene stratum and its relation to the deposits above and below. A pas-
sage was cut through the talus of angular detritus fallen from the cliff at the
same level as the cave-earth, which proved that the detritus graduated in its
lower part into a clay containing stones, among which glaciated Silurian
grit-stones were recognized on 3rd November, 1872. These were close to a
large mass of fallen rock which formed the left-hand side of the passage that
had been cut at the entrance, the right-hand consisting of the solid lime-
stone wall of the cave. They rested at about the same level as the stratum
containing the caye-mammals, and apparently were deposited on the edges
of that stratum. Some of them were embedded in clay, while others, which
were to be seen in the section exposed May 21 last, were free, the clay that
once covered them being washed away.
_ At the end of the passage, and just within the entrance of the cave, a shaft
was sunk, which proved that the cave-earth was only from 3 to 4 feet thick,
and that it rested on a confused stratum of large limestone blocks embedded
in clay both amorphous and laminated, and in some cases in sand, 7 feet
thick. Below this the workmen broke into a passage, of which one side was
composed of the wall of the cave.
This section revealed the fact that the laminated clay occurred at various
levels, not merely above but below the Pleistocene stratum; and there seems
to the Secretary (Mr. Dawkins) to be no reason why it should not be depo-
sited now in some of the interstices between the blocks of stone dclow the
Pleistocene stratum by the heavy rains.
The evidence as to the precise relation of the older deposits in the cave to
the glacial phenomenon of the district is not so clear as might have been ex-
pected. The boulders may be the deposit in situ of a lateral moraine ; or they
may have dropped subsequently from a higher level. It is, however, obvious
that the hyenas, bears, mammoths, and other creatures found in the Pleisto-
cene stratum could not have occupied the district where it was covered by
ice. And had they lived here after the retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains
would occur in the river-gravels from which they are absent throughout a
large area to the north of a line drawn between Chester and York, since they
occur abundantly in the postglacial river-deposits south of that line. On the
other hand, they belong to a fauna that overran Europe, and must have
occupied this very region, before the Glacial period. It may therefore reason-
ably be concluded that they occupied the cave in preglacial times, and that
the stratum in which their remains lie buried was protected from the grind-
ing of the ice-sheet* which destroyed nearly all the surface-accumulations in
the river-valleys, by the walls and roof of rock which has since been to a
great extent weathered away.
The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has hitherto yielded such in-
teresting evidence of three distinct occupations (first by the hyenas, then
by Neolithic men, and lastly by the Britwelsh), is by no means complete. The
cave itself is of unknown depth and extent; and the mere removal of so
much earth and clay as it is at present known to contain will be a labour of
years. The results of the exploration up to the present time are of almost
equal value to the archeologist, to the historian, and the geologist, and
prove how close is the intimate bond of union between three branches of
human thought which at first sight appear remote from each other,
* On this point see:—Pop. Sec. Rev. Oct. 1871, “ Pleistocene Climate and Mammalia ; ”
and “ Classification of Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe, 1872, pp. 411 e¢ seg.
252 REPORT—1878.
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Evrrert, Sir W.
Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Coarues Lyett, Bart., F.R.S., Prof. J. Chrrk
Maxwe 1, F.R.S., Prof. Puruuirs, F.R.S., G. J. Symons, FLILS.,
Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. A. Gurxiz, .R.S., James GLAIsHEer,
F.R.S., Rev. Dr. Granam, Grorce Maw, F.G.S., W. Prenertty,
F.R.S., 8. J. Mackin, F.G.S8., Prof. Hurt, F.R.S., Prof. Ansrrp,
F.R.S., and J. Prestwicu, F.R.S., appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature
downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water.
Drawn up by Prof. Evernrr, D.C.L., Secretary.
In last year’s Report a very interesting series of observations was recorded,
taken in the great well of La Chapelle at Paris, by Messrs. Mauget and
Lippmann. The temperature recorded showed a tolerably regular increase,
at the average rate of 1° Fahr. for every 94 feet, down to the depth of 600
metres. In comparing the temperature at this depth with that at the bottom
of the well, 60 metres lower, an increase about four times as rapid was
found.
The Secretary has since visited the well, and witnessed, with the advan-
tage of Mons. Mauget’s explanations, the very interesting operation of
boring. From subsequent calculation, based on the data thus obtained, he
has been led to concur in the explanation originally given by Messrs. Mauget
and Lippmann of the abnormal increase in the last 60 metres.
The well has in its lower portion an internal diameter of 1:35 metre, and
consequently a sectional area of 1:43 square metre. The boring is executed by
means of a kind of chisel, whose edge is a convex arc of a circle. This chisel,
with its frame, weighs 3000 kilogrammes. It is lifted and dropped by means
of a series of iron rods screwed together, so as to form one rod 660 metres
long. The arrangements are such that, when the chisel has been lifted -4
of a metre from the bottom, it becomes automatically released, and falls back
through this distance. The rod is then lowered after it through an equal or
slightly greater distance; and, by another self-acting arrangement, the tool
becomes again attached ready for a new lift. The rods are hung from one
end of the beam of an engine, which takes two seconds to rise, and the same
time to descend. The tool is therefore dropped fifteen times in a minute.
When this work has been going on uninterruptedly for several hours, the
tool is raised above ground, and a cylindrical vessel, with a number of valves
in its bottom, is lowered for extracting the mud and chips which haye been
produced by the operation above described. As three hours are required either
for raising or lowering, a considerable portion of the twenty-four hours in each
day is occupied by these subsidiary operations; and for some time previous
to the observations detailed in last year’s Report, the time actually spent in
using the chisel was about 100 hours per week.
Hence we have the following calculation for the heat developed by the
action of the tool. The weight of the tool in air is 3000 kilogrammes. Its
weight in water may be assumed to be 4 of this. Hence the work done in
raising it through ‘4 of a metre is 1050 kilogrammetres. Heat equivalent to
this is generated in its fall; and as 424 kilogrammetres of work are equiva-
lent to one kilogramme degree Centigrade, we have 2°48 kilogramme
degrees Centigrade, or 4:46 kilogramme degrees Fahr. as the product of each
fall of the tool; that is to say, one kilogramme of water would be raised in
temperature 4°46 Fahr. by the heat produced in one fall. The number of
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 253
falls in a week was 15x60x100=90,000, representing 401,000 kilo-
gramme degrees Fahr. Now, the sectional area of the well being 1°43 square
metres, and a cubic metre of water being 1000 kilogrammes, the weight of
water in each vertical foot is 1430 kilogrammes. The heat generated in one
week’s work would therefore heat, by 1° Fahr., as much water as occupies a
height of +9190°0—280 metres, and the heat generated in one day would
heat a column of the height of 40 metres to the same extent. A large
portion of this heat is removed by the extraction of the mud, which, on
coming to the surface after its three hours’ passage through the water, is
found (as stated in last Report) to have a temperature of from 118° Fahr. to
194° Fahr.; but the quantity of heat remaining must assuredly be sufficient
to keep the bottom of the well higher by some degrees than its natural
temperature. The temperature actually observed on June 15, three days
after the cessation of the boring operations, was about 24° greater than the
natural temperature as computed from the observations at other depths in
the well; and the temperature observed on June 18 was exactly the same
as on the 15th; whereas the temperature at a point 60 metres higher had
fallen by -4 of a degree. These circumstances were mentioned in last year’s
Report as difficult of interpretation, since one would have expected to find
the greatest change at the bottom, where the artificial disturbance of the
temperature had been greatest.
It must, however, be borne in mind that the operations of boring, including
the raising to the surface and relowering of the boring tool and the extracting
cylinder, both of which are nearly as large in section as the well itself, have
a tendency to mix together the waters at different levels, and to prevent a
sudden increase of temperature in approaching the bottom. Judging from
the temperature of the mud, as above stated, it is probable that, during
the boring operations, the. solid rock surrounding the mud had, to the thick-
ness of a few inches, a temperature not less than 100° Fahr. The
temperature observed at the bottom on June 15, was 83}° Fahr., which,
though exceeding by 73° the temperature of the water 60 metres higher, must
have been lower than the temperature of the rock immediately surrounding
the bottom. It is therefore quite possible that after three more days of
stagnation, the water at the bottom, situated between these two opposing
influences, may have retained its temperature unchanged, while the water
60 metres higher showed a fall of temperature, from the discontinuance of the
stirring processes which had previously enabled it to borrow heat from below.
It would appear, then, that, in computing the mean rate of increase down-
wards, the temperature (75°-4) observed at the depth of 600 metres (June 18),
is to be preferred to the temperature observed at the bottom. Employing
as the other term of comparison, the temperature 58° observed at 100
metres from the surface, the rate of increase obtained is 1° Fahr. in 28-7
metres, or in 94:3 feet. If, however, instead of the temperature at 100
metres, we employ the permanent temperature of the caves under the Paris
Observatory, which is 11°-7 Cent. or 53°'1 Fahr., with a depth of 28 metres,
we obtain a rate of 1° Fahr. in 25-6 metres, or 84 feet.
A few months after the observations above discussed, the boring was again
interrupted by caving in, and has not yet been resumed; but preparations
are being made for tubing the well through its whole depth, the previous
tubing having been carried only to the depth of 139 metres. In the mean
time M. Mauget has promised to take another set of observations before the
water is disturbed.
[This promise has been redeemed, since the reading of the Report, by the
254
taking of a complete set of observations on the 15th, 16th, and 17th of October,
REPORT—1878,
as shown in the last of the subjoined columns :—
1872.
Depth, - “a —~ 1873.
in metres. June 14, 15, June 17, 18. Oct. 15, 16, 17.
GO” Gee My Seca. 58:0 58-0 59-5
00 Serene eee 61-1 61:0 61:8
See te acces 65:0 65:0 65°5
ei) ieee Aratenteee sya 69-0 69:0 69-0
110) eo pividh thes ene eee 72:6 72-6 72:6
GLU he ao ane eb 758 ip 75:0
‘C1o) Udi econ take 83°25 83°25 76:0
It thus appears that the abnormal elevation of temperature at the bottom
due to boring, was 77° Fahr.
With reference to the temperatures in the first 300 metres, Messrs. Mauget
and Lippmann remark :—“ When last year’s observations were made, the well
had been tubed to the depth of 139°15 metres, but had not been cemented.
Consequently the springs which were met with in the tertiary strata, com-
municated, at the base of the tubes, with the water in the well. Cement has
this year been poured in between all the tubes, some days before taking the
temperature of the water. This operation has excluded the tertiary springs,
and permitted the water of the well to resume its normal temperature.”
At Kentish-Town well, the new thermometer described in last Report was
lowered by Mr. Symons to the depth of 1000 feet, on October 29th, 1872.
- It has been raised and read three times, with the following results :—
11872.) December: 23rd ee vo. be od. 67°71
Lvs. UAprilsSth-Aes See es 68 67°66
pO SAN TH SE NS 67°58
4” “Beptember Sthry ep. ve 67:50
These exhibit a steady decrease, which can scarcely be attributable to errors
of observation, as such errors, whether arising from change of length in the
copper wire by which the thermometer is sustained, or from change in the
thermometer itself, would probably have been in the opposite direction. Mr,
Symons writes :—‘“ The scale-error of the thermometer might have changed ;
but thermometers read higher by age, not lower, except when in yacuum-
jackets, which this is not. Moreover, on roughly comparing it with my Kew
Standard, I find it certainly not lower, perhaps higher; but the comparison
of maximum-thermometers in shields with naked standards requires more
time than I have yet been able to give.”
As it will be instructive to trace these variations to their source, the ther-
mometer has been removed for retesting, and the depth-measuring apparatus
for cleaning. Mr. Symons proposes to substitute steel for copper wire, so as
to reduce the amount of stretching, to substitute monthly for quarterly obser-
vations, and to attack the problem with all possible delicacy next year.
Mr. Lebour writes, with reference to the observations contained on page 133
of last year’s Report, that Mr. Atkinson has “ repeated the observations for
temperature in the South-Hetton bore-hole, the result being that the abnor-
mal temperature at 644 feet from the top of the boring (viz. 75°, that at
600 feet being 762°, and that at 670 feet being 773°) was found to have
been quite accidental, being caused in all probability by insufficient time
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, 255
having been allowed to the thermometer. The reading in these repeated
experiments at 644 fect, with ample time, was a normal one between tho
readings above and below.”
It having been ascertained that the slipping-down of the mercurial index,
which has often occurred in the Phillips thermometers supplied to the Com-
mittee by Casella, was owing to their bore being less fine than in the original
instrument as designed and constructed by Professor Phillips, two thermo-
meters of finer bore were ordered from Casella; and they have been found to
exhibit as much stiffness in the index as is desirable—so much so that diffi-
culty is sometimes experienced in shaking the index down to its place when
the instrument is to be set. The thermometers thus constructed have the
advantage of great quickness of action, as compared with the large-bore
Negrettis which are in use by the Committee; but the excessive fineness of
the bore sometimes occasions difficulty in reading. The instrument, in fact,
could scarcely be put into the hands of any one but a skilled observer.
Two thermometers were supplied to Mr. Willett, the Honorary Secretary
for the Sub-Wealden bore which was commenced last year at Netherfield.
One of them was a Negretti, the other one of the new fine-bore Phillips
thermometers above described: the former alone was used. The first
observation was taken in April of the present year by Mr. Bosworth, the
engineer of the boring, and showed a temperature of 684° Fahr. at the depth
of 168 feet, the temperature of surface-springs as tested by the same instru-
ment being 51° F. The Report states that the thermometer “ appears to do
its work well, and to give reliable results.” In a second observation, taken
in Mr. Bosworth’s absence, the instrument was broken in hauling up.
Another thermometer of the same kind was then procured from the makers ;
and an observation taken with it on the 2nd of August showed a temperature
of 62° F. at the depth of 263 feet. No observations were taken except at
the bottom, on either occasion; and the above numbers show that the heat
generated by the boring-tool was sufficient to produce disturbances of tem-
perature amounting to several degrees.
Thermometers have also been supplied for observations in two deep wells
in Essex—namely, one at Witham, 660 feet deep, and another at Harwich,
originally about 900 feet deep. The commencement of the observations
however, has been hitherto delayed.
There is a well at Comb’s tannery, near Stowmarket, which was sunk
some years ago to the depth of 895 feet, the first 57 feet being clay and sand,
and the remainder chalk and marl, except about 20 feet of gault and green-
sand at the bottom. The proprietor, Lankester Webb, Esq., on being applied
to, near the close of last year, at once, in the most obliging manner, undertook
to make observations of temperature in it; and a Negretti thermometer was
supplied for the purpose.
On proceeding to take the observations, it was found that only the first
283 feet were available, the remaining portion of more than 600 feet being
choked with chalky mud. Three sets of observations were taken, with the
following results :—
?
Temperatures in degrees Fahr.
2 - OoO—v'.
Ist set. 2Qndset. 3rd set.
3 fect from surface of water ........5. 54
100 om ad Sraund,s ly gp webs 524 523 53
150 “ % Nia aie en aH ss 53
200 is . Bt nec SS 54 54 53
283 = a a Fie aie a a 521 54 54.
256 neport—1873.
The well is full of water to within 24 feet of the surface of the pround,
and is tubed with a 9-inch iron tube for about 90 feet, the top of this tube
being about 22 feet below the surface of the ground. The upper portion of
the pipe is surrounded by a bricked well, into which there is a drain coming
from under two Cornish boilers close to the well; and the water in this
bricked well occasionally rises so high as to overflow into the pipe. This is
probably the cause of the high temperature recorded at 3 feet below the
water-surface. There would appear to be some error in the first observation
at 283 feet; and if this be rejected, an increase of about 14 degree is shown
in descending from the depth of 100 feet to that of 283 feet.
The source of the water-supply, which is extremely abundant, is unknown,
the only strong spring known to exist in the unchoked portion of the well
being in the sand at the depth of only 30 feet. The circumstances are clearly
not favourable for deducing any certain inferences regarding the increase of
temperature downwards in the neighbouring soil.
The arrangements for further observations of temperature in the Mont-
Cenis tunnel are now in the hands of Father Denza, of Moncalieri, near
Turin, who wrote to the following effect in April of the present year :—
«« Every thing was ready for undertaking the work in the course of last
year, when unexpected circumstances over which we had no control obliged
us to suspend it. It is now our intention to commence work in the summer
on which we are now entering, when I shall determine the temperature, for
which observations the instruments are all in order. The thermometrical
observations will be made in the interior of the tunnel at various depths, and
accompanied by others in the open air on the slope of the mountain accord-
ing to a fixed plan.”
Another Alpine tunnel has been commenced (in the neighbourhood of the
St.-Gothard pass), which will be both longer and deeper than that of Mont
Cenis. It has been pierced for a distance of about 300 metres at each end—
namely, at Geschenen, about 6 miles from Andermatt on the Swiss side, and at
Airolo on the Italian side. The engineers at the Geschenen end (which was
recently visited by the Secretary) keep a record of the air-temperature in the
workings. This is found to be higher by 3° Cent. at the distance now reached
than it was in the earlier portion of the tunnel; but no observations of rock-
temperature have as yet been made.
’ Application has recently been made for observations in some of the deepest
mines on the continent of Europe ; and in three instances a favourable answer
has been received. Observations may accordingly be expected from the
mines of the Société Cockerill at Seraing, near Liége, from the mines at
Anzin in the Département du Nord, and from some of the deepest mines in
Bohemia. The Secretary desires to acknowledge his obligations to M. Delesse
of the School of Mines at Paris, M. Sadoine of Seraing, M. de Marsilly of
Anzin, and Prof. Zenger of Prague.
It is understood that numerous observations have been madeduring the past
year with the thermometers sent to Australia. The official report, however,
has not been as yet received.
The Committee have learned with pleasure that a series of experiments have
been commenced, by Professor Alexander Herschel and Mr. Lebour, on the
conductivity of different species of rock—a subject intimately connected with
the inquiry in which the Committee are engaged, and one respecting which
additional information is greatly needed.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 257
Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles for the years 1872-73, by a
Committee, consisting of C. Brooks, F.R.S. (Chairman), J. GuAIsHeEr,
F.R.S., Prof. J. Puiutes, F.R.S., J. F. Bareman, C.E., F.R.S., RB.
W. Myint, C.£., F.R.S., T. Hawkstzy, C.E., Prof. J. C. Apams,
F.R.S., Prof. J. J. Sytvestrr, F.R.S., C. Tomutnson, F.R.S.,
R. Fienp, C.E., Dr. Potz, C.E., F.R.S., Prof. D. T. Anstep,
F.RS., A. Bucuan, F.R.S.E., G. J. Symons, Secretary. Drawn
up by G. J. Symons.
Your Committee are glad to be able to report steady progress in the various
branches of rainfall work under their supervision. The new stations started
in Scotland, as explained in our last Report, have, with few exceptions, been
carefully attended to. Your Committee desire to record their thanks to the
Directors and Secretary of the Highland and Dingwall and Skye Railways
for the very great assistance already afforded, and which your Committee
hope to render still more valuable by the personal inspection of the stations
by their Secretary at an early date. Gauges have been established at the
following stations on these lines, and continuous records have been received
from all but those marked with an x.
Dunkeld, Perth. Nairn, Nairn.
Aberfeldy, + Fort George x, Inverness, E,
Pitlochrie, 3 Inverness, z es
Struan, a Beauley x, Bs f
Dalnaspidal, _,, Dingwall, Ross, E.
Dalwhinnie, Inverness, E. Invergordon, Aney aR
Kingussie, 5 ep Tain, asp ioe
Aviemore, * Bonar Bridge, ,, 4,
Grantown, Elgin. Lairg, Sutherland.
Daya, Inverness, E. Golspie, .
Forres, Elgin. Helmsdale, a
Burghead, = Garve *, Ross, E.
Mulben, Banff, Achanault, Saha Waa
Keith, rs Achnasheen, Theta
Strome Ferry, Ross, W.
Your Committee regret that the vicinity of the Caledonian Canal and the
West of Ireland are still very destitute of observers, and that several Welsh
counties, e.g. Cardigan and Carmarthen, must be added to the list of districts
in which observers are especially needed. Your Committee do not, however,
enlarge upon this subject on the present occasion, because they hope at an
early date to present a revised edition of the list of stations published in the
Report of this Association for 1865, and such remarks will be more appro-
priate then than now. The list published in 1865 has, mainly in consequence
of the development of the work under the auspices of the Committee, become
obsolete, as it does not contain more than two thirds of the data now col-
lected. The new list will contain all records known at the date of publica-
tion, and will be invaluable to future inquirers.
_ The whole of the forms of inquiry respecting the positions &e. of the rain-
gauges in the country were issued last October. Of the 1700 issued, more
than half were not returned; and therefore, at their meeting in June of the
present year, the Committee instructed their Secretary to send a second
application to each of these persons. By this means many more have been
Pie The total number received up to the present time is as follows :—
1873, s
258 REPORT—1873.
Diy. 1. Middlesex ...ccisssecsssstecnes 16 Scotland (continued). Brought up 657
;, I. South-eastern Counties...,.. go | Div. XIII. South-eastern Counties... 12
», II. South Midland Counties... 60 Fs XIV. South-western Counties.. 17
» LV. Eastern Counties ............ 45 + XV. West Midland Counties.. 10
% V. South-western Counties ... 103 y XVI. East Midland Counties... 15
» VI. West Midland Counties ... 59 » XVII. North-eastern Counties.. 23
3° VIL. North Midland Counties... 44 » XVIII. North-western Counties. 14
», VIII. North-western Counties ... 59 “O XIX. Northern Counties ...... a
ber, ks, S OSKABIND,, «tec ncasscyecstess > 60 , XX. Ireland, Munster ......... 5
bs X. Northern Counties............ 60 7 XXI , Leinster ......... 15
3» XI. Monmouth, Wales, and the sj) RL » Connaught...... 4
LICE FRESE chee eee ee ae 45 y XXIII, Ulster io, it sae 18
», XII. Scotland,Southern Counties 16 =
— otal ss AS tie ese 798
657 =
The returns have been sorted, the angular elevations of surrounding objects
computed, blank forms prepared ; and the tabulation has been commenced on
the plan shown by the following specimen (p. 259).
When this tabulation is completed, the information afforded will be of the very
highest value; but the labour of discussing the returns (without which they are
practically useless) will be very heavy, as may be judged by the fact that the
specimen sheet contains only four returns out of the 800 already received.
Although the mass of information thus produced is so large, the Com-
mittee cannot but regret that a considerable number of the forms have not
been returned, and that it seems probable that those who have neglected to
send them back are the persons respecting the positions of whose gauges
information may be most desirable. Your Committee therefore feel that
there is no alternative but to press forward the personal examination of all
these stations as rapidly as possible. It is satisfactory to them to find that
the views which they have steadily held of the paramount importance of
personal inspection of the stations have not only been recognized and acted
upon by the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society, but have met
with great support upon the Continent.
At the Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Science
at Bordeaux, September 1872, the following resolution was passed :—‘‘ We
think that rules universally applicable can be laid down for the verification
of instruments, and the inspection of meteorological stations, and we believe
that it would be one of the greatest advantages which can possibly be real-
ized in meteorology.” The same subject was discussed at the Meteorological
Conference held at Leipzig in August last, and the following resolution was
adopted :—* It is desirable to make a periodical inspection of the stations
of each system as frequently as possible.” In consequence of the issue of
the position-forms previously mentioned, our Secretary has been obliged, both
by considerations of time and money, rather to curtail these personal ex-
aminations ; the number, however, described in the Appendix to the present
Report is 54, bringing the total up to 479, to which should be added
those tested by Mr. Buchan with the apparatus presented to the Scottish
Meteorological Society last year, of which, owing to Mr. Buchan’s absence
at Vienna, the details have not yet been received.
It will be remembered that the gauges erected in certain parts of Wales,
and those erected in East Cumberland and Westmoreland by Mr. Symons in
1865, were transferred to this Committee some years back. As some of the
observers haye died, and some of the gauges have been disabled, your Com-
mittee have directed their Secretary to go over the district, and rearrange
them as may seem most expedient.
259
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
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260 REPORT—1873.
The experimental gauges erected some years since at Calne, at the ex-
pense of Col. Ward, and subsequently removed to Strathfield Turgiss and
Hawsker (and of which the results were reduced, presented to this Com-
mittee, and by them inserted in their 1869 and 1870 Reports), have been
finally dismounted and preserved for future use if required, it being consi-
dered that the doubtful points which they were constructed to test have
been thoroughly settled.
During the decennial period, extending from 9 a.m. January Ist, 1860, to
the same hour on January Ist, 1870, there were 317 records of rainfall kept
in the British Isles, without the omission of a single shower. These records
therefore give 38,040 monthly values, or 3170 values for each month of the
year, and afford by far the most reliable basis for investigation into the
seasonal distribution of rainfall ever yet available. Accordingly your Com-
mittee have had them all converted into percentages of the yearly totals at
the several stations, and tabulated in the same manner as those for previous
decades given in our Report for 1868. We give on the present occasion in
Table I. the percentages for each individual station, because it has been
remarked that we have not given monthly averages, and these percentages
afford the means of readily obtaining such averages. It is merely necessary to
shift the decimal point two places to the left to convert the percentage into
a factor for deducing the monthly amount from the mean annual amount
given in the column preceding the monthly percentages. For example, the first
station is Shrewsbury, of which the mean annual amount was 19-499, and
the January percentage 8-6, which by shifting the decimal point is converted
into the factor :086, and 19-499 x -086=1°677 in., the computed January
fall. The true January mean at Shrewsbury is 1°675 in.; and although
the mean, computed by the above method, would not in all cases be in
such remarkably close agreement with the true mean, the difference would
never be of any consequence.
In Table II. we give the means for each group, and, for comparison, the
corresponding values for the previous decade 1850-59, and also the depar-
tures of each group from the mean of each district. These values strengthen
the evidence which we adduced in our 1868 Report of the greater relative
wetness of winter months at western stations, and especially at those of
large rainfall. But though they corroborate the fact of the oscillation, they
rather reduce its amount. For instance, at western stations in England we
‘have the following monthly percentages for stations at which the average
is 20 to 25 in. :—
1850-59. 1860-69.
JAMWATY. pe as ws ss 79 January ........ 78
DUG ten. 0 ss 2s 10°6 July Sac chee ae 8:3
Difference .. 2°7 Difference .. 0°5
60 to 65 in. :—
SATUATY. Le ie sis-aid 13:9 JANUATY.. «<1. «eee 11-2
July "RABE wise’ 7-4. July ee eee 5:4.
Difference .. 65 Difference.. 5:8
It is satisfactory to find that the general inferences drawn by Mr. Gaster,
and quoted in our 1868 Report, are so far corroborated by the fuller in-
formation now obtained—that, except as hereinafter noted, we may refer to
that Report as giving a fair résumé of the facts in the present, always re-
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 261°
membering that the 1860-69 decade has shown the various features in a less
marked degree than the decade 1850-59.
In order to facilitate an accurate determination of the months in which
the maximum and minimum rainfall usually occur we have compiled
Table III., which gives the months of maximum and minimum respectively
for two complete decades (for England, Scotland, and Ireland), adopting the
same subdivision into districts, and grouping according to amount of annual
fall, as in the previous Tables,
An abstract of the results of Table III. is given as Table IV.
These two Tables are very instructive, and afford information respecting
the distribution of the epochs of maximum and minimum previously unat-
tainable.
The general features will be better understood by an examination of the
Tables than by any description ; and we therefore confine ourselves to re-
marking that the essential difference between the two decades is that in
1860-69 July, as a month of maximum rainfall, has disappeared altogether,
and April has become more frequently that of the minimum. In fact during
the last ten years April has been the driest month at most stations in the
British Isles, while in the previous decade this distinction was pretty equally
shared by February and May.
_ The gradual retardation of the epochs of maximum and minimum as the
annual amount of rainfall increases, is also clearly shown by the upper por-
tion of Table II.; while in the lower or departure portion of Table II. it is
very instructive to observe the change of sign as the average total rainfall
increases. ;
With a view to determining whether the same relative monthly values
are found at the same station in all decennial periods, we have selected
seventeen registers, each extending over at least forty successive years, while
four extend over fifty, and one over sixty successive years, and reduced them
in the same manner as the 1860-69 values. These are given in Table V.;
and the result can hardly be called satisfactory. They show the same
general features as the two decades which have been discussed in detail,
such as the larger percentages in winter months in wet districts, and in the
summer and early autumn in dry districts; but the months of maximum
and minimum shift about to an extent which would not be expected, con-
sidering that each value represents the average of ten years. An examina-
tion of these records, all embracing more than one third of a century, proves
that, however steady the ten-yearly average amount of rain may be, its dis-
tribution over the months is not so by any means; so that, as far as our
present investigations go, it is impossible to lay down any general law as to
the precise month of maximum and minimum fall.
It has been the custom of this Committee to follow the practice inaugu-
rated by Mr. Symons before their appointment, and give biennially details
of the monthly fall of rain over the British Isles. As this practice has
several advantages, your Committee are unwilling to depart from it, and
therefore leave the detailed discussion of the rainfall of 1872 until next
year ; at the same time, as the total was in many districts excessive, and in
several localities unprecedented, they have instructed their Secretary to pre-
pare for the Bradford Meeting a map showing the more remarkable general
features, and briefly to explain it. But as the subject will be discussed at
length next year, they do not make either the map or remarks a part of the
present Report, A
REPORT—1878.
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*aNVILOOG
= *(ponuyuoo) *T £T4VJ,
277
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
Z.O1
0,01
£.6
5.6
7.6
4.6
*UNVIGUT
Soo eee errr errr eT) eoaesse sy *"OF-OF
Seer ee eeeerecersesens TO}SULT.1}10 F
ssoaeeeneesees THOTT MOUNT. 4SUFIOKf | "07-08
“ee odoTTOD smoand suyjog | *eg-9¢
“*seeeSTIOTIRIg Z JO MLOy
starteeeeeeeeeseneueseoeees OIOTIETMT.
-ssesesseeoeeneypony Tourer ‘UGUG } "08-63
“POMLISUT UotogSDT
“tierereeressersereneeeereess goreriryy |“ Q=05
a a
sere STIOTIBIG G jo uvoyy
“"-aNOK sdUaLOT
rete LOT TOIT AA
} “"Ch-OF
“eres comnansay yIog | “8-08
"JOLMISUT Ul ]S9 Af
278 REPORT—1873,
;
| Tasre II.—Mean Percentage
. ENGLAND AND WALES.
ee No. Western District, 1850-59.
Fall. of Sta-
Between | 2°98: | Jan Feb, |March. April | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
in. in
I5- ZO tosnthe || eseneculll.eeesaceil cctede || hieexeupeit/tann's ee | seeee e | eeeeee Peters | cereee seeeee es
20- 25 8 79 | 5'5—| 5°7 72 | 770 to'2 | r0°6 | 10°5 gl jxme} 8°5 67
25- 30 II gt 54—]| 575 6'9 72 g'0 9°9 98 84 me7+ 8°5 8-6
pB°- 35 a oS alee 1) S| 72 1 83 $4 187 |. 94.) 87 J10 gt om | 92
35- 40 5 |10%4 | 69 6°6 TO | 58—| 85 81 xe) 79 |113+! 9g'0 9°5
“40-45 4 |1r4+) 74 6°5 69 | 58—| 77 EG $°6 76 | 10:9 972 | 103
Boe | P9817 7 1 53° | 56 1 a 8—| 94) 94 [109+] 87 j109+) BB | o2
BO- 55 2 |10'7+] 71 6°4. 78 58—|] 77 7. 92 8°0 | 10°6 9°3 | Io"2
55- 60 I | 13°9+| 7°8 57 4°99 |4°8—]| 7°'0 77, 31 8°4 | 10°7 8°5 | 12°5
is Sy) agg) yr) -58 1 5s eg | Og 9% | oot 770 |10'2 | 87 | 12°6
Seu Gtaseral siesetl| tohovsblll satay |-2seceee ld Mctess| solees legiticc, Wiksctote sles coe: t al caeee sen] maaan eee
7O- 75 14'I+]| 9°6 6:0 55 | 400o—]| 64 6°38 g'0 72 | 98 89 | 12°7
25-130 I | 136+] 9°6 6"4. 60 | 45—| 68 Ws We iSeg 7'2 | 102 Sr | Ig
= TORS |e toe Cn VR a ae eee (tee) ee a a ere re el eer ence. atoohe. | osecec
Mean...| ...... 112 | 75 6'0 64 | 5°5 79 33. | 93 8:0 | 10°8 $8 | 103
4 Note.—In the upper portion of this Table the affixed + and — indi-
I Departure of mean percentage for each
ZO Neate a lansescul eentosel| vacons | cheeses Wi aggace i) castes |! caneace® [emctake Jacstcce tl’cceee all ROMER conte.
HZO— 25 | ..cu. —3°3 | —2°0 | — °3 | + °8 | +1°5 | +2°3 | +2°3 | +12 | +11 | + +3] — +3 | —3°6
e5- 30 | seceee See eee ee ek ee ed tno. |) cR |r sa otc ‘9 | 35) —2-7,
Hpo- 35 | -..... —r9|—rg|/— 3 )+ 3/4 8} 4+ 5/4 4/4 1]+7]4+-9]4+-5]—re
BS 40 | eevee eee Ga G6 6 Pe gl 6 | — “2 |g | — on dee | ee
PSA CN ec caes SPs fees isa atte Spel St i a a el Fr sg) "4. feXe)
45— 50 | sevens EON ate — 7 Be rs faery | eeaG [et 7 | ox oro | —I'I
50- 55 Ber a ne = ‘4 -- 4 +. 9 a5 3 aes, ~ 6 PR, fours) —- 2 + “5 oy
155— 60 | seoee Sela (a Na Vm Rm a em Yet Vcr Stl em’ ea Vet be
bo—' 65] ...... $277 | +16 | — 2. | — "gf —1r2 | —1'5 | — *9 | — 2. | —1'0 | — 6 | — #1 | 42°73
65- HOD Nee=vox Ub tensencdll Grucccml| coance ||| cosas op eeeten: | nedaee | ecosc™ [abegeseelne. con 4 1 cook ciety Reememnlemeeese
H7O= 75 | crocs +2°9 | +2°1 oro | — *9 | —15 |} 15 | —1°5 | — °3 | — 8 J —T'0 | + oor | 24
P5130 | ...00s T2421} + 4} — 4 )—ro}—ry1 |—r1|/— 8]— -8{— 6 |— +7 | 416
SSG GL | opeocne| Marana Saks secsen | esses | cacens | csveoe | caveae | eeoese: | coves | seeees | suscas | seeces
ee
CrentraL District, 1850-59.
15-20 I 77 | 4°5—| 4'8 70 6°2 II'l | 1r8 {13°2+| 8:6 |x1°1 83 5°7
20-25 9 85 | 44—]| 570 70 7°38 94 | 117 | 10°6 go {IIg+] 83 6°4.
25-30 7 38 Bl e5—) 5°34) 7:6 | Bo 86 | 96 | 9°5 QO | 13:347) Bape 73
BOSH |) css eees Sl vaecemth eemeamta ine spclltects e w [ise eNA dd cvene | Ratwos |eninsete: |) covace di scsh soll Neate rest
Bao | saccve | sosssottl beens SM coors abel nhcc gs" Ni ewsewelt| iw onses | faonscs) | Mtedcem |t ooseus |] obeseve tl Mememeenl eoneoe
ae eee be | eee Ol ieadeWaud| iewasas | evices’ | Goecottal: vaacee ll accectameneee nl mec cnee
ASSO | vrseee | aeenee | seetee | canoes “1 aieilicccess » || eiewecw | ebeansap [ats sease Jo osaeaa a raeemectll bine ee
Bey ||! (oseses OH weense tl: homasam ucecactellpesws SoM erexe Ml presse | Wasees. | WrvssSh | te-ccss | east odi@ecetes )] cee le
‘Mean...| ...... 3°3 4'5 570 72, 73 O°7 ao auieroer 89 | 12°2 8-4 6°5
DIR =2O) || sssaee — 6 OOP 2 | 2 ay | m4 | 8 | eens) — “3 4 — 2:0 | — or |) — ag
ZO-25 | veces > °2 1 — OO = "20S | — 93 PSE — oa a 2 x | = ny
BE=20 | cesae. + 6:5 OO Wis Sols “407 | | ra 96 ees fete ree | sy eas
BACAR Mach Ns sca00 | adecee | saswceal’ cecneer teeces me! eveees if Mheneet| Reaves Wi senese) |e coca IH © s<cese ean
PROMMEEADs 7. |\escece | suseer | cessse | secase | aeeese | ceesee || atten nl eeeeee J cesser | cereee | weeeee | seeeee
PMA te) || (eseses: | seesce |) veere- ll oeasicn ll saccaee |]! wisesies if eames || aeeaasll Oreos |’ acces || 1 cencemlieemeee
Se MRSC Se 2i5s.0i) (esses. || teswese ll, Geese | scses. al Seeeces al meeweme nt meReete ali meee lane. ee. a aaa ove
50-55 Seearealasasss | ansino\ || sevamelll Weeave's |i eeoreralvenseee aiucatecs amen ss/|/\/stveeisl] lonceee |) eseeeea amen
}
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 279
in each Group,
ENGLAND AND WALES.
No. Western Distrricr, 1860-69.
of Sta-
ons.) Jan, | Feb. [March April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. Oct. | Noy. | Dec.
I 8-6 65 | 77 | 48-— | 84 113 | +4°8 | 10°9 128+ | 9°8 5°9 8°5
6 | 7'°8 6o | 773] 5s 8— | 8x Sr 83 | 104+] 1074 10°I Sr | 96
II b Coho) 6°6 79 57— $3 8°4. 6°5 8-7 10°5-+ | 10°2 Tg, 9'5
39 | 9°4 Se MN 20. ee A P7 |) TO} Ge |) TOS 107+ | &7 Gh OF
18 ra PP UCT. AGA Bo 7h | 76 | 92 | roe | to7-+ Pi ge | aoe
19 | 108+] 7°5 7°6 51— 6°6 6°38 64. | 8'5 9°9 10°7 9°4 | 19°7
12 | 10% 75 77 Biz Oo: 6°6 63. | 89 10°3 108+ | 9°5 | 10°6
8 | 102 8o | 78 | 53-— | 62 67 | 63 | 87 | 102 104 96 | 10°6+
4 | Io‘o 85 76 53—- | 5'8 62 5°38 | 87 I0'r 10°9 roo | I1'I+
I Ir'2+ | 83 V7 6:0 52— 5°6 54 | 89 10°3 10°0 10°8 | £O'L
eae ee ae aS ae oe ve poe a Pe ion eee
Mean| 99 | 75 | 78 | 5%4 67 7% | SZ) o¥- || roe >| Teidee | oars
eate the months of maximum and minimum percentage respectively.
group from the mean of the district.
ae —1'3 |-—ro|/—‘1| — °6 +17 | +40 |—15 | +18 | 3-24 — ‘6 |—31 | —1'7
sasees —21 |—1r5}/— 5} +4 | +14 | 4+ °8 | +20 | +413 oo | — 3 |= 99 | — 6
seeees Fuj}—‘9o{/+er}] +°3 | +ré jtrir}/4+2)/— 4) +71 —- "2 |—13]/ — ‘7
ve | — 15 [oz {por] <r [+s [+4 [te7|+2$ — 1 [43 |= 3] — 35
teeeee Ores o'o oo [+3 {+r jt7 itr] — ‘2 | +3 oro | — "2
seseee +* 9 Oa oe ea OG et an eg ee Bl ee ie tg ec ie =
sega +5 oo}/— ‘1 ]/ —°2 | — % |—.°7 oo }— "2 | — ‘I +4 /+°5|/+ 4
Bayes +°3;+°5 oo | — ‘I —*5 |— ‘6 oo|— 4/ — ‘2 oo |}/+ 6] + 4
sees Sask || --r°o | — 2, | — * —'9 |—1r}/— "5 )/— 4} = 3 | $75 | +00] + "9
esos | $13 | +1°3 }— *r | + 76 —1'5 j|—-17/—‘9/— 2] -—"'1 —-— 4 {+18 | — "1
Pepi |tar|+8| ee | ry [ry |= [3 | S| eae
Creytrat Disrricr, 1860-69.
I ge) | GO | 73 | S4- | 183 | OS [75 freShy 16% 9°8 7B ga
II $2 6°3 8:0 Sas cop 3°83 80 =| 10°3-++| Io'r 98 74 373
Deans? 19S ye8O fe SO) Ba | Org) | 7a | ee | tsb) 5 OF 76) Beg
5 104 | 66 79 siI— 76 $4 | 65 3:8 10°9-+ | 10°3 79 96
Be ee: 2 a ; Moat a a iltpe 5 i AH cst % : e ; | Bee) ase ae ‘ ead lee i
I 8-6 62 64. 6'0— 6°7 8:7 72 97 9°5 F133-- tow 96
I 88 8°3 8:0 6:0— 6°8 76 6°8 3-7 98 103+] 98 gt
Mean.) 9'1 6°7 729 56 76 3°6 as 96 Io'r 10°%3 3°5 gt
vee By lace Zalaet hh mm 2. | e782 |e | oa ea ee
seaces =— 9 |— “4 |}+°3 | + cr +1°5 | + 21+ 9 |+ °7 foyfe) — S$ }—rr| —.6
my al + 6 2 “3 + “3 fowe) + ay + 7 -- *r p= “5 + 3 = “6 ss 9 fe “Ai
pesese =i 8 Ne [eb al = oo |}— 2 }— 6 }/— 3} + 3 oo |— 6] +5
aa —7\+-2\+-4| +2 |—rg |—-7|—2|—-2]} =a [es [+ -7| +13
aoe — "5 |}— "5 |—13]} + 4 —‘9 |trr + 1/+ 1] — 6 +10 |+1°6 | + °5
Eueres — ‘3 /4716)/+°3) +4 | -— 38 |—-rol[—--'— 9) — 3 en Woe ria oo
|
280
REPORT—1873,
TABLE II)
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Mean Eastern District, 1850-59.
Annual a
Betkeed
tions.) Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | A pril.} May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
Between |
in. in,
15-20 4 Wait) \ Ailes | 533 69 74 87 | 12°3+] 11°8 9°3 | 10°7 8'9 673
20-25 12 79 | 48—| 51 71 85 82 | 121 10°4. go |12°3+| 86 6'0
539 eaten ay | 48) 51801 ZO) 7H} 7731 Od 96 | 69'S [ae zaps | age
30-35 BNO | 42— 1) 558 || Gg.) 76 |) 7°O4 87 Sr | 100 | 149+) 39 | 7°9
35-40 I 97 |45—| 6&8 | 67 | 7o | 78 | 94 78 | ror |143+| 82 | 77
50-55 os = <8 rae na Bas aoe ee st Pr ahs pe
Mean... 85 | 4°6 56 69 76 79 | 10°7 9°5 96 | 1370 8°83 70
Departure of mean percentage for each
15-20 — 8} + 1) — 3 oo} — 2] + 8) +16] 42°3} — *3] —2°3] 41] — °7
20-25 = "6 + 2 —- a5 + 2, + 9 + £3 +14 + 9 —_ “6 = "7 —— "2, —J‘o
25-30 + 2 + oa a 52 + 7 ar 25 "6 + =a + “7 rr —— cf) + tr -b iD
30-35 +12] — 4] — "1 [oxe) CFO] 93 = 250) CA 4) On are
35-40 SF 2h at | Pte | Poe | Peta — rg) | — 7 el eg eg ee 6) ene
SCOTLAND.
Western Disrrictr, 1850-59,
Mean N.
Annual f Sta
Fall. By ah el
Hons.) Jan. | Feb. | Mar. )April.| May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Noy. | Dec.
Between
in, in.
20-25] 1 10'9 8:2 62 | 74 4°8—| g‘o 9°4 73 51 | 108 94 |rrst)
25- 30| x |114+] 7°8 57 | 53-| 63 94 | 10% 9°4 81 | 10°r 64 |10'o |
go— 35 3 II‘o 8°3 6°7 59 46—| 67 89 85 81 | 103 94 | 1164
35-40) 4 |19TI 76 | 66 | 55 | 49—| 8:0 | g2 | 84 | 75 | 10°9 | oq | 114+)9
40-45; 2 |rro+| 82 63 78 55—| 85 8-2 9°5 6°5 9°5 86 | 1074 |
45- 50| 2 10'S 8:6 69 | 6°8 57—| 85 85 9°72 6°6 9°9 77 |arit|—
BO= 554 re TO Oe STO SHS) 6S |g | 87 | °7°3 | Oe Miia ree
55- 60} ... ae a0 = “ro =a see Bee ee wee tae oes é.
65- 70| 1 13°0 9°2 69 | 64 5o—| 66 74 78 7a Gown 77 \132-+18
7O- 75 Tras: 9°3 66 | 4°9 40—| 54 69 61 80 | 10K, | 95 | 14°84]
Pom (OT sae wee eee eee ite ves aes eee aes eee eee eee eee ;
80— 85] ... See tie 5 Pe “Fe ae Rae ae bes tds As oo i
Ico-105]| ... ate ae Age ons He mee ack “ae ee eae ~~ =
Meaniees| \s.5. (|\ 17 $4. 65 5) 62 pan 76 8-7 8°3 74) | nO"? 84 | 11°8 |
|
EMEC Ss arts a.) Gn Se a
1
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 281
:
oo:
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Eastern District, 1860-69.
April. June. } July.
Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
startet liell
CU HU coe
eaters ile list
SCOTLAND.
Western Drsrricr, 1860-69.
No.
of Sta-
tions. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April. May. | June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
[-—_— ——_ | eee ———E————————— eS ES) ee ee
ears] 77 |- 73 | 58 | 68 | s6—|'63 | 89 | go [x10 1°93 ‘fr0%
7 Io’ 87 73 | 54—-| 5°8 6°0 62 | 10°2 g°8 | 11°'2-+| 9°93 | 10K
6 10°3 go 7, 54 5°4. 5I—| $33 9°6 99 |11°6+)10'2 | 1I'o
g 108+) 8-7 8:0 | 5°9 56—| 6°5 59 9°7 g'2 |10°3 gt | 103
3 11r8+| 38 ol Neal Cd 58 57—-| 63 9°3 g'2 |10'4 87 | 10°6
3 eel ei P 4.0551 4) Sie | ae | ots. | oy [rom | Sig ina
1 127+] 9°7 Te | RA 51—| 5°6 62 3-6 98 | 10°2 8-3 | 110
I Bye 10.9, | 69 | GG | 56 | 54] 59 | 9% | 9°] 9°9°.| 9°3 | aa
3 11°6 gt Tyg AG oe ew fie) 58 he Sr S| ere 89 | 13°2+
2 10°9 } 10°5 60 | 5:2—| 573 5a 5°4 9°3 | 10'2 | 10°6 gr [122+
3 [2-3 | 10:0 86 | 574 48—| 51 570 78 9°5 | 10% go | 1244+
I Ing {128 | 74 | 54 | 45 | 60 | 3:7-] 65 | 92 | 98 | go |ag8-E
I 12-7 | 10°7 Gia) a eae 45—| 4:7 52 71 9°3. | 10°0 go | 14°04
§°5 56 3-3 9°5 | 10% 8-9 | 11°8
282 REPORT—1873.
TABLE II.
SCOTLAND.
Departure of mean percentage for each
Mean Western District, 1850-59 (continued).
Annual of Sta
tions. | Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April.| May. | June. | July.| Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee. |
Between
in. in,
Ose obs Sli Se] P23 | E121 = 3 +14 |/+ °7 |—1ro | —2°0 | + “6 | +10 |— 3
25- 30 — 3] —6 | —8 |— ‘9 | +42 | +18 | +14 | +11 | +10] + "1 |—2°0 —1'8
30- 35 fe Ads "7 —"'I +"2 +34 ar} as 35 _~ 9 + "2 aL 2 +1'o ae I +1'o — 2
35- 40 eS oat ta ae a i oe eR A ee Dai Bc me
40- 45 —— oa —2 —2 +1°6 + "4 + 9 — ae +12 5 *6 — oS + 2 —1"%4
45- 50] «. |—12] +°2 | +4) + 6 | + °6 | *9 | — °2 | 4 29 |) = 5 see
5O- 55] ove oo} — 5 | — 1 |— 5 [4+ 3} —t3 (+5 | + 4 [+ 21+ 2/— 21
55- Go| wee ane tae cee es ous ae 509 aes a oes ses ae
65- 70 aal +13 +°8 +4 + 2\|— "I —ro}—1'3|— ‘5 —-4/-‘1|/- 7 +14
Fogel se | ey | a | Ar | kg | Er 22 1°38.) —22 1+ ‘9 | — “1 | +11 | +3°0
75- 80| ws oat tee oe eee ose ve ee e eee eee tee
80- 85] . ped | ebe ar) ane eos 40 oie she sae ope
IOO-105| sve Fl ard See be she eee aes oe oes 35
——— ______ses__._.____ ee
Eastern District, 1850-59.
15-20 3 | 84 | 54 | s4—-| 7 | 55 | 82 | 92 Jxotg | 86 118+) 9-9 | 96
B0-35 | 10-979 | -64 | 55 | 58 | 54—] 86 | 94) | 98) 5) 82 eo, ee
25-30 7 LOU 6°38 62 63 55—| 37 gl 96 7°3 |1o°9+] 91 9°8
30-35 5 |10'9+] 66 71 6°38 62—| 83 3-2 3-6 8:2. | 10°2 9°9 3-9
35-40 A [ree] 78 | 65 | 57 | so) 74 | Fo | 87 | 73 1 ea ee
40-45 I | 102 8'0 5'0 48—| 62 38 | 112 |10°6 73 | LON 63° «| 1054
45-50 eee oo . eee tee a see eee ee eve ee 503 see
50-55 . o . . on
55-60 is eve ° a
60-65 AS }
Mean..:|° ... | 10% 63 6:0 61 56 8°3 92 9°6 | 778 | rrr go | 1o"r |
Departure of mean percentage for eae
15-40 | «a || —20°] =I | 6 fro | — er) 81") oo | 83) 8 | + 7) “9 ae
208g se A 5 a ee i eg 2 2a esd oe
25-30 mae + 3 oo |/+2)+2)/—1j}/+ 4/— 48 OO — 5.) aa
8-35 ees LE 25 al 2p rer het 7 = 6 oo | —1°0 | —1'0 | + *5 |— *9 | + ‘9 | —172
35-40 ais +1°8 +1'o + 5 = "4 —— 6 — 9 —r'2 A 9 Ss 25 + 2 + *y 4+ 9
40-45 woe | — 12 | Fra | —1o | —1°3 | + 6 | + 5 | +2°0 | 44a] — “5 | —10 | —2°7 | +m
45-50 eee Aid abe ose . ok 974 oe “ + e. an
50-55 tee tae oes eee sae ene one as ves oe aa
55-60 vas obs one obs abe oe wee es AS eee 4
60-65 ns as ae 45 S40 ove ae Ane 508 was
283
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
SCOTLAND.
group from the mean of the district.
-
(continued).
.
3 | ae ee ee wines Lio ah as Oom+tmn. . a
| an} to Ln _ QIN Oe CO AP wg ae ees . oa <
bg nN lomo} a °
A | lotately Sil -F-F-R-ees ON ee i Wiel tae. +
E 6 NUS EN ORO NS) OLNGEL Me Coos SO aeicn lee INO MNOS.
5; fi a... co dodo NN * fe | co :
A = tl te dhs -SRaPoesr oe |
ae te cBeen palette abdiae a
3 rat HOM moO Tt RO
. | +++ | +i ly eid ee) i] — ++++] | |
( ey
S14 etal si TG) ree shy Dg ab Papecen pies hw. on
S$ S : ° 3S 2 Deena ay & :
S a ie eid ce soa | Wy ae EE IL +
~
>
$ tb _ ote DVR NOS AHO SN RN RR ae ANHHHH . 1
OF) = | = Lal ois ee! ° MO iror ewes } 4
=u ++t++++ 144417 1 2 at teal Saaiaeine te id zi) Bell a |
o l
a ee er or ges Cea cun = mG this chiget neue (oO eo mst no =
: a) NRO KKO iN :
oe 5 ++ 1 +++4+4+4+1171 st = i bas Set es} |
re n
eS 3 ntOoOn © a + N00 a | a
d 4 | eae fo SHS os iraithes Z Fe & shehengrs: by x are a att =]
Fe a) Scilla amie aml Al ie] ei } + 1] |
A <i
cae pftON toms ne am Fl | eeetercn cl POM nN Ne. +
A atte OS ininint in th 4
; A ++ +4 1411111 zi re as sk ++++11 |
2 & a)
Bl do | csssesnsonsaas ee eee Bee oy ge es he ee
a ay : in =< inininininin ? tin] in || 2B |
fs < | thlteidter lt joa ae aa 3 aca ta | me
. sm AONMNAOOMN+HANO A S ~ MN A AH SF +
a Sie 8 cate ft MONO. ae a ROSS 2AM+O HO coja Spo oes
: SRAKRR? POT RK
= | 1) )++ b)it + ‘> Pt+tiit+ |
Pat . DANO AW NA MIM AtA Se eee. Le Ss Wo Mstnin. .0
o _- Lal Se i 1a Ee ae . > 1 et se
. OnnNDAN n oo
Fy Pid db ttt) +++ S Milt ee see
o
. PVA hms noo +a eau Le Ss HOARS+O. .+
q : ~ _ T Roe pas aS 2 s Pars ar] ae! 74
rm +l} jttti+1++4+ mt A 4 [A 3 I | | +++ “bh
ka Soe
eer. he «hes <a SP iiks © gave: co waits ea ae! Ce ee poe oe es
Sin § eee eae tee eee eA Sig > eee eee
a oP = Gs | ey ere et. go Pate 3
ws % = | =
Ms r: fF .-{ haere ie Nails ol
284. REPORT—1873.
TABLE
IRELAND.
Msn Western District, 1850-59.
Annual of Bit
fons. | Jan, | Feb. | Mar. April.| May. | June. | July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | ¥
Between
in. in. j
30-35 =e Ses ae ie eee ae ed ae 58 Ap ms 3h
35-40 3 | rr2z+| 69 6°38 75 63—| 84 8-2 89 74 972 8:6 | I¢
40-45 pat sis 1 es Res a coe “a 5h oc ia eens
45-50
Mean...) ... | 11°2 69 68 ha 63 8°4 8-2 8-9 74 92 36 | 1
Departure of mean percentage for
30-35 oP a0 soe sos ase ea Ses 358 see sie oes Osc | f
35-40 see oe) oo o'o o'o oo o'o o'o o°o o"o o"o o"o C
40-45 tee see see sas eee tee eee oe o . /
45-50 eee aoe tee see aoe tee tee a oes eee
Eastern District, 1850-59.
20-25 2 93 55—| 6-2 7°9 81 | 10°3+) 9'0 84. 8:0 9°6 97
25-30 2 98 53—| 6:0 8°83 8:0 98+) 96 77 79 9°6 3°7
30-35 2 11°5+| 8'0 6-7 81 6:0—| 7°7 875 92 ee 8°5 8:4.
35-40 358 an 455 ane oes aes eae oe os a0 eee
40-45 oe Bem 55°
Mean...}| ... | 10°2 63 63 8°3 74 | 93 g'0 84 | 77 92 89 5 |
Departure of mean percentage for
20-25 — ‘9 |— 8 |— "1 |— 4 |+ °7 |+10 foe) oo {+ *3 I+ 4
25-30 — 4 |—ro |— 3 [4+ °5 [+6 J+ "5 |+ 6 |— "7 |+ 2 [+ 4
3°35 433 |+9r7 |+ 4 |— 2 Jmr4 J-r6 [— "5 [+8 | 5 |= "7
35-40 . tn Sit ne ase ses * “
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
2~
o
of
(continued).
IRELAND.
Wesrern District, 1860-69.
July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dee.
|
jroup from the mean of the district.
a Fr2 [—ro |+ 4 |— “4 [+ '5 |— "5 |— 8 |— +5 |— +5 |— -2 [+ -2 +16
Ree [-s |— = || oo || ey oe ety Le a
mie —18 j+r4 J— or i-+ee5 [t+ocr J+ °5 oo [+ °5 |+ 8 j+ 4 |— 2 |—21
2 104+] 58 9°90 57—| 82 76 6°5 9°9 88 | 104+} 84 9°3
I Iro+| 7°2 gt 62—| 753 6°5 6°7 9°9 78 | 102 9°4. 8°7
2 10°5 6°7 8-7 58—| 77 7°0 73 98 82 | 10°7+| 8-7 89
I 130+] 7°6 9°7 5:0—| 69 71 56 7°8 7°4 |10°8 83 | 10°8
o. — 8 |-—1'o |— *1 oo |+ “7 I+ Ws oo [+ oe aE 7 |— ‘1 |— 3 |— "x
. — "2 |+ 4 | oo [4+ 5 |— 2 |— 6 [4+ -2 [4+ +5 J— +3 |— +3 [+7 |- 7
Bs Sf | CF lm 4 ot a 2 a 8 cg [tr In Of0) t=
: +138 j+ °8 [+ 6 |— +7 |— *6 oO |— ‘9 J—-1'6 J— °7 J+ °3 [— “4 J4+14
286 REPORT—1875.
TABLE TII.—MONTHS IN WHICH THE MAXIMUM
Yeates 15-20.| 20-25.| 25-30.| 30-35.| 35-40. 40-45.) 45-50. 50-55 55-60,
= {oe} aa Re. veal
(|Western ...|........- Oct. ...|Oct. ...|Oct. ...|Oct. ...|Jan. Oct
| ;
faa oe ‘Central ...|/August|Oct. ...{Oct.
ire!
& \ Eastern .../July...|Oct. ...|Oct. ...|Oct.. ...|Oct.
( 2 re
| ( Western ...|Sept...|August|Sept. ..|Oct. ...JOct. ...)Jan
| 1860-694 |Central ... August August|Sept. ..|Sept. ..J.........|Oct.
[ Eastern ...|August|August|Oct. .../Oct. ...|Oct.
Western 2..]...10e0- Dec....|Jan....|Dec. ...|Dec....|Jan....|Dee.
: | = (1850-59
A j a ( : Eastern ...{Oct..../Oct. .../Oct. ....Jan....|Jan....|Dec.
318
Ss 3 Western §..|.....00-[eossoeee Jan..../Oct. ...|Oct. ...JJan....jJan
® \ 1860-69
Eastern ...|......... Oct. .../Oct....|Oct....JJan. |Jan...
Western ...|-ccrscsse[eccrerecc|ecseesces|tectecees Jan
, (1850-59) |
Es Hastern ...|..csesee June ..|June. .|Jan.
G4
5 ih WEStOITL ...}..ccerera|eoveccara|eosavsers AD. ced] screosvas Jan....|0
1860-69 Tai
| Eastern ...|... Agatod| Pecoobans are eae Oct. ...|Jan
Western ...|....+00- Feb... |Feb, .../March |May .,.|May
1850-594 \Central .
..{Feb...
il .J|April .
Eastern .
( ‘Western ...
1860-694 (Central .../April .|April April .|April .).....++. April .
Eastern ..,|April .|April .j|April .|April ./April aa
Western ...).-.sreee May...|April ./May...|May...|May
5 | q Eastern ...\March |May...|May...|May.,.|May...|April
a4
= eS ..{April .|June. .|May
2 \ 1860-69
Hastern ...|..sesevee April .|April .|May...|April .|April
caegsaced| ME
May.
April .
April .|Apyril .
sleweeerene|seeeeeeereteaceerors
eoereeoes ‘Feb. oer Feb....
April .
April.
Western ...
TTT TT Goo eeooeneee
Treland.
Hastern ...leccsssseefeorreeeee[April .
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 287
AND MINIMUM RAINFALL USUALLY OCCUR.
125-130. | 150-155.
BePI ss levaueesss | Sills /.t.|sexsssoeslecceseese wags vnecansulucunutecsee ae Rdepereopocess Went
Jan see oe see tee Oe eeereseslene eebeeeee Fee epettons eeeteeens eee Dee.
|
L seeveeees| Dec, ...| Dec.
|Dee. ...|Dec....|Dec....|Dec. ...|Dec. ...|.cccceccseee caceeipedswalssccocdseas oats Dec
‘Jan,
May... SO eeeesee May... OCCT OR e see eeeeee eeeeeteerces seeeeetesece Per eeetee ee
e|seeceetetecsene May.
May... SPO Oeer ana eeraesessoreeneeelverececeelsecesseeenes|seeeseereeees BELO COCO LO Arr
May.
OOOO CC OEM! co eeeeeeoerleceneeeetseeees
May,
288 REPORT—1873.
TABLE IVY.—ABSTRACT OF TABLE III.
Western... Wael aches Weisek|!\-ors'i Heleseenl Pees
Werbraliecce| encase: laden |t-cestl, sas |’ eee. | eee
I AShanM acl eaceal Aceon | ieee ilPeeteR || cas Avice, [ark
Westerner aalltcee Io cae inteoonll| toce (\toce. |lccvepl lances, liters
1850-59.
ee
Master. ces| Deal cee || das Hp ened ieee |[otece |-ecedlwosy aaes
Whestoriic.|| ell ccc ll aes IP cestl: cost weet |liceoatd|| wee, lene
FHASECEN Gealh Auvere || Sec becen locas 4|' 2 Wl osen dl cave. libaen
——SQ a
Ireland. Scotland. England.
; ea ee ons hots is | Oct,
| w _ a © Urs Sta re) | Total.
Percent; ..:]30°S|s.. || 00: | «.. | seeh |. 5°2| 2°6] 5:2] 4.= || gi5n8|| 2. WizorGl gg
Maxima.
n
w
w
Ll
~
GStONT (osc) ) KB} eae ||es+. |hever || soe fre ios fi 22 Sleacoull lage g| Doce tn emma nO
Westerns] G0) cose user dh sect ll ess. fence, |i ccea I) tenes || ieteor||e oe Mllcaeh Many
MGSECEI, ges| 4. ee) ||\sve |\bevet || twos: \|Toos | «es. [| wsw.|| Vetewil]| aS] ¥liimeel meee ey)
NVesternis.:| F2llteerdll mec Perey || esaiftesa ||| occod( oT Bn
Centrale ccc icnoMl|) oss) tess |besapliwsetitcccs Ives ty 2) «|e gee) || ogi cane ieee mmm
f Western .3.)13 pl ses, lisse | Pees | vee Wises |vrens | eco [evbet] eee Al nec mermon (ima
1860-69,
Treland. Scotland. England.
TOY eh ames (C3 ‘lel eee Bea | eeccome | hcl Weeenl aceieael | Samet |] ove! oc 5
Per centhn.c\ S427 wes, | soaa\\eoso ol tren |Panp. ||, «ch O° 6) C7 (AS Ore eae eI 52
Owing to double maxima occurring in the Western District of England in the group
with mean rainfall 45-50 in. in 1850-59, and in the Eastern District of Ireland with mean
rainfall 25-30 in. in 1860-69, it will be found that there are 91 entries of maxima against
89 of minima,
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 289
TABLE IY. (continued).
1850-59.
Eastern ...| ..,
I
2 vee | eee I ee one tee see eee
Treland. Scotland. England.
5°3) 5°3)57°9
Westormirctare | ccc ted t QO |) Sl sce | spent ware |oewe limes |) ecg tlic yy Re
Contes SS cc. Sg ye ey [cs I eee Bae beta a
England
Waaterrgs.ciemegl) stecciee sity Shee tree | oe salle sal Ge. sea Rs ol bias |b otaer i nated ie
Wresternry. |) G20 cca ec) [Pezer | 1G: |) 24 al el roca ae iagee | e alate Sy
Minima.
Se eee
bg
is)
Lcd
oO
oO
B
(a2
|
Ww
Co
1860-69.
dT Fs ec] ker [SRO BCE cll eos) kak a [eRe tec ea| (atc bacon) kanal peor mM caceee ite § 7
Wrestermeel’ src0 coe. tse: (ee telces || coe Aaa vate Pace rae [Powe Ile
SSS
Treland. Scotland.
LIC Fey 9 eyed See eee liner Ny Do illicteed leneredian cr al boc 1laaeell Wace Mn acmnlMmee |r
Percent...| ... |... | .-» |.66°8| 2%°6| 7°38) 378 51
Owing to double maxima occurring in the Western District of Hngland in the group
with mean rainfall 45-50 in. in 1850-59, and in the Eastern District of Lreland with mean
rainfall 25-30 in, in 1860-69, it will be found that there are 91 entries of maxima against
89 of minima,
1873, v
1878.
REPORT
290
oor || Zrr| 9.15
Z1I1| +.8 9.01
3.6 0.01 |+¥.71
2.9 |+<.€1] 7.11
o.o1|+o$1} S.or
yor} 1.6 |+72.€1
g.or| 6.01) 4.01
ered rage 1,01
bor} 9.6 0.11
4.6 |+1.z1] 6.01
I.11 |+8.71 9.01
ZL 7.6 9.11
1.8 Hee, £.6
$.S S.g |+<z.€1
$.9 £.or1|+2Z.£1
$.g | vor] &.or
€.2 1.6 v.11
1.9 1.L S.11r
2.9 6.6 |+6.11
o£ v.01] Z.O1r
4.6 0.6 |+0.21
‘oaq | “AON | “320
L.g $2 S.9 Zk 8-9 o£ VL 6.9 £.6 | gof.6z
+g.11| Z$Z.1€ | 69-09g1
£.6 &.£ | ave S.9 | og |—o$ | zor] 9.9
L.L g.L tile Z.3 CA 1.6 £.9 |—z.S 1.6 | z16.9z | 6$-oSgr
9-8 gL |—3.F 3.5 aL 6.9 6.9 S.L | v.01} LvE.6z | 6b-obgr
0.8 £.£ £.9 4.6. |—3.b 2.9 £.9 8-8 v.L | oz6.gz | 6£-ofg1
6.6 o£ Lg |—1.9 o£ 6.2 al, +.9 LL | 406.62 | 6z-ozgr
1.3 TL 9.9 ¥.L 0.9 3.$ z.L g.L 9.01] 9S£.28
1.01] 0g 6.5 99 | 9 |—S.> gL z.L |+6.z1| o£1.€5 | 69-09g1
1.8 9. L.9 0.8 9.9 6.9 £.4 |—9.$ |+2z.z1| zgr.6b | 6S—-oSgr
1.8 0.8 o£ 6.9 £.9 |—1.9 9.9 9-8 0.01 | Sgz.bS | 6b—-obgr
9.8 ZL 6.9 1g j—-gv | 48 Fell 3.6 1.2L } Sog.zS | 6£-ofgt
0.01} ¥.6 0.6 8-8 1.8 0.9 Z.9 t.9 1.3 | S£0.Sz
€or] oor} g.9 |+g.01] +.6 |—£.5 tL 7.9 6.g | c£1.bz | 69-0981
v.6 7.6 o.zr| 6.4 8-8 1.2 z§ |—S.v | Lg | bgr.€c | 6S—-oSgr
1.6 L.8 Lg £.2 S.g |—S.$ 7.9 L.9 Z% | gg6.9z | 6b—-obgr
+4.or| 4,6 £.8 9.6 |—S.5 1.9 1.9 £8 S.g | 6&g.Sz | 6£-ofg1
1orj+%.zr| 9.01} 9.8 o.L Lv 8-8
z1I1} 6.6 g.Z zg v.g f£.9 |—S.S o£ zl. | 6bS.€% | 6b-obgr
+S.11} £.6 1.11| 4.6 Z9 $.9 B.S 1.L |—S.$ | 198.8% | 6£-ofgr
6.12] v.01] 06 | go | Log m6 I—n.S | $36 €.9 | rzL.12 | 6c-ozgr
‘ydog ‘Suy “ATop ‘oun AV Tudy “IVYL | “Gay | “uve Pate ; ‘porsed
UL [RAL yeruuesecy
yenuuy
‘Tey Tenuuy Jo esuyucosod ATyyUOPL meer
se eeeeeeeses savot 0S jo UeeTL
see99* TOAO(T ‘MOTJNyYSUy T9}OXHT
vs givok OF JO UROTL
**MOAA(T “YOo}stawy, “400039 980 \\
seeeeesesers Grn OF JO UvoyT
Heme e rene eeeneewnree XOSsey ‘surddgy
teeseeeerees gang fh OF JO UBepy
"* pxofxQ ‘AtozVatosyQ oF Tppery.
“AqUMOD puL TOTYWL7g Jo ove yr
+
‘sopvoo(] JUSLOYIP UL sosvyuso1eg Jo uostrvdwmog—* A a@Iavy,
291
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
6.01! £.or| g.or| Lg 7.6 6.2 8.9 1.5 1.5 9.L 8-8 0.6 | 129.1 steseeseeees sapak QQ JO Une]
g.or| +.6 1.01] $.or] 9.6 |—£.5 1.9 CAS SAS $.L | 0.6 |+6.o1] zz£.€5 | 69-0991
OIL] 7 v.6 gL 9.01] 7.g £.3 |—6.+ £.$ 9. 9.8 |+1.z1] z16.bb | 6S—oSgr O
5.6 wit |+Z.11| 1.2 60. 5.6 of |—£.5 £.$ aL £.L 6.6 | gL1.18 | 60-obgr b
6.orj+S.11}| zor! S.6 L.g .6 zg |—6.2 Sv 1.8 4.6 z.L | 61z.9$ | 6£-ofg1
g.irjteg.1r}] Lor] £.6 f.o1| 2 £.$ v5 |—2zS gL 6.2 r.L | Lor.$S | 6z-ozgr
++4.11| 2.6 bin! Be +L $2 6.5 3.9 |—6.% $.6 gor} of | 6gr.0$ | 6r-o1gr [eres t**puLzacomlyso AA ‘TepUeyy
L.g 4.6 6.01] 3.8 $.6 S.g 9.8 £.9 6.5 iL Lk
9.8 | 909.28 sreseereeeee spo k QP JO UBOTL :
for} 2.6 |+g.01}] oot} 9.8 8-9 9.$ r.L |—zS +. 7.6 g.g | €1€.£€ | 69-0981
9.8 g.L gor} 9.8 |+%.11] 7.6 b.or |—S.S v9 3.8 v.9 1.6 | €1Z.0& | 6$—-oS gr
1.2 ¥.6 |+£.c1| 1.9 3.6 3.8 6.2 %.L |—1.9 1. £.9 2.6 | €g9.1€ | 6b-ovgr
Lg |+£.11]} 9.6 V.8 1.8 1.6 g.o1 |—¥.S 0.9 1.L 4.8 o£ | v1S.v€ | 6€-ofgr | oarysytoX ‘xvprepT “peop TTAAA
f.0r] g.o1} 9.01} 6.8 1.6 ror} £4 | S.9 6.5 6.9 6.9 S.g | LS9.S€ sreseessesee ganod OF JO UVOTL
4.8 |+?.11} S.6
f.or| Lor] 9.01
£ go6.g& | 6£-ofgr
£
gor] g.6 |+S.11] &.
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o.9
1S | Zov.g& | 6z-o7gr
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0-8
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g.L L.g 9.6 7.6 5.6 9.11} vor} ZL. L9 LS 6.5 z.L | 66S.22 steetereeees gapak QG JO UBayy
po sily Oey eau =
6.9 eg 7.6 |+6.11] 9.8 g-tr| 2.6 9.6 SL |—9.¥ g.5 9.2 | gtg.Ez | 6g-oglr
gL |+z1r] rrr] 6.01] 6.6 +.6 1.6 6.4 |—9.b £.§ 9:9 z.g | 9Lg.gz | 62-oLLr
£4 |} 6.2 |+err] £.9 | ror} Lor] g.11] zL] 1S |—-Se | zg €.2 | Sbz.zz | 69-o9L1 }
3-8 be b.9 9.5 6.11 /+8.£1] 9.6 ore 9.6 oL |—g.b 6.L | £6b.1z | 6$—oSZ1
1.8 mori) £6 £.6 rL |+2z.z1| 6.11} S.g L.9 tL |—zv zL | €€S.gt | 6b-obLr srereeees Dern ‘UopudTT
bows
bor) Lar} grr} £.g 8-9 Lg 8.9 f£.9 | $2 6.9 9.2 £.6 | gt9.z& sreseeseseee gapak OF JO WUOTT
g-o1| 9.6 |4+1.zr} 9.2 L9 1.2
£.6 |+1.€1| tar] +g
oor |+Lr| tor} 2.2 ud 2.9
€.11| $.6 |+.E4] £.6
1.2 9.8 Lg |—%.9 g.6 | $1.1 | 6S-oSgr
9 ZB gor] gbz.£& | 6b—-obgr
—0.$ 1.9 6.9 1.6 0g | 21S,.££ | 6£-ofgr
i. 6.9 $.g | Sg9.€€ | 6z-ozgr |****** moAog ‘svmoyy, “1g ‘toJexq
1873.
REPORT
0.6 ¥.01
¥.L g.01
bor} £11
L.g Zl
8-8 2.3
L.6 9.01
6.01] 7.11
zr |+?.r11
9.8 o.II
g.o1 |+8-Z1
+o.£1| 9.6
L.o1 Loop @ ¢
8.01 L.or
+9.21| 4.11
o.or| Z.01
£.6 8.01
¥.£ | 2.6
S.g |+6.11
0.01} I.or
“AON | “390
7.6 B.11
S.of |+9.11
4.8 |+9.71
1.8 Z.0O1
+6.11| barr
£4 |+o.£1
6.8 2.6
2.6 9.01
g.L 7.6
6.2 0.8
9.01 8-8
.g 7.6
6.01} +8
4.8 6.6
gL 0.8
g.L V.0O1
8-8 g-It
£.g |+¥.cr
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2.9 6.5 Z.9 Dale
$.9 |—S.S oe
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6.5 4.9 7.9
1.L |—o.$ 9.8
9.5 >a A 6.L $.6
—£5 |-L2 | ox | 26
8.9 6.5 gL \+L.11
6.5 S.9 LL EOE
9.0 1.8 7.8 z.L
£.5 1.8 9-8 8-3
Se ee oe ee 2
—9.4 | +g | zor} 2.6
0.9 $.9 ¥.8
£S | 68 | £o | ez
—2.5 £.$ 9-9 9-
—2z.5 LS gl} L
ES Wi ee 4 geo) oe
z.L |—9.S 4.8 9.
"1187 Tenuuy jo oseyuoosed ATUIUOPT
*(panunuod) *A TIA,
612.61
Zgv.0t
€1z.S1
ot6.0z
£96.12
366.61
396.2
—_—_—
bEV.EE
1gS.0f
o6L.££
890.rE
Lot.gh
glz.gb
tZot.Sp
gzl.z$
170.Lv
090.£7
“UBpr
£St.1z
Siv.vz
1S1.Sz
617.1z
“ul
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aut
6S—oS gr
6+-obgt
6£-ofgr
6z—-o781
‘porsod
Ul [By | [etuuooo(y
[enuuy
uveT
tetseeeeeers gpg fh Og fo UvsTT
pARRASSRRITORAE?E QUE ‘eq JO OTS]
treteeseeeee Sapa k OF Jo uvayy
sreeseees T7ASry ‘ARIST JO suum
tteseeserers gap OF Jo uvopy
sisibivieip owimele omg qaen4g JUuNnopL
reeeeeeesees Crna l OF Jo weap
Peete eee area eee e eee eenenee Yyoyyouy
*AyUNOD puB uolzVIg Jo ome Ny
293
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
€.11/ 4.11
¥.z1| 6.6
@.01| I.o1
L.o1 f.11
L.rr |+£.£1
£.01 I.Ir
oor} 2.6
+S.11} 9.01
0.01 |+-1.z1
£6 |+6.11
£.6 Z.1L
0.01} 711
6.6 8.01
g.Z v.01
8-8 0.ZI
[oes LI
3.6 £.01
+111} 7.6
7.6 €.11/+Z.11r
7.6 £6 |+£.z1
I.0r)/+£.11
9.6 g-O1
o.Z
9-8
0.OI
6.8
0.8
0.8
0.9
¥.8
Ni
$.8
£.2
—o0.$
v.L
968.92
ILf.1€
LoLl.tz
ZS0.S@
V6E.Lz
£1g.2£
6zr.1£
916.18
og6.v
gzz.ct
Z0S.17
ggi.be
$¥0.7z
110.77
$99.61
079.61
seeseererees gag k OF Jo uvayy
seecceceesccces fauyag UIog Javj}g
steseeresoes gaegh OF jo uvoyy
————
ececce “MA SSOUIOAUT ‘SSUlD) pussy
teeveeeeeree Sag h OG fo UveTy
sees Waapreqy ‘peop, paueudry
sereseseeres gapat OF jo UvoyT
steseereoess TQgpdeqy ‘ssouueyong,
294, REPORT—1873.
EXAMINATION OF
Height of
COUNTY. gauge.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
Maker’s name. pe ape
Yate Above
ground.| ,5¢%
Reference
number
Date of
examination.
Construction
of gauge
Time of
reading.
level.
1870. ; ft. in. | feet.
425.| Sept. 21. CHESHIRE. X. | Negretti& Zambra}ga.m.| o 6] 182
Bidstone Observatory,
MERSEY HARBOUR BOARD.
J. Hartnup, Esq.
426.| Sept. 21. CHESHIRE. Adin eases: seeseeesmonth-| o
Bidstone Observatory, ly.
MERSEY HARBOUR BOARD.
J. Hartnup, Esq.
|
|
Eo
oy
_
oo
)
427.| Sept. 22. DERBYSHIRE. III. | Horne & Thorne-| 9 a.m.} 1
Willersly Gardens, Matlock. thwaite,
P. ARKWRIGHT, ESQ.
Mr. Tissington.
°o
440
428.| Sept. 22. DERBYSHIRE. TT, DICAMION, seece easy asses] Ueeanae 2.10 5 1500
Matlock Bath.
R. CHADWICK, ESQ.
R. Chadwick, Esq.
429.| Sept. 26. DERBYSHIRE. TIT. | ANON, ...ccccesseeeee] Q@.M.] 5 ©
Alderwasly Hall. pre-
A, F. HURST, ESQ. ceding.
Mr, Greenwood.
53°
430.| Sept. 27. DERBYSHIRE. TIT. | Anon.....e.s00...e..)month-| 1 6 | 488
Stancliffe Hall. ly.
SIR J. WHITW ORTH, F.R.S.
Mr. Dawson.
431.| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. X. | Casella
‘ Axe Edge.
E. J. SYKES, ESQ.
LE. J. Sykes, Esq.
Gu cdveev’ yee] Past I 0] 1620
432.| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. , |\Casellae ceeeges. es: gam.| § © | 1005
Devonshire Hospital, Buxton.
E. J. SYKES, ESQ.
E. J. Sykes, Esq.
433-| Sept. 30. DERBYSHIRE. VIII. | Marshall
Devonshire Hospital.
EL. J. SVKES, ESQ.
E. J. Sykes. Esq.
Heereaens| weeewe | eaeeee
434.| Oct. 4. DERBYSHIRE. VIII. | Marshall .........! a.m.
Chatsworth, The Gardens. a |?
THE DUKE OF DEV ONSHIRE.
Mr. Speed.
435-| Oct. 4. [DERBYSHIRE. ee RAMON tseclecsote cso 9am.
; Stoney Middleton.
REV. URBAN SMITH.
Rev, Urban Smith.
rr errr yore ee
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
RAIN-GAUGES (continued from Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1870, p. 228).
Equivalents of
water.
i)
SUN RUE
Ww
nn
ESS HUES YH
NeUFUN HU
Sy
n
680
1390
2100
2830
3580
480
oe
1470
1950
2460
480
960
1460
1700
490
ae
1475
1970
2465
1320
2570
376¢
5050
6340
1320
2570
3760
5050
6340
1240
2500
3100
1240
2500
3759
4960
6250
480
97°
1470
1970
24.70
Error at
scale-point | gular elevation of
objects above
specified in
mouth of rain-
previous
column.
in.
+ oor
-+-'002
+004.
+1003
-+'003
+005
+'006
+006
+004.
+010
-++'003
"004
+'003
+006
+'003
+1003
+'006
+005
-++'007
+"oor
+004.
+'002
+003
+003
—*064.
—'003
+'003
+-oo1r
correct.
—"004
—"003
+'003
+°oor
—-OOe
+'003
+ "004.
--°005
-+'oI0
--"009
+003
+004
+004
+'003
+*002
Azimuth and an-
gauge.
Remarks on position &e,
295
Reference
number
§.W. Observatory] Good position on the side of Bid-| 425.
30°.
ston Hill, near summit, and
N.E. of the Observatory.
Observatory Dome} Close to No. 425. Testing not| 426.
8.W. 380°.
Clear
completed, but measuring-scale
correct, and cylinder believed to
be true,
In kitchen garden, clear open
space, ground level for some
distance,
from W.| This station is on the N. side of the hill
known asthe Heights of Abraham; the
through 8. to E. garden and grounds rise in rapid ter-
Trees E. by N.| races and are thickly wooded. I could
to W. 75°. not see any better position.
8. Apple 30°.
Quite clear.
Quite clear.
In garden west of the hall.
This gauge was fixed in a wooden
frame which surrounded the funnel,
and was not sufficiently below it to be
free from liability to produce insplash-
ing. I left instructions that it should
be lowered 4inches. On large lawn
N.W. of Hall.
On the level surface of the moor,
about 600 feet above Buxton,
and 3 miles 8.W. of it. The posi-
tion is extremely exposed.
Hospital N.W. | On dwarf post in an open part of
26°. Clear in| the Hospital grounds, near the
all other direc-| centre of Buxton. Position good,
tions. and. gauge in good order.
An old gauge, out of order at date
of inspection, but subsequently
repaired and used at Poole’s
Cavern, Buxton.
a ott a 1863, Bept 21 Co. 125); Bet
Quite open, by the pluses erin Pnitialled; aba the
Pree e ee eee eee
funnel had been rendered more nearly
circular, I retested it. I find on compari-
son that of the five scale-points two errors
are absolutely identical; one differs by
0:061in., one by 0:002, and one by 0:004 in.
..{On the top of dwarf stand in garden,
which slopes from W. to E., eae has a
wall running N.N.W.-S.8.E., at about!
8 ft. from the gauge. Mr. Smith states
that his place is so exposed and wind
that this partial shelter is beneficial,
which seems probable.
427.
428.
4209.
430.
431.
432.
433-
434-
435:
296 REPORT—1878.
EXAMINATION OF
nm
Height of
gauge.
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
Maker’s name,
Reference
number
Date of
examination.
Constructio
of gauge.
Gee
o Ww
0:5
Eg | Above
i 2 |ground.| Jeyel,
: ft. in.| feet.
| Oct. 11. MIDDLESEX. Crosley ...... iat gam.} 4 o|} 115
Camden Square. ¥ Ist
'G. J. SYMONS, Esq.
G. J. Symons, Esq.
—
Lond
oo
Ny
ie)
b
w
lon)
=|
=
1871.
437.|Aug. 10. EDINBURGH. TT EB rysON. wae rceease gam.|o 6] 183
Dalkeith Gardens.
DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH.
Mr. Dunn.
438.| Aug. 17. PERTHSHIRE. T. > Ammonia seasientuene Ist |o 6
Bolfracks, Aberfeldy. each
J. F. WYLLIE, ESQ. month.
J. F. Wyllie, Esq.
439-| Aug. 23. INVERNESS. V2) j || AUIS hs. nze coeds 8am.| 3 0 | 82
Culloden House.
A, FORBES, ESQ.
A. Forbes, Esq.
440.| Aug. 29. YORKSHIRE. XII. | Casella, ......ssse0. Ioa.m.| I o| 102
Scarborough Crystal Garden.
DR. FOX.
Mr. Walsham.
441.) Aug. 30. DURHAM. X. | Negretti&Zambrajga.m.| 0 © | 140
Darlington, Southend Gardens.
J. PEASE, ESQ.
Mr. Richardson.
442.| Aug. 30. DURHAM. XII. | Casella ..sece.seee ga.m.| 0 8 | 140
Darlington, Southend Gardens.
J. PEASE, ESQ.
Mr. Richardson.
443.| Aug. 30. DURHAM. Seo | Anonss.......c5de08 gam.) o 6] 140
Darlington, Southend Gardens. Fig.
J. PEASE, ESQ.
Mr. Richardson.
444.| Aug. 31. YORKSHIRE. WIT. | Anonsin..... 06.08 roam.) 0 6 | 30
‘York, St. Mary’s Abbey.
YORKSHIRE PHIL. SOC.
Mr. Wakefield.
445.| Aug. 31. YORKSHIRE. VII. | Anon. .........00000- roa.m.|43 6 | 73
York Museum Roof.
YORKSHIRE PHIL, SOC.
Mr. Wakefield.
446.) Sept. 1. YORKSHIRE. See fig.) Casella ......05+ |g am.| 1 ©
Hawsker Garden, Whitby.
REV, F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
p | Equivalents of | Error at | Azimuth and an-
$258 water. scale-point| gular elevation of
Han specified in} objects above
828 || | Scale- Grains. | previous | mouth of rain-
A el column, gauge.
in. in. in.
| 9°98 I 2525 correct, | E.N.H.House30°.
10'02 2 5050 correct.
I0‘00 53 7579 correct.
10°00 “4. 10000 +:004
to‘ooo| °5 12500 +°005
3°12 | 1:00 2000 +'021 W. Trees 88°.
3°15 pee 3000 +:o18 al i 22°.
7 2°0 4000 +103 y ae be
y16 | 258 | 5000 | Joss
M 3°140 3°09 fo00 +025
13°00 | 4°61 | gooo +1013
13°25
13°25
13°12
M13°155
6-72 "125 4240 +002 |W.S.W. Apple20®.
6°71 ‘192|) 1660 +00 .K. 90 OE
6-76 243) 2160 Hees
6-71 *308| 2660 +:o12
M 6-725
4°98 ‘I 490 +‘oor | N. House 30°.
S700 | “2 es +:ooz2 |S.W. Trees 43°.
‘02 3 1480 +'oor
io 4 19 = correct.
My Gi 2480 —‘oor
i ‘I 1250 +:oor N. Elm 40°.
8:00 “234 3000 —'oo02 Ng: | 5; 28%
8:00 “4 ao08 ae N.W. yy oOse
8-00 5 270 -++'00
M 8-000 he
5°00 ‘I 505 —'003 .
4:98 2 1020 —'008
es | 3 | 7515 | —-o09
4°93 “4. 2010 —‘o1o
M 4:973| °5 2510 —'o12
8-04 52 1250 +004
8*10 *234| 3000 +002
8'10 “4 5000 +014.
808 5 6270 +'016
MM 8-080 z
— toog | “I 2600 correct. ey Sycamore
| 10°31 = §o50 +'005 40,
9°98 | °302| 7575 | +-orr | N. Chestnut 46°,
10°22 *39 I0100 +-002
Mio1s0| °486; 12625 —'005
g98 | ‘t 2600 EAIOGY J [2 dthoiad scsatanat sacs a
1c"05 2 5050 correct.
10°00 9302') 7575 +°002
9°97 “39 =| Io100 —‘o10
Mio-c0o| “48 | 12625 —‘o20
5°00 “I 495 correct. | W. House 48°.
501 2 975 +004 | 8.S.W. Trees 30°.
5700 3 1460 +005 |S.S.E. Trees 25°.
5700 4 1980 +‘oor N. Trees 25°,
M 5:003| °5 2460 +'004
297
Remarks on position &e,
|
|
A second, or check-gauge, not
found reliable, although accu-
rate in construction.
This is not the old Dalkeith gauge, of
which the fate is unknown, but a com-
paratively modern one, on a grass-
plot, which at the above date had
been allowed to grow too long; level
ground and good position.
A very bad gauge, wofully out of
order, yery unsteady, not level,
and so generally unsatisfactory,
that it was not thought worth
while to test its precise error.
This position, though good, was not that
which it was ieee” should even-
tually be oceupied by the principal
gauge at this station, as Mr. Forbes
contemplated railing off a portion of
the park expressly for meteorological
apparatus.
This guage was of unpainted
In nursery garden sloping to south.
Lurged that the gauge should be
shifted a little to N.E. to get
more away from the trees, which
was agreed to.
Fair position, near the bottom of a
rather flat valley.
Close to No. 441. This gauge
has a very flat rim.
Close to 441 and 442. This is an
experimental gauge, of the re-
markable pattern shown in the
annexed figure. Funnel, 8 in.
diameter, circular, rim vertical
and } in. deep; funnel scarcely
falling at all to centre, not more
than finch: a, a rim falling
loosely over; 0, a tin cylinder to
keep funnel in place.
Neither this nor the following gauge
were regularly attended to at the time
of this examination; but it was pro-
mised that they should be in future.
The former was in an enclosed part of
the ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey, the
latter on the roof of the Museum of
the Yorkshire Philosophical <---5"—»
Society — the position, in f——— >
fact, occupied in 1836 by
one of the experimental
gauges used by Prof. Phil-
lips.
sine, and had a 3-inch deep
snow-collecting rim, as per
sketch,
Reference
number.
as
we
>
437.
438.
439.
440.
441.
443.
Reference
number
z
449-
450.
451.
452.
453-
454.
455:
456.
457.
298
Date of
examination.
Sept. 1.
Sept. 1.
Sept. 1.
Sept. 1.
Sept. x.
Sept. 1.
Sept. 1.
REPORT—1873.
COUNTY.
Station.
OWNER.
Observer.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Garden.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Paddock.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow:
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Paddock.
REV. F. W. STOW,
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev, F, W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
COLONEL WARD.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F', W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV, F. W, STOW,
Rev. F. W. Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F. W. STOW.
Rev. F. W, Stow.
YORKSHIRE.
Hawsker Exp. Field.
REV. F, W. STOW.
Rev. F. W. Stow.
f=
28
Sw Se
g 3 Maker's name. oe.
on aS
ic) = 8
5 AA
DV. |caveetetnates qed 9 a.m
SeeNo,| Casella ........065- 9am
446.
See No,| Casella .....s0c00e. Mon-
446. thly.
See No.| Casella ..,..0..000- 9 a.m
446.
IIT. | Casella ..,... sores] 9 2.
See Re-| Anon. ......00.005 | 9am.
marks.
See Re-| Anon....... seers 9 a.m
marks.
See Re-| ANON. .essecesrevees ga.m.
marks.
XII, | Casella ......... | 9 a.m
XM 2 | Gaxpllactsceiewes 9 a.m
SeeRe-| Anon, ...,...+5 vee (QM,
marks.
EXAMINATION OF
Height
of gauge:
Abye
Above s
ground.| evel,
ft. in.| feet.
| 2% 31-342
Yet 335
ro 335 |
|
t of} 4289
i)
|
ro} 428
|
10 Of} 438 |
||
10 o| 438 |
}
§ 0} 433m
L oo 428 |
Io 428 |
I of 428
Se
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
p -— | Equivalents of | Error at
8238 water. scale-point.
g at | specified in
au F iI Soe Grains, | previous
7) = Ha column.
— —
» in, in. in.
B. 11°86 ‘I 2850 correct.
12°12 ‘2 5780 —"003
I2'00 3 8568 correct.
12'00 “4 11435 —'oor
Mri995| °5 14280 —‘ool
5°01 ‘I 495 correct,
5700 | *2 975 +7004,
Sor 3 1460 -+-'006
5°00 ‘4 1980 +'oor
M 5'005| °5 2460 +'005
5°Or % 495 correct,
4°98 ‘2 975 +'003
Sor 3 1460 +005
5°00 "4 1980 correct.
M 5.000} °5 2460 +004
S'Or os 495 correct.
5°00 ‘2 975 +°003
5°00 3 1460 +005
4°99 ‘4 1980 correct.
M 5:000} ‘5 2460 -++'004
' 1°00 wa 20 correct.
b afore) 2 39 +°005
I'ol 58 +‘oro
‘or "4. 78 +‘o1o
M 1005} °5 98 +-o1o
- 3°00 ‘I 180 correct.
3°00 2 358 correct.
3°Or 3 539 —‘ool
3°00 4 718 —‘oor
M 3'003| °5 894. correct,
gioo 4 *Y 180 correct.
2°99 *2) 358 correct.
3°02 3 539 —"oor
3°00 “4 718 —‘ool
M 3:003] °5 894. correct.
s 3°02 $F 180 —"oor
2°98 2 358 correct.
3700 | °3 539 —*002
3°00 *4 71 8 —*ooz
~M 3:000] °5 894 —‘oor
5 3°00 I 180 —*"oor
3°00 a 358 correct.
300 | 3 oe Mies
3°00 "4 71 —'002
aM a “5 894 —‘oor
‘oo
8:01 Z 2560 —*002
8*00
a 7°99 4. 5050 +002
’ 000
3°00 *! 180 —'oor
2°99 2, 358 correct.
3°00 €) 539 — "002
3°01 "4 718 —'002
“M 3.000] °5 $94. —‘oo1
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.
FOP ae POe eee besersennas
All objects under
20°,
299
Reference
number.
|
This gauge was formerly used at
Red Hall, near Leeds, and sub-
sequently at the Knoll, Ripon.
Its present position, near No.
44.6, was rather too sheltered.
Similar to No. 446, but in a more) 448.
open position,
447
HOO ee eee meme ee eaeneees
ser eeenee
eeenennarene Pee ene neeeee
SOO e Renee metre eee eeeee
eee Cree e reer eee ee
Close to, and similar to No. 448 ;| 449.
but read monthly instead o
daily.
ments, ae view of the same, and| 451:
detaile
This and No. 453 formed the pair of| 452,
auges, the former with the orifice
orizontal, and the latter with it ver-
tical and rotated by a vane, for deter-
mining the angle of rain falling at
10 feet above the surface.
453.
The vertical-mouthed portion of} 454.
the two-mouthed gauge at 5 feet.
455.
456.
The vertical-mouthed portion of | 457.
the two-mouthed gauge at 1 ft.
300
Reference
number.
ES
nn
co
459:
460.
462.
463.
464.
.| Aug.
465.
466.
467.
468.
Date of
examination.
Aug. 20.
Aug.
24.
24.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
28.
Aug.
Aug.
Sept. 9.
REPORT—1873.
COUNTY
Station.
OWNER.
Obsérver.
SUSSEX.
Brighton, Goldstone Bottom."
BRIGHTON CORPORATION.
Mr, Barker,
SUSSEX.
Brighton, Buckingham Place.
F. E. SAWYER, ESQ.
F. E. Sawyer, Esq.
SUSSEX.
Beachy Head.
MISS W. L. HALL.
Miss W. L. Hall.
SUSSEX.
Beachy Head.
MISS W. L. HALL,
Miss W. L. Hall.
SUSSEX.
Cemetery, Eastbourne.
MISS W. L. HALL.
SUSSEX.
Pevensey Road, Hastbourne.
MISS W. L. HALL,
Miss W. L. Hall.
SUSSEX.
The Hollies, Hastings.
A, H. WOOD, ESQ.
A, H. Wood, Esq.
SUSSEX.
Wallsend Cottage, Pevensey.
M. VIDLER, ESQ.
M. Vidler, Esq.
SUSSEX.
Pevensey Vicarage.
REV. H. BROWN,
Rev. H. Brown.
SUSSEX.
Court Farm, Falmer.
R. R. VERRALL, ESQ.
R. R. Verrall, Esq.
SUSSEX.
Heron’s Ghyll, Buxted.
C, PATMORE, ESQ.
C. Patmore, Esq.
EXAMINATION OF
=
a $, Height of
°
33
& S| Maker's name.
n
te :
oo
o
XII. | Casella ...s00000...| 9 a.m,
Til.
eee ee eereee
XII. | Casella .
XII. | Casella
ee eee ee rtawl te eeeeeee
XII. | Casella °
XI. | Negretti &Zambra
X. | Negretti &Zambra
X. | Negretti & Zambra
X. | Negretti &Zambra
XII. | Anon...
Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
pre-
ceding.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
Es > | Equivalents of | Error at
2 2 = 5 z water.
ES'54 specified in
As Il | Scale- | Ga: previous
> | point rains. / column.
in. in. in.
4°98 75 495 correct.
5°00 ‘ae 99° correct.
4°97 3 1490 —‘ool
5°02 *4 1970 —"‘002
M 4993} °5 2480 | —‘oo2z
49 ‘2 1000 —*002
70° 3 1490 —"ool
4°99 "4 2000 —"004
5°00 5 2510 ace
M 4993
5700 ‘I 500 —‘oor
4°98 | +2 1000 —*002
4°98 23 1480 correct,
5700 4 1980 —‘ool
M 4°990} +5 2470 correct,
4°99 =¥ 500 —"oo1
Sor Le 1000 —'002
5Or “4 1480 + oor
4°99 "4. 1980 +'oor
M 5.000} +5 2470 +:002
5°00 I 495 correct.
5°00 2 995 —"oor
4°99 3 1500 == Se
5°o1 "4 1960 +'005
M 57000! *5 2480 correct.
5°00 I 500 —‘oo1
5°00 2 1000 —*oo2
5°00 aA 1480 +'002
Sor 4 1980 + oor
M 57003] +5 2470 +002
8:00 Pe 1300 —"002
8-o1 2 2570 —"002
8:02 aa 3810 correct,
7°98 4 5100 —*002
M 8:003} °5 6320 —"co2
7°98 ap @ 1300 —"003
8:01 2 2550 —"002
8-02 | 3800 —‘ool
7°93 “4 5050 +001
M 7°985| -s5 6300 +002
Sor “e 1260 +oor
799 “2 2490 +7004.
7°99 3 3780 +002
8-00 “4 4990 +:007
M 7°997| *5 | 6250 | ++co7
' §700 a 520 —*006
5700 | +2 1020 —*‘007
499 3 1530 —oll
4°93 ‘4 2050 ON
M 4:980| °5 2550 —'o18
7°99 I 1250 +001
8-00 ra 2570 —"002
Sco | 33 3800 correct,
8-00 z- 5050 +002
M 7'998| *5 6300 | "004
scale-point | gular elevation of
| a es ee
301
Azimuth and an-
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.
eee eee e errr e rere rr ery
S. Trees 62°.
W. House 52°.
N. Wall 13°.
E. Wall 33°.
eee ee eee eseeeres sennee
E.N.E. Beans50°.
N.W. Elder 20°.
S. Chapel 10°.
S.W. Houses 36°.
N. Houses 48°.
S. Laurels 65°.
E. Laurels 60°.
W. Laurels 55°,
S. House 45°.
E. Trees 60°.
W. Trees 50°.
S. Houses 30°.
E. Trees 55°.
W. Trees 489.
W.N.W. House 28°
N. Wall 32°.
E, Firs 30°.
as
o
a ©
Remarks on position &e. 2 2
mel
Be A
In a very open position on the N. |458
corner of the reservoir-bank,
entirely unsheltered.
Position not good, but the best |459-
available. In EH. at a distance
of a few feet, the ground falls
precipitously to the yard of the
railway-station.
At the time of visiting this and the |460.
following gauge they were near
together, and in the position
described in No. 194. Subse-
quently No. 461 has been re-
moved further inland, in order |461.
to obtain a less exposed position
and freedom from the up-
draught produced by the steep
face of the cliff.
Gauge fixed on a post, in order to |462.
obtain better exposure. On
pointing out the injurious effect
of the beans they were removed.
See No. 196. 463.
On a dwarf post in a bed of laurels, 464.
which had been cut away from time
to time to secure sufficient exposure.
On showing that this had not been
obtained, observer agreed to remove
the gauge to a thoroughly clear spot.
See No. 193, It appears, from long- 465.
continued observation, that the ex-
tremely exposed position of thi
gauge prevents its indications being’
correct.
In the garden of the Vicarage, and |466.
in the best position obtainable.
This gauge being very much in error,
the observer at once decided on hay-
ing a new one. This was specially
desirable, for two reasons :—(1) be-
cause the locality is an important
one; (2) because, in addition to the
scale-error of the old gauge, the fun-
nel did not rest firmly on the receiver.
Gauge temporarily placed on a terrace-
walk. ‘The above angles are for the
position selected. «
467.
468,
3802 REPORT—1873.
EXAMINATION OF
a 5
5 °o
g 4 2 & OWNER. & §,| Maker's name. | $ £
2 Ee FA Observer. ge 5 3
1872.
469.| Sept. SUSSEX. X. | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
Crowborough, Beacon Observatory. pre-
C. L. PRINCE, ESQ., F.R.AS. ceding.
C. L. Prince, Esq., F.R.AS.
470.| Sept. 24. NORFOLK. XAT, | Casella ........000. g a.m.
Bexwell Rectory. pre-
REV. LE. J. HOWMAN. ceding.
Rev, EL. J. Howman.
471.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. TIT. | Casella .......+....] 9 a-m-
West Dereham. pre-
REV. E. J. HOWMAN. ceding.
Mr. C. Blanchfield.
472.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. X. | Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
White House, Wereham. pre-
F. R. H. MASON, ESQ.
Ff. R. H. Mason, Esq.
NORFOLK.
ceding.
Negretti& Zambra| 9 a.m.
White House, Wereham. re-
F. Rk. H. MASON, ESQ. ceding.
F. R. H. Mason, Esq.
474.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. See | Spencer ...ssse0.+-| 9 @-Ms
Fincham Rectory. ae pre-
REV. W. BLYTHE. Report, ceding.
Rev. W. Blythe. 1869,
p. 390.
475.| Sept. 25. NORFOLK. IV LURE |s<caudpavescnskbe scenes g a.m.
Outwell Sluice. 6 p.m.
MID LEVEL COMMISSIONERS.
Mr. W. Bond.
476.| Sept. 26. CAMBRIDGE. XI. | Negretti& Zambra} 9 a.m.
Victoria Road, Wisbeach.
S, H. MILLER, ESQ.
S. H. Miller, Esq.
477.| Sept. 26. CAMBRIDGE. X. | Negretti& Zambra} 9 a.m.
Victoria Road, Wisbeach. pre-
S. H. MILLER, ESQ. ceding.
S. H. Miller, Esq. °
478.| Sept. 26. CAMBRIDGE. X. | Negretti& Zambral.........
Victoria Road, Wisbeach.
S. H. MILLER, ESQ.
S. H, Miller, Esq.
479-| Dee. 4. OXFORDSHIRE, VIII. | Anon....... sostkbves| 9 Bim
Banbury. pre-
*7. BEESLEY, ESQ. ceding.
T. Beesley, Esq.
ON THE RAINFALL OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
RAIN-GAUGES (continued).
303
|g > | Equivalents of
Su = g water.
erL
A A = ae Grains.
in.
ok 1270
“2 2530
“3 375°
“4 D025
5 6290
°E 498
‘2 99°
3 1500
“4. 1980
5 247°
‘I 495
‘2 999
*3 1470
4 1980
a 2479
‘I 1280
2 2550
53 3820
Gr 509°
"5 | 6370
"r 495
“2 980
) =e
4 1979
ib) 7472
26 490
“53 99°
*795| 1480
1'07 1990
05 810
“I 1630
3 2430
*Z 3200
°25 4.000
I 510
2 1040
3 4539
"4 2050
‘5 2.530
“I 1250
2 2480
*3 3720
“4 5040
oe 6290
= 1250
= 2480
a3 3720
4 5040
5 6290
fi 700
my 1410
“3 2170
4 2880
Azimuth and an-
gular elevation of
objects above
mouth of rain-
gauge.
Error at
scale-point
specified in
previous
column.
in.
—‘oor
—"002
—"ool
—'ool
—‘oor
—‘ool
correct.
—‘oor
correct.
correct.
W. House 20°.
N. Beech 40°.
N.B. Church 25°.
N.W. House 22°.
N. Barn 18°,
correct.
+:ool
+'004
+ "ool
+'003
—‘ool
—‘ool
—"ool
—‘oor
—*002
correct.
+002
correct.
S.W. Trees 35°,
N.E, 30°,
”
eee eter ear eeressrene
N.W. Pear 60°.
S.E. Acacia 52°.
—"O4I
correct.
—'oo02
—"002
correct.
correct.
—*003
—*O10
—oll
—'O14,
—'olr
+ oor
+004
+°006
+'002
+'003
+ oor
+002
+004 :
—*'ool
—‘OOoI
+'004.
+'006
+ oor
+003
N. Trees 33°.
N.W. ,, 25°
N. Trees 33°.
NW. 25°,
”
see eeneee Deeeeene aeeeees
8S. Birch 30°.
E. o2°:
We fs. ge PhP
N. House 53°,
”
Remarks on position &e.
Very open position, on almost the
highest ground in the county.
On the east side of the rectory
lawn, in a very good position.
In small paddock; flat country,
and quite open,
In garden, near to, but not influ-
enced by, house.
..| In same garden as No, 472, but
much further from house, and
quite open,
A very shaky gauge, mounted on a stone
pillar, but so loosely fixed that it could
be blown from side to side. The gauge
itself is also very incorrect, and the
position bad. As observations have
een made for many years and with
regularity this is to be regretted.
A yery good gauge in a good position,
but most wofully out of order. It was
in a wooden box with what had been
a flat top, through which the funnel
only rose half an inch; and eyen this
was reduced by the warping of the
split wood. It is impossible to form
any opinion of the probable error due
to this arrangement.
| Reference
number.
|
=
a
a
470.
471.
472.
473.
474.
475.
476.
Nos. 476 and 477 were close together in
a small garden much shutin by trees;
the observer said that he had cut down
several, and promised to make a fur-
ther clearance.
On the roof of thermometer-stand,
about 15 ft. from No. 477, Un-
sheltered,
On roof of outhouse, in the best
position on the premises,
477+
478.
479-
3804 REPORT— 1873.
Seventh Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of continuing
Researches in Fossil Crustacea, consisting of Professor P. Martin
Duncan (M.B. Lond.), F.R.S., Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., and
Rosert Erneriper, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Woopwarp,
F.R.S.
Lasr year at the Brighton Meeting I was enabled to lay before the Association
a very considerable list of accessions to Fossil Crustacea, and also a goodly
account of work performed.
A very fruitful season is not unfrequently succeeded by a smaller harvest.
Such is the case with my Report this year; I am, however, able to show
some favourable results,
Part V. of my ‘Monograph on the Merostomata,’ containing the suborder
XirnosvRa, will be ready for publication before the end of the present year.
I have included in it the following genera and species, namely :—
Bellinurus Konigianus, H. Woodw., 1872. Coal-measures, Dudley.
bellulus, Konig. * Coalbrookdale.
regine, Baily. ” Queen’s Co., Ireland.
arcuatus, ” ” ” ”
Prestwichia Birtwelli, sp.noy.,H. Woodw. Es Lancashire.
—— anthrax, * 1866. ae Coalbrookdale.
rotundata, 7 Ne = ss
Neolimulus falcatus, e 3 Upper Silurian, Lanarkshire.
T have also introduced into this Part of my Monograph those singular crus-
tacean forms which occur in the Carboniferous Limestone, both at Cork in
Treland, at Settle and Bolland in Yorkshire, and at Visé, Belgium, referred
to the genus Cyclus, namely :—
Cyclus bilobatus, H. Woodw. Carboniferous Limestone, Ireland.
torosus, ” ” ” ”
Wrightii, ” ” ” ”
Har knessi, ” ” ” ”
radialis, Phillips, sp. = * Yorkshire, &e.
Jonesianus, H. Woodw. - =a Treland.
Rankini, 4, Coal-shale, Carluke.
—— (Halicyne)laxus,yon Meyer. Muschelkalk, Germany.
——(Halicyne)agnostus, ,, a pe
These last are doubtless either larval forms of other Crustacea, or else they
belong to a peculiar group whose appearance in time has been exceedingly
limited. They remain for the present among the unsolved problems of
palzeozoology.
Whilst referring to the fossil Zimuli I would briefly allude to two valuable
contributions to the anatomy of the living Limulus, or “ King crab,” of the
north-east coast of North America:—one by my distinguished colleague
and chief, Prof. Owen (see Linnean Transactions, 1873, vol. xxviii. pt. iii.
p. 459, pls. xxxvi.—xxxix.); the other by Prof. Alphonse Milne-Edwards (in
the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie,’ 5th series, tome xvii. 1873,
p. 25, pls. v.—xvi.).
Limulus polyphemus, and the closely allied species common to the Moluccas
and the coasts of China and Japan, are the sole existing types of this ancient
race, whose longevity (as an order) in time is unsurpassed among the Crus-
tacea, save by the Entomostraca alone, Neolimulus of the Upper Silurian
of Lanark closely agreeing with the larval stages of the living Limulus,
called by Dohrn the “ Trilobiten-Stadium.”
a ee
ON FOSSIL CRUSTACEA. 305
By the kindness of Professor Owen I am permitted to add three plates from
his Memoir on the modern American King crab to illustrate my ‘ Monograph
on Fossil Limuli” I have also introduced (from Dr. Packard’s and Dr.
Dohrn’s works) figures of the larval stages of Limulus polyphemus; and
from that of Barrande figures of the larval forms of certain Trilobites, the de-
velopment of which he has traced often (as in the case of Sao hirsuta) through
more than twenty stages.
Having read carefully the arguments of Dr. Dohrn, and subsequently
the views of Dr. Packard, the elaborate papers on the anatomy of Limulus
by Alphonse Milne-Edwards and Prof. Owen, I find nothing in these several
memoirs to lead me to distrust the conclusion at which I had arrived in
1866 (see Brit. Assoc. Reports, Nottingham, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
1867, vol. xxiii. p. 28) as to the correctness of associating the EurypreRrpa
and XrpeHosura under the Order Mrrostromata, but much to confirm and
strengthen that conclusion.
Prof. Owen fully concurs in my general views of the Mrrosromarta, as
an order, although he differs from me in some minor points in reference to
the structure of Limulus.
For example, he considers the anterior shield, as I do, to be the cephalon,
merely proposing for it the term cephaletron* ; whilst for the posterior shield
(which I demonstrated in 1866 to be the conjoined thorax and abdomen) he
gives the name thoracetron ; and to the telson, or tail-spine, he applied Mr,
Spence Bate’s name of “ pleon.”
There can be no objection to the term “ cephaletron,” as proposed by Prof.
Owen, for the head in Crustacea, in contradistinction to that highly special-
ized division of the body, the “head” in the Vertebrata ; but I think I have
shown good grounds (in the paper above referred to) for assuming that the
“posterior shield is not merely the thorax (or “ thoracetron” of Owen), but the
eombined thoracic and abdominal segments, as attested by the larval or em-
bryonal stages of Limulus, and by the fossil forms of the Coal-measures and
of the Silurian.
T venture alsoto demur to Spence Bate’s term “ pleon” being restricted to the
tail-spine in Limulus, because it is calculated, if so used, to cause considerable
confusion. The term “leon,” as applied to the Crustacea by its author,
includes the last seven segments of the body, of which the telson (if reckoned
at all as being a segment) can only be assumed to be the ultimate joint of
the series.
The view propounded by Prof. Owen—that the great caudal spine in Limulus
represents, either by itself or possibly with the hindmost segments of the
“thoracetron ’’ (Owen), the “ pleon”’ of Spence Bate (or in other words the
last seven (or abdominal) segments usually seen in other Crustacea)—is based
on his examination of the innervation of the tail-spine. From its dissection
he finds that the bifid continuation of the great neural axis is divided within
the triangular tail-sheath into a double plexus of fine nerves resembling the
cauda equina of anthropotomy. In this fasciculus of nerve-threads the author
traces nine nerve-filaments, four ventral and four dorsal, the ninth being the
continuation of the bifid neural axis. From this he concludes that the tail-
spine may indicate as many as four coalesced segments, which with the three
posterior coalesced apodal segments of the “ thoracetron” would account for
the missing abdominal series, or the “‘ pleon” of Spence Bate.
* From cegadh, the head, and yrpov, a part of the abdomen, in allusion to the fact that
“a part of such cavity is associated with the ‘head’ in the first division of the King
crab’s body, and with the ‘ thorax’ in the second division.” (Owen, op. cit. p. 463.)
x
1873.
306 REPORT—1873.
But, notwithstanding my profound respect and appreciation of Professor
Owen’s comparative anatomical studies and his conclusions thereon, I find
great difficulty in adopting this view, because it does not accord with those
generally entertained regarding similar structures in other orders of Crus-
tacea; neither will it harmonize with the earliest known forms of the X1-
PHOSURA, nor with the larval development of recent Limulus as made known
by the researches of Packard* and Dohrn*.
Prof. Owen names the small modified bifid median appendage behind the
mouth of Limulus the “ chilaria” +; this is doubtless the homologue of the
great metastomial plate of Pterygotus§.
Dr, Packard, when contrasting (in his work on Larval Limulus, op. cit.) the
Merostomata with the Tritoprra, inadvertently calls the “ Metastome ”’ the
“ Hypostome,” and contrasts it with the Hypostome in Trilobites, in which no
lower lip exists.
Referring to the habits of the Pterygoti, Prof. Owen considers they were
those of burrowers like the imuli; but their bodies and broad swimming-
feet seem preeminently fitted for natation.
On the other hand, he thinks Limulus could not walk well, but only crawl
and burrow. I have frequently seen them alive in the Aquaria at the
Zoological Gardens ; and they walked with considerable ease and activity on
the tips of their toes. They are, however, true burrowers by habit.
Prof. Owen is willing to accept the theory of development of the Mzro-
stomata from a typical and common life-form, but by “ Secondary causes or
laws,” not by Natural selection (p. 501 op. cit.).
Several additions have been made to the Carboniferous Phyllopods, the
species of which I have described in conjunction with my friend Mr. Robert
Etheridge, jun. (of the Geological Survey of Scotland); some notice of these
will be found in the Transactions of the Sections (C.), in a separate paper. _
Of Cretaceous forms I have examined several new species, among which
are three examples of the carapace of a small Gault Crustacean from Folkestone
(near to Diaulax Carteri, from the Cambridge Greensand), which I have
named D. feliceps, two small forms of Scyllaridia, the genus hitherto only
known in the Eocene Tertiary :—
Scyllaridia Gardneri, sp. nov.
punctata, sp. nov.
A small Crangon? of doubtful determination, with two delicately serrated
lines on the anterior half of the carapace in front of the nuchal furrow, and
the hinder part armed with very minute spines, the surface of the carapace
being ornamented with very minute and scattered serrations ; the carapace,
hands, and detached body-segments of which are all of a glistening black
enamel. I have named this Mesocrangon atra ||.
Fifteen years ago Mr. Charles Gould, F.G.S., described] a very imperfectly
* «The Deyelopment of Limulus polyphemus,” by A. 8. Packard, Jun., M.D., Mem.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1872, vol. xi. pp. 155-202, pls. iti.—y.
t “Zur Embryologie und Morphologie des Limulus polyphemus,” von Dr. Anton Dohrn,
Jenaische Zeitschrift, Band vi. Heft iv. p. 580, Taf. 14 und 15°(1871).
t From yewdpuor, a small lip (Owen, op. cit. p. 464).
§ As pointed out by me: see Brit. Association Reports, Edinburgh, August 1871, Fifth
Report on Fossil Crustacea, p. 53.
|| These specimens are from the collection of J. Starkie Gardner, Esq., F.G.S., who has
kindly placed them at my disposal for examination with others.
{ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1859, vol. xv. p. 237. See also Bell’s Mon. Pal. Soe, Crus-
tacea of the Gault and Greensand, 1862, p. 1, pl. i. figs. 2 and 3.
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 307
preserved carapace of a small crustacean under the name of Mithracites vec-
tensis, from the Greensand, Atherfield, Isle of Wight. I lately obtained six
specimens from the same locality, which upon comparison I found to agree
(so far as the figures and description enabled me to determine) with Gould’s
Mithracites ; but when I compared the specimens with the recent Mithrawv, I
failed to discover the analogy, although the specimens since obtained appear
to offer a decided affinity with the genus Hyas. The discovery of these ad-
ditional examples will necessitate the reconsideration and redescription of the
genus Mithracites.
Fortunately the abdomen and limbs of both male and female examples are
preserved; and the margins of the carapace are also well seen.
From the Greensand, Isle of Wight, I have also obtained a new species of
Hemioon? (Bell), but larger than H. Cunningtoni. From the Hard Chalk,
Dover, I have received anew form of Hnoploclytia, which I propose to call
E. scabrosa.
Only one new species of Trilobite has to be noticed; it was found at
Utah, and sent over by Mr. Henry 8. Poole, Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia.
I have referred it to the genus Olenus, under the name of Olenus utahensis.
It shows evidence of a median axis, apparently corresponding with the so-
called straight alimentary canal, noticed by Barrande. The matrix is com-
posed of a hydrated silicate of magnesia.
This completes the list of new forms examined and determined by me,
some of which are already engraved for publication.
Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions.
By W. H. L. Russert, F.R.S.
Parr II. On the System of Hyperelliptic Differential Equations adopted by
Jacobi, Gopel, and Rosenhain,
Iy this part the solutions of the hyperelliptic differential equations of
the first order, as given by Gépel and Rosenhain, will form the main sub-
ject which I desire to bring before my readers. They will ever possess
great interest, although surpassed in generality by the later researches of
Weierstrass, and the geometrical methods of Riemann. The researches of
Gépel and Rosenhain were nearly contemporary; as, however, those of
Rosenhain are somewhat more elaborated than those of Gépel, I shall com-
mence with an account of them, as contained in the ‘ Mémoires de |’Institut,
par Divers Savants,’ tom. xi. p. 361. Rosenhain begins his investigations
by giving formule for the multiplication of four functions @ appertaining to
elliptic integrals, and uses these as a starting-point for the corresponding
formule in hyperelliptic functions. He then expresses these new functions @
in terms of two new variables, and shows that from the equations thus ob-
tained we can deduce the hyperelliptic differential equations.
Section 1.—We commence with Rosenhain’s multiplication of four fune-
tions @ in the case of elliptic integrals. His notation is as follows (it will
be observed that he uses the same notation we have been already familiar
with in Schellbach, except that his exponentials involve real quantities) :—
x2
308 REPORT—1873.
A(v, Qy= -3,(— 1)"q m? 2nv __ 1 —q(e” ae e*”) 4 ge” + m= Wes
ae 2n+1 . 1 9,3 3
0,(%, 9) = =3,(— Lrg * tym g4(e’—e”)— gale” —e y+. . os
aj PEEDE (2nt+)) 1 9 ; 25
0,(v, N= zd Fis v= qt(e?+ e—”) + g4(e2+4 e7”) + gale” + e—?) b siey
-D
ie,8)
0,(v, g)=2, qe" = 1 4 (e+ e-2*) + qtr tee) +
-@
these functions are singly periodic, and their ratios doubly periodic. We
have already seen that this periodicity has been fully discussed by Schellbach.
Now let us assume four new variables connected with the original varia-
bles by means of the equations
' w ve | | wm wae
Qu, =v+u'+o"4u", or Qv =v,4+9, +9," +9,'"",
' — U ” mt if = ad Li [it we
Qu! =v+0'—v"—0"", or Qv' =v,+9,'-9,"—-4,",
9 rt = = ' Spe = “al 1 eee 2 t Vijioe wt
2v," =u—v' +0" —v'"", or Qu" =v,—0'+9,"—9,",
we ' ” ny mr ' wm me
20" =0—0'—0" 40", or 2Qy'"=v,—v,'-9,""+u
ye
whence
vy? fo? py" =v? ty? 40/740",
eo se P
Hence 0,(v)0,(v')0,(v")0,(u'")=e loge q Dlogeg,
where
P=(v+n log.q)+(v' + log. gy’ +(v" +n" log. q+ (v'" +n" log. gy
will remain unchanged, if v,, v',, »', v'’, be substituted for v, v', uv", v'",
provided that
2n, =n4tn'4+n"4n'", or Qn =n, +n'+n,"+7,'",
Qn, =n+n'—n"—n'"", or 2n' =n, 4+n,'—n,"—2,'"
ee =n—n'+n"—n'"", or 2n" =n, —n'+n,"—n,"",
= — pa war Pee — ary ” wm
2n"=n—n —n'+n'", or 2n'"=n,—n,'—n,"+n,
Now n,n’, n", n'” are all whole numbers from +a to —w; but as these
equations are written we should have 7’, n”,, n",, »'", including forms +r
and +(r+ 3) when r is any integer.
This inconvenience is removed by assuming that 2n, 2n’ . 2n", 2n'" must
be subject to the same condition to which 2n,, 2m',, Qn! p 2n'", are subject,
namely of being all at once odd, or all at once even. Boban shows
(p. 373) that this necessitates the introduction of functions @,, and that we
have
8,(¥)0,(0')0,(v")0,(0"") + 8,(v)8,(0')9,(0'")0,(0"")
=0,(1,)0,(v',)8,(0",)8,(0"") + 84(%,)8,(0'; )0,(0")A,(0",)- +e 1)
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 309
In putting ! ;
vt 5, v +e, v4, yt for v, v', v", u'""
we have ;
8(v)0(v')A(v")(v'"’)—0,(v)0,(0')0,(v") 0,0")
=0(v,)0(v,')0(v,"")8(vy,"") — 0,(v,)0,(%,')0,(,")0,(4")3- «+ )
and if we substitute v'’+im in the place of v’” in these two equations, we
shall have :—
8,()8,(v')0,(v"")8,(v""”)—8,(v)0,(0')8,(")8,(7"")
=0(0,)8(0,')0(0,")0(01"") + 0,0 )0,(y 08,4"), +B)
0(v)O(v' )O(v"")O(v'") +.0,(v)9,(v')0,(0"")8,(0""’)
= 0,(0,)0,(0y')84(Y4"")8,(4'") — aC )O4(%y'YO(%1")0,001'")» » + (4)
Section 2.—Putting, then, for a moment
6=8,(0)0,(0')0,(0")0,(0"”), 6, = 8,(0,)9,(0",),(0",)0,(0"s)s
we have, adding (1) and (3), secondly subtracting (3) from (1), thirdly adding
(2) and (4), fourthly subtracting (2) from (4),
299)=9,+9+0,+0,%,
299 =9, 40, —0,-0,0
b]
29 = 0° —6; @) a3 6,—6,",
29) =9,°— 0, — 0,+ 9, ;
from which
9 +002 4 6224 9023924 6,02492246,02, or
{0,v0,v'0,0" 0,0" iz ite {0,v0,v'8,v"0,0""}? -F {0,00,0'0,v"0,0'"}* a {0v6v'6u"'6u"" igi
remains unchanged when »,, v',, v",, v'’, are put for v, v', uv", uv".
This and four other formule of a similar nature, obtained by augmenting
the arguments by semiperiods &c., are given by Rosenhain, and constitute
the starting-point from which he deduces the properties of the hyperelliptic
functions, as we shall soon see. See also a memoir by Professor Smith on
this subject in the ‘Transactions’ of the London Mathematical Society.
Section 3.—Conceive now a function thus defined :
(e,8)
ps, ROP w) = soe F 2mA, q);
ee)
=, gq e2"0,(u + QnA . P)s
-0
zs 3 Sz. @™ log. p+n log, gr4mnd+2mv+2nw
-00-00
This series is a function, doubly periodic (see Rosenhain, p. 389), of v and w
in the pairs of conjugate indices tx and 0 and 0 and ix; for we have
310 REPORT—1873.
$3, (vtair, W)=$s, ROP Ww),
5, glu» w+dir)=¢,, ACE w),
a being a whole number.
We see at once that (3 and y being any whole numbers)
$s, AUt Blog. pt2yA, w+2BA+y log. g}=e™Md,, (vs w)>
where we have for M
M=f' log. p+y’* log. ¢+4ByA+2Bu+2yw,*.
Now, then, consider the quantity
v log g+w* log p—4Avw
e log. plog.q—4A? s, (YW)
and substitute in this formula v+( log. p+2yA for v, and w+ y log. ¢g+26A
for w, and the formula becomes
v log g+w* log p—4Avw
a
2 2
eg Ae plea 24 $s, (Y+B log, p+2yA, w+ y log. g+2BA),
v log p+w? log, p—4Avw
or e . log.plog.g—4A* gy. (uv, w),
and therefore remains unchanged. We shall soon meet with a series of
functions similar to ¢, ,(v, w) and doubly periodic; this theorem will enable
us to show that the ratios of these functions are also doubly periodic with
different periods (p. 411). ;
Tet vlog. q—2Aw w log. p—2Av
e — f a ae
log. p log. g—4A°* log. p log. q—4A”
then
2 log p log. q—4A? : : log plog_ g—4A? pe
SSS CSS n
l°S.P log. p Ps, (UW) =, € log_p F
-2#
(v4 2nA)?
€ log. Pp Cu oans py. se es ee (1)
w? log. plog.q—4A° log. p log. y—4.A?
log g log ¢ : log p lg
Cae £ $s, ACE w) = Zin € 2
-0
(w+-2mA)P
ETA POA, Do «1. delta. | SY
* To prove this, write down the fully expanded form of
eM, (U+f log, p+2yA, w+2BA+y log.g).
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 311
From the formula
2
Out Kk) Wk gee OCU+K',K’)
0(0, 4) wee POG). 2
given by Jacobi in the ‘ Fundamenta Nova,’ p. 165, Rosenhain deduces the
following (p. 395) :—
y
1 T ft '
€ Fe? 6,(u, p)= Tog. p's »P')s
where
K' ; He... 3; v
log. p= a= log. p =-— v Bag
He then enunciates the following theorem :—
aoe
lor » T “7 ' ' ' '
8, Po, (Us W, p, 9, A)= Pa se log. p pe (wv, w', p', gq’, A’)
where
log. p log .qg—4A? log. p’ log. q’—4A”
log. p log, p' =n? =
log. q ; log. q’ ;
eas log. p log. q—4A° i log. p' log. q'—4A”*
= 53 ’ o — 7 b
08. q log. p 0g. q log. p
inA ‘ 7A!
Al= log p’ ksige log. p”
; 7U , wilog p—2Av
= wo SS —_<oq$ ——
log p’ log. p
mu’ pond w' log. p'—2iA'v'
eee Glos ae
To prove this theorem, which is enunciated without demonstration, I ob-
serve that
us ' © alr
v+2nA= log p” —2niA’),
according to supposition.
Wherefore by formula (1) of this section
a? log_p log. q— 4A?
it log p bie
€ BP Et $5, (> w)=
log plog g—4+A? ete
eens! Shel CW ny pa Ae ee
3 log_p ; — —— 0,(w' + 2nd’, p’)
in€ log_ p
(by the formula just derived from the ‘ Fundamenta Nova’),
312 REPORT—1875.
Consequently
az
1
€ SP g. s(Ys W, P, J, A)
log_p log. g—4A?
——_.—_—_—§ (2nW 2
Se log _p ( mW +2 Z / a T Spin ezm(iv' +20 A")
ie.) log. pa
But
w log. p—2Av w' log.
~ log.plog.g—4A° log. p log. q—4 A?"
Hence
ye
el P $s, (UW, P, A)
Tv
ZL Qnw' +n? log g’ S m* log p’ 2miv’+4nmA’
= € f me ee =
=1°.6)
log p_«
2: / fg we 336” log. gq -4nmA!+-m* log p'+2miv’+2nw’
log. Pp
Tv
Rosenhain gives two other theorems of a precisely analogous nature (p. 397)
for transforming
uy
e819, 3 (YW, Ps A) into $3, y (Y%, W,, Pp ts A,),
and also
v" log_g-+-w? log. p—4Aow
e log. plog g—4A? $s, 9 (YM p,q, A) into ¢, , (iv',, w',, p', 7, A),
where the new variables and constants emanate from the former according”
to a certain law.
Section 4.—Rosenhain next enters upon investigations relative to the
multiplication of functions 6, commencing with elliptic functions, and thence
advancing to hyperelliptic functions. He proves without difficulty that, by
directly multiplying the functions 6, together,
n n—1
11,0,(w+ a, 9)=3,P,€°0,(nw+stalog.g,q"), . ..... (1)
1 U)
—l] 2kair »
. ae
nP <7), (nw+s+a log.g, q")=3,e ” 11,0,(wta,+ as q),- +» (2)
0 1
and P, is a certain constant,—where, as is obvious, the product IT extends
' to the quantities a, @,....a,,8=a,+a,+a,4+....+4,, anda is an integer
less than (7).
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 313
To reduce this he makes use of the following theorem :—
n=l _2akin ki
ng” 9, (nw+an log. 4, q” )= ye n 0, (w+ =, i) fal ees GC)
0
As Rosenhain has not demonstrated this formula, I give the proof here.
Let
kin 2kir we 2(n—Dkiw
o(= =) = X()+x(1)e™ +x(Z)e™ +....4+x(n—le *.
rm : : F ‘
In et where (s) is a prime number, all the remainders are different as
m increases from 0 tos—1. Hence we easily see, forming n linear equa-
tions, by putting k=0,1....n—1,
_ 2rkin
meters)
a(w+™™ bet 1) = =3 9 am _2m(w+ =
-0
But
(ne 2arin
se" 0 or nil = 3,3, dite 2mw
0
Pn— Oia
ee co aS ginter tnton, ery
cee tg 1
This expression vanishes except when m=nuy, p being an integer, or
n—1 _2arin
=o (0422, )=nq"e nas = = 0 pen? 2npw+ 2npa log. q
0”
=ng® 249 (na log. q+nw, q”),
the formula required.
This formula may be written
a n—l — 2arin , 1
ngne™,(nw+alog.q,q")=3,e 0, \ w+, q \ :
0
so that equation (1) becomes
n n—1 rine 1
n11,9,(w +a), 7)==,Q,6, (u+3 A te a).
1° 0
Rosenhain then shows how, by giving w the x values
hog. q%
1 2
w,20-+ — log. 9, w+ — log. q,... w+"
we may obtain equations to determine the constants Q, in terms of
functions @ with constant arguments,
314 REPORT—1873.
Section 5.—These principles are then applied to the multiplication of
hyperelliptic functions. The following theorem is given without demonstra-
tion, ¢,, ,(v, w) being the same as before :
Ils, ; (u+%, w+b,,p, q A)=
1
n—ln—l
where A, . is a constant analogous to Q, in the last section.
To prove this formula we proceed as follows: the notation and assump-
tions will be understood by referring to Rosenhain, p. 400. To prevent con-
fusion, we write p for Rosenhain’s n.
Tos, (Ua, W+b,)=zz
1
(Mr tm? +m? See +m,*) log. pH(nrtnet...... ny") log. qd.
ea (MFM, AMF oeeeee Mp V+ 2(2, +2, +23 +...+-- Ny )W
EAMG tay t Seer ee MpAp) +2(n,b, +2, +....-- +2pbp)
Let
: M,=-,+%, and also foamy tae) Uae ocr +H,=P,
so that
m,+m+.... +m, =B+pe,
m=r,+y, and also »,+¥,+.... +” =y,
so that
[re Onset oe +n =y+ny-
Then
mi+tme+.... + m, = Spy, +2Pa+ px”,
nrtn+.... n= ay, +2yy+py’,
mn, +m, + ....-+-m,n =Ty,y, + Py+yxe+pry.
Hence, collecting these results, and resuming the (n)
I ps, ACE w+b,)
1
= BZA, gees et nlog p +4Anry+y’ .n log 4
e2x(B log p+2yA+ Za, +nv).2y(2BA+B log. g-+ Bb, +nw)
=A, ‘Caaaaset be $5, (nv +B log, p+ 2yA + Sa, nw +2BA +f log, q+ Bb, p”, q" An),
where A, , is a constant to be determined (see p. 404).
3, Ag, ye Bet21M9,, , (nv t+ 3a, +f log. p+2yA, nw+3b,+ 2BA+y log. q, p”, g"An)
0 0 :
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 315
Now from the definition of ¢, , (v, w) it is easy to see that
n—1n—1_kB+ly ki is
> se n a Ce aR w+ =, P» w)
0 0 ‘ n n
Has SS et loa ptaay. A ty? log, ¢+ 20v-+ yu MEBs Baie
-O -0
—ll—-1@ ©
= * >, >, 2, e(@ +8) log p+4(7+B)(y+y).A+(v+y)? log. qg
0 0-00 -%
2kain Qlyir
r+B+2y+7)Y en en
=(using the reasoning of section 4, and so putting nw for w, ny for y)
Sn? pO PBF 2A) g7 -2y(w+2BA) S f
—-0O -2
ei log p+4nrayA+niy? log. g+2nx(B log p-+-2yA+v)-+2ny(y log g+28A+w)
mip BO yA) gr 2re+ i)
ds, 5 (n(Ut Plog. p+2yA), n(w+y log. g+2/3A), p™, q””, An),
whence
m—1n—1 _kBtly,, Ia i. Aen,
ag aa SE wa arian.)
2Bv+2
=Be TPT 4, (e+ Blog.p+2yA, nw+ylogq-+23A, p”, 9”, An), . (2)
which agrees with Rosenhain, p. 404.
Hence, combining (1) and (2) together, we obtain
z
Ilhos, 5(¥+a,, w+ bas P,q A)
1
oer nee aes ng eae OR
aa a 3B, ts, (vest + Newel “ae p )
(Rosenhain, p. 405).
In this way formule are found for the multiplication of hyperelliptic
functions. Two others of a similar nature are given by Rosenhain, toge-
ther with the expression just written down; and they are presented in a
somewhat modified form on page 406. The quantities B, ; are expressed
by means of functions ¢, , with constant arguments, by a method analogous
to that by which the constants Q, were determined previously.
Section 6.—Having thus discussed some of the properties of ¢, , (v, w),
Rosenhain proceeds to develop a number of similar functions defined as
follows, p. 499 :—
m? 2mv
ie.)
%,, Yr (2, w)=,,p € 6,.(w+2mA, q)s
-2
316 REPORT—1875.
(oe)
>,,, 3 (vy, w=, qr o,(u+2nA, P)s
-*O
; = m,m?_2mv
0, p (Us W)= Zin — 1) p™ "8, (w+ 2mA, q);
—0O
S n? 2Inw
dy, 9 (Ys W)=Zn(— 1g" 8 (v-+ QnA, p),
-00
Be pt
$, ,% w=s,p 2 emt 6(w-+(2m-+1)A, 9),
-@ ‘
(2n-+1)?
Or w=3,q "ta (vt QntI)A, p),
-*O
(2m+1)?
pd go git lv
$1, (%, W)=2(—1)™p 0.(w+(2m-+1)A, 9),
(2n+1)? (n+l
bn, (% w= Trg FTO, (2n-+1)A, p),
where 7 denotes one of the indices 0, 1, 2, 3. It is manifest from this that
there are sixteen of these functions, which may all be expressed under the
form
m log p+n* log g+4mnA+2ma 2nb
$y, o(Us W; Ps 4 A)=23e SP 8.4 ats r, stan nr, gp, o
where @,, 45 5, 4 Cp, . are linear functions of » and w.
The periodicity of these functions is given by Rosenhain, pages 409, 410;
and he then proceeds to develop the following theorem :—If
Qu, =ut+e'+ou" +0", 2w, =wt+w't+w"4+w"",
Qu) =v+u'—v"—0"" 2w, =w+w'—w"—w"",
Qu," =v—v' +0" —0"," 2w," =w—w'+w"—w"",
Qu" =u—v'—v" 40", 2w,"=w—w'—w"+w"",
also if
M =¢, , (% ”) $5, (v's W') o,, 5 (¥", w") o,, , (v'", w”
+5, 2 (% Ww) 5, . (sw) b,, 2 (V's w") o, , (V'", w'"),
M’ =¢, , (% “) go, s (> w’) o., 5 (Ys W") os, g (Uw)
+o,, 2 (% W) $,, 2. (v', w') g, . (v, w") @ , (V'", wu”),
M" =$,, 5 (% U) 9, ss &') Hy, 6 @'s w") Hy, 5 0" W")
+ $1, 2 (YY) Gy, 2's W) gy, 20", W") Gy, 2 (Ws w'"),
M"= Ge, (25) go, » W's’) Go, 5 (W's 0") gy, (0, w")
+o, 2s W) oo, 2 (v's w') oo, , (Us w") o, 2 (U'", w'"),
es
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 317
and also if M,, M,’, M,", M,'" are what M, M’, M”, M’”’ become when », v'
and w, w’ are substituted for v, v' and w, w’, then
Re SLM MEY) Sym lut), es )
soul ET gis 0 I le dark cl 6)
ea Meer PO he eh
Re aM MM ee eta. wena
It is a good way to prove form (1) by writing down the fully expanded
forms of ¢, ,, ¢,,, and then applying the principles of Section 1. Then
Rosenhain has shown how to deduce (2), (3), (4) by merely changing the
periods.
Section 7.—By increasing the arguments by semiperiods Rosenhain has
deduced an immense number of formule, which he has placed in a table at
the end of his memoir. We shall endeavour, first, to explain how this table
is formed, and, secondly, how to use it. We remark especially that if
in : :
v, v', v', v' are each augmented by > then v, is augmented by iz, and
v,', v,", v,/"" remain unchanged; but, on the other hand, if v, w', v" are
at
augmented by _ and v'” diminished by 3 then v,, v,', v,' are also in-
ereased each by = and v,'” diminished by — Again, if while v, v' re-
mr
, ess 20s tr
main the same v” is increased and v’” diminished by >? then v,, v,' also
Ul
|. So that the
four equations of section 6 remain true when the variables are thus changed
and the functions M transformed. Now, then, we will consider the Table.
Formula la consists of the values of M, M’, M’, M’”’ written down as
given in section 6. Formula 1d is obtained by augmenting w, w’, w" by
ix 7
2
diminishing v'” by 5 in la, formula 2d from 1d by augmenting v” by =
remain the same, and v," is increased, v,'" diminished by
and diminishing w'”’ by > formula 2a from la by augmenting v” by Me me
we (Tr
and diminishing v'”’ by 3" We need make no special remarks respecting
3a, 3d, 4a, 4d, which are proved in a similar manner. But when
we come to 5a we meet with a change. The formule of page 410
(numbered 80), are then called in, and the arguments augmented by the
quantities which render the ratios of the functions ¢ doubly periodic, and
which we have discussed at full in the third section in reference to @, , (v, w).
We thus obtain 5a, and from this, by changing the arguments as before by
adding and subtracting >. we arrive at 5d, 6a, 6d.
Now consider 6¢ particularly. It gives us
M—M’=M,” +M,’",
as | REPORT—1873. .
where
M =@,,, (Ys W) bs, 9 (U's W) bp, (U's WM") bo, 9 Us Ww”
~ 4s, (5%) Ga, (5 ") Ga, (O's 10") x (0s 1"),
M’ = $5, 9 (% W) ha, 0 (Y's M') Gr, 9 (Ys MW) Gy, 9 (YW
— ts, 1s 0) $a, 1 (0's 0) Gs, Os 0") a (0 20)
M,” =6,, o > Hy) Bo, 0 (r's Mr) Ga, 0 Uns Mr") be, 9 Ops Wy”)
— 5, 1 (My My) Bo, 1 y's My’) Po, 1 (ys Wr") 1 (4 WY")
a (Bars Uy) Ona (Py, 2s Wes, ee w,'")
Won ick — 5, (> Wy) Oy, y's MY’) be, 1 ys My") bs, 1 Ys HY")
then feat cree bi v'=—0"", w= —w""",
2, =, s, :=9, Po, ,=9, 1, o=9,
and the equation becomes, suppressing the accents,
os, 0 $o, U0) (v, w)+¢’,, 0 1, 0 (v, w)=¢",, 0 $s, 0 (v, W)+¢", 1 o's, 1 (v, w)*,
whence
1= Pp os, 0 1, 0 (v, w) #0, ) '», i) (v, w) ? 1 $s, 1 (v, w) é
Po, 0% 0, 00%) Px, 04%, 01%) $n, o Po, 0% M)’
and similarly from 8d and 12d,
—— o's, 3 1, (UY, W) as ?°, 3 , 0 Q, w) aie om lb ¢ 3, 2 (Y, a.
>, 3 %', o(% wv) $°o5 o's, os) $s, 5 bo, o (Ys wy
1=— ’s, 2 ? 0 (v, w) + ?'o, 2 $'» ACE w) 5 ~ ot! Ag EE So os re o 35 3 (v, w) bs
Gn, 2 Fo, 00%) $2, 29, 0(%U) Fa, 2%, 0%) |
In like manner we obtain from the Table, by causing the argument to vanish,
¢'s, ao, c= oo, june 5 2=o'o, ato", 3? |
¢'s, 3 sale 1=$'s, ote a. 2= Fo, aio 3?
o's, ee a= %'s, ot ?s, =f, shee ? }
2 hae EE.) 2 2 2
P 5,09 3,3? 2, 0 2,3tP 0, 0% 0, a |
$s, 0 d's, 2= os, 0 Orn. Seapine 0 o, 2
#5, 29's, s=P 2,292, ath, 2%, 9 /
with twelve similar equations, which will be found on p. 417.
(B)
(C)
* Because ¢,, ,(v,w)=—d¢,, ,(—v, —w), which may be proved thus. It is seen at once
ca) co corte
that 3,6(n)=Enp(—n). Hence g, (0, 2) = Enp"*e-2""8,(w—2mA, 9),
-2 -2 2
9)
or 5, 4(—% —W)=Empme2rO, (—w—QMA, 7) = — Hs, 1(¥ W).
—00
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 319
Section 8.—Rosenhain points out that by means of the Table he is able
to obtain thirteen out of the fifteen ratios 2%? in terms of any two of them.
2 O90 2
He selects for that purpose the ratios #0 (¥, w) and #2, o(% ™) ; he then
P 0, 9 (UW) Po, 0 (YW)
introduces the new variables wv, and w,, and assumes
1, 0 (% &)
¢ o, 0 (vy, w)
=—k)p.x,a,,
o's, ol, w) ne LNT
$°, oY w) = brn —#,)1 —H,),
where
2 2 2 2 2 2
pia? wa? as NP 0 Pa a 2 %x0% 23
2 aie i, 2 Ope te) a Ie sy
$3,2%s,3 Ps,0% a, 2 3,0? s,3
2 2 2 2 2 2
jz —Po2P os 2 Pwo Poe 2 Pio. 01 P.05-8. «
Bast dy, CuiPuage | Sex
whence it follows from equations (C) that
+h =1, V+ =1, p+, =1,
and from equations (A), that
$3.1 (YW) _ Ap fs ;
$'o, o (Y w) or mn —k a J —k*x,),
o's 2 (y, w) pk .
SF 1—r* T= ;
P 0,0 (v, w) Rie v,)( x.)
Or 3 (v, w) kr .
q 2 = 1 —_— Ae 1 a 2a is
#0, 0 (Ys w) Pre, let ae
where
1 ke? 2 rN, pyr -= Bs Po, =) - we.
Rosenhain also (p. 423) shows how the remaining ratios are to be found.
I shall write down three of them, denoting
a(1—«#)(1—k’x)(1—d’a)(1— px) by R(x).
Go 1()_—_ Aw(L— Aw (1 =D, )( = pe, AL — pe.)
$, ° (v, w) e AMA gbz(®,— 2%)?
* vRu, :
{ Wowaydaray tava ee |?
Gs, 2(w) _ AL, )(1—e, (LN, Lda)
Po, 0 (% W) Bye pyky(@,— 2&1)”
{| d=a)Gane) + Gade) }
320
°, 2 (¥, w) w)
# 0, 9 (YW) w)
REPORT—1873.
_ Av, —N wx, )(1?—)*x,)
Ayo Ay(@,—#,)"
(aaa
VR, u
v(1—de,) ~ «,1—d’*x,)
Now if we introduce two new variables, (w) and (w’), and assume them to
satisfy the following two equations,
ose 1—\ew,
1 de 2x
dx 2
V Re, oar VW Re, a9
1—prw. 1—prw
du'= 1d ——* (lx,
ca amet a ig ema
we shall obtain, of course,
dz, * (11> pox, )\/ Re, Cn = Nw, )4/Re,
du py, ae D du pee, —«#,) 3
— (=p V/ Re, de, (1—Nx,)V Ra,
ae pe (@,—2,) dul pey(ta—2,)”
when we remember that
(1 —’2,)(1 - pet, )— (1 —Nx,)A — pe, ) =
(Y= p*)(@,—@,)=p?,(@,— ,).
From these equations we are able to obtain
dVee, INee, INA—#2,)1—a,) IV (1—#«)O—a,)
du au” du : du’
in terms of «,,; also the ratios * ae > fue a =) give us relations, from which we
¢', 0
are able to deduce the following expressions :—
NV ieXu d V we, vv, Mie $s, 3 (v, w) $2, 3 (v, w)
is du 2 hy Po, 0 (v, w) ; Po, 0 (v, w)’
vam _ cae ds, » (UV, W) Ga, (YW)
a Py Po, 0 (v; w) o, 0 (%; w)
M ke dV =a =a) He, a2 OW) $s, 0 (6)
MINH, du at Go, 0 Us) $, 9 (YW)
Vv kip dV (=a d=2,) _ Ne, 2 (YW) d1, 2% ¥)
Vie du! 21 Po, 0 (v, w) Po, 0 (v, w)
Section 9.—Rosenhain deduces from the Table the following equation :—
2b, o 3, 0 1, 0 (v+v', w+w') Ooo (v —v', w—w')
— $9 (Utu's w+w') >, —v',w—w')}
=P, 3 (v, w) $s, 3 (v, w) Po, 3 (v', w') $,, 0 (v', w')
— ba, 2 (Ys W) bs, o (UY WM) Hy, o (Y's W") bo, » (Ys W)-
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 821
pee dice this in terms of v', and equating the coefficients of v', we have
at once
d. Pr, 0 (U> (v, w)
bo, 0 5, 0 0, 0 (v, w)—— elton ae is w)
— 5, 2 P12 Ps, 2 (Us W) do, 2 (YW);
=, 3? '1°3(0, 0) Ps, 3 (v, w) 2,3 (v, w)
and similarly,
d. Py, ¢ oO (vy, w) w)
os 0 _ (v, w)
Po, 0 $s, 0 ¢ 0,0 (v, w) = =1¢)! 3 9'1"3 5, 3 (v, w) $2, 3 (v, w)
— Po, 2 2 2 293, 0 2 (v, w) Po, a (v, w);
d. s, 0 (UY, w w)
—tus : Ca oe 3, w) d,, 2(% w)
>
ie)
,0 Po, oP 0, 0% w)
iaPal 2 gy"? Ps, 2 (v, w) d,, 2 (v, w),
d a Ps, 0 (Ys W)
Wo, 0 (v, w)
p>, 0 $o, 0 ¢'o, 0 (v, w) Saris, iiiies =a Pes o'"3 Ps, (v, w) Pi, 5 (v, w)
— $5, 2 ae Ps, 2 (v, w) 1, 2 (v, w);
and substituting in these equations the expressions we have obtained in the
last section, we have equations of the form
dV x2, dv xx, py mits
dv c= A du + du”
dV 2,2, By dV 2.x, AV xx,
dur =A du +8 du
where A, B, A’, B’ are certain constants; and we have two similar expres-
sions for '
dV(1—2,)—#,) dV¥O—2#,)1—2,)
du du
whence we have
du=adu+bdw, du'=a'dv+b'du,
by properly choosing
a and a’, b and 0’;
and therefore, finally,
adv + bdw Fe + “ie,
Vis
Hence our formule give us the solution of the hyperelliptic differential
equations.
1873. Y
*dx,.
i
adv+b'dw= ken gig
322 REPORT—1873.
Rosenhain, in the last ate of his memoir, proves the remarkable equation
ada
wo Y Re VES -f* os isos ae
1
x xde me i dx 3 ada
are Re wv mt Vv Re Re WV Rex
a
=%,
ale
a formula much used by later writers.
Section 10.—We now proceed to consider the method of treating the hy-
perelliptic functions proposed by Gopel. His justly celebrated paper in the
35th volume of Crelle’s Journal presents very few difficulties, which will
make our analysis of it shorter and easier. He commences with the sixteen
series of which the analogues have been used by Rosenhain, and writes them
thus :—
a lad / 9 2 = ' ' 9 al 2, ‘\2
oY +r, (atu) seater aK +2bL)?+r'(u'+2cK'+20L’) ;
Rite nla (uw) = x(—1)° (the same expression),
pee pit (u,u')= 2(—1)- (the same expression),
ae aaa P''(u,w')=.1. (the same expression),
oe (u, w)=3(— Daisey = ca a
rue ry!
€
Q’ (u, w')=>( aay (the same expression),
rune |
€ 7Q" (u, w)=3(—1)* (the same expression),
rur aw! “
Bias Q'"(u, u')=3.1. (the same expression),
rato rete! py th ret 2a + RSE DL) +4 (w'4 2aK' + (26-41)L! ’
€
rue + ry!
€ ik’ (u, u')=X(— 1) (the same expression),
a
€ BR (wy v= (1) (the same expression),
rue tr'u'
€
R'(u, w')==.1. (the same expression),
S (u, u’)= x(— ite (w+ (24+ 1)K+ (264 1)L)?+7'(w' + (2a-+1)K'+(264+1)L
ru? +'ry!?
€
puree ;
€ w (u, w)=2(— 1) (the same expression),
ru? tau’?
€
iS” (u, u')=3(—1)“ (the same expression),
Purr : 4
€ S'"(u, w)==Z.1. (the same expression).
where = applies to (a) and (6) and extends from —a« to +a.
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 323
It is easily seen that if we change u, uw’ into u+4K, u'+4K’, or into
u+4L, u’+4L’, all these series remain unchanged. Hence they are doubly
periodic. Moreover their ratics are quadruply periodic ; for after removing
the common factor ¢ +", all the exponents of e in numerator and deno-
minator are linear in w'u’. Hence it is easy to prove that if u, uw’ are changed
into u+-4A, «+4A’ when
rLit ah ala
ek sans ON oe A ee
E(KL—K'Ly’ 4y'(KL! —K'L)
Z
or if w’, vw are changed into u+4B, u’+4B’ when we have
aki ' Ke
= len Os | =e ale
B= KL —KD) 4(KL—K'L)
the ratios of these functions remain unchanged,
If we suppose u, w’ to be augmented by the semiperiods, the quantities P, Q,
&c. sometimes remain unchanged, sometimes change their sign. The resulting
values are expressed by Gépel in a Table, where the first line gives us the
increments of the argument, the remaining lines the resulting signs, thus :—
2A, SB. OA98. OK, 21, 2K +90,
Bon: + + = < os
a: 3 +t f = 7%
and so on for the remaining fourteen series (Gopel, p. 282).
When we suppose w'u’ to be augmented by the quarterperiods, P, Q, &e.
are changed into other functions of the series, as is expressed in a Table,
where the first line, as before, gives us the increments of the arguments, the
remaining lines the quantities into which P, Q, &c. are changed, thus :—
A B A iy AE Tit SoC,
P fp’ Pp” pir 7Q aR S
ae iges be Q'" gp fecig ens
and so on for the remaining fourteen series (Gépel, p. 283).
Gépel next gives a Table of the values of u, uv’, which cause P, Q, &e. fo vanish ;
thus Q vanishes for 0, B, A+L,K+L, B+ L,A+K+4L; P for K, L, A+L,
B+K,A+K+L,B+K-+L,; all the functions multiplied by (¢) vanish foru=0,
w=0. I may remark that the vanishing of functions @ has been treated in
detail by Riemann, in the 65th volume of Crelle’s Journal. We shall refer
to the three Tables described in this section as Gépel’s first, second, and third
Tables.
Section 11.—Gépel next investigates the algebraical relations between the
functions P,Q, &c.... In doing so he makes use of the following notation.
If in the functions P’’, Q’’, R'", 8'", 27, 2r’ are written instead of r, x’, the
four results are denoted by T, U, V, W. When in these functions wu and w’
vanish, the results are denoted by ¢, u, v, w; consequently wu is used in two
different senses in this paper. I shall endeavour to guard against any con-
fusion arising from this. When wu, w' are put equal to zero in the functions
P, Q, BR, S, P’, PB”, &c., the results are denoted by a, k, p,¢, a, a", Ke.
Then by direct multiplication the following formule are arrived at without
difficulty :—
P?=/T—uU —vV+ ww,
324 REPORT—1873.
and fifteen more precisely similar formule for
Pens, eo. 28ipeees ee ie eee ee ee
Putting the arguments w and u’=0, we have :—
o=t—u —v —w’, and similarly for a’, a, ao”; \
|
k? =2tu—2vw, and similarly for p', o? ; |
. | a eee
k'""" = 2tw+4 Quw, and similarly for p'"?, «'’”?; '
k, Teves P> p's o', o” vanish, p|
‘From these we easily deduce the following :—
ee =p" +04 =p'44+o", =
a a ll =o""44hk't=o! a ee |
29112 12 12 2 12 OTe 127.12 122 > . $ mn > (3)
wa” —@ a” =o", ok''"—a@ kh? =p Oo, |
P '
mp — a" po 2=K'"G", ra iM R= hg, j
with many similar formule (p. 288).
From formule (1) we easily see that we have an expression of the form
P?=¢P?+ BS°+yP'?+ 58’;
by putting the arguments uw, w’ equal to zero and the quarterperiods, we
determine a, 3, y, 6, and we find
(a —a'")PP= — 079"? P? + oR MS? 4+ ie'2}e""'2p"'2 —K'*9"8'?,
with similar formule for 8”, P’’’, &c., also in terms of
Pe ee Oe kt ee cee le eae
Godpel next investigates the relations which exist between the products
PS, P'S’. By means of Table 1 he proves very easily that such relation must
be of the form
aPS+ bP'S'+cP"S"+ dP'"S'" + eQR+/Q'R'+9Q"R"+2Q”"R" =0;
and then, by the help of the second Table, he proves that this equation gives
rise to the two following :—
aPS +dP'"S'"+ eQR +hQ'"R'"=0,
bP'S'+eP"S" +fQ'R'+9Q’"R" =0,
By putting the arguments w, wu’ =0, and also, making use of equations (3)
of this section, we obtain the following two equations derived from the second
of those we have just written down :—
R'"9'"'Q'R’ = aa "P'S! en aok''S",
k'"9'"Q'R' = —acP'S' ta'"o'"P"'S".
Squaring the first of these equations and making use of equations (4),
.
ee
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 325
k'''* ts 4 ta
ps abe g/4 Tae peg? _ — (Pan op $9")
Ks ‘ts OQ ” 17 tae We u tii
+ eT E52 BEas Sprain pg”?
Qeon''o'"(a"! a
aw ‘oem ep
N4)2
8 p's 8 gi'4 iz
PRES =0.. . « gi bid)
In a similar manner the following equations are obtained :—
44
jis m4 : Res Wt }
=p) a 8) 6s = pra BS" + 843,06 (B)
(P's + PS)?
_(a"6"+a0) y ap)
igPprr2 4r2q/2 ne iy 12q12 1720112
aight (P7B" + 8°8") — Sahn (P'S? + P98”)
woe a" (k'*+p'4) oy 4 oa!” mprrarcar 1
aF 2( wash" ma aye PP'Ss", 6. (C)
Le) Iti Tie 2
e's” - PS)? = ep os (EAR? + 87847)
ke ee nan prelp wom oa (htt a wa ao” mpraran
== yt (P ag + pe a) + 2( aah a oar )ep S's”. (D)
Section 12.—Equation (A) gives a relation between P’, S', P”, 8’. Gépel
proves that no other relation can exist, of a purely algebraical nature,
between these quantities (p. 292). He consequently investigates the rela-
tions which exist between the differentials of those functions in the following:
way :—
Putting
M XU +24 K+20,L) et
1
?
M aPC K+(20+1)L)...
we have
MM =_77{(m +3)K+(0,+2)LV+ oo 2r{ut(g +H) K+ (04 a) D+ ve
where
a+a,=n, b+6,=8,
a—d,=n, 6—b,=6;
this is easily seen if we remember that
(a, —a,)°+(a—a,)+ 34+ (a+a,)?+(a+a,) +=20?+ 20,24 20-42,
and also that
2(a— a, + 3)(O—b, +4) +2044, 4$)(5 46, + 5) =4a,), +4ab+ 204 2641;
326 REPORT—1873.
and then it is seen without much difficulty that
fe tne Pidd =SdP')=a.T 46.0.4 6¥,4-4.W,-
where T,, U,, V,, W, are the values of
oy 27(u+(n+3)K4+ (64-3) L)"
y odd, ee
Hence we find
P'dS'—S'dP’=aP8+ bP'"S” + cQR+dQ’"R” +. a,P'S' +6, P'S"
+¢,Q'R'4+d,Q'R",
where such quantities as P’Q are excluded according to the law given in
page 290, and a, 6, &c. are of the form fdu+f'du', where f and f' are con-
stants. But since Q'R’, QR” can be expressed in terms of P’S' and P”S”,
and also QR, Q'”R’” in terms of PS, P’’S’’, we shall have
P'dS'—S'dP’=aPS+ 6P'"'S"” +4,P8,45,P"S’.
Putting «+ K-+L for u, we have
P'dS'—S'dP'=aPS+6P'"'S” —a P'S’ 6. P"S";
when @ is even and y is even, @ even and
*
whence
P'dS' —S'dP’=aPS+6P'"S”;
and changing w into w+ A+B,
P'"dS' —S"dP" =aP'"'S'" +5PS,
the coefficients are easily determined ; and we have, finally,
Pas sap ne pg 4 Fade’ png
p k k p
Section 13.—We shall now show that from these equations the hyper-
elliptic differential equations can be deduced. We shall give the outline of
the calculation, referring the reader for the details to the original memoir.
From the equations last given, we have
(P'dS'—S'dP')+(P"dS"—S"dP") _ k'dp'+p"dk"
prs’ ssPs Bae =p,
CO et SEDs Heo a
P'S” PS B75"
Putting
ENO we x8 Be
Pp’ Ps Pp” q, pr ?
PPE ES P'S" PS _
PPro — pip ee
the last equations are transformed into the following :—
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 827
sdp +Ady sdp— =y
——— =dnp, ee ee ew Ee EL
Also, using the same notation, the last four equations of section 11 may
be written thus :—
(1 —2Ep* + p*)s*—2(F(1+ pq?) —C(p? +4") + 2Dpq)s”
(LS Dees es AS 3? 36 3) ogee)
Ae 1
2V B—1.¢p=(1—2Ep*+p*)s*—(1-2EY’+q')z, - + + + 8)
P= (+0 )1+ p79?) -a +P )+2C-4)py - 2 ee eee A
Y=(b—b,)\(1+p"9’) —a(p? +P )+2C+¢)pq - + + + + + + ©)
where E, F, a, 6, &c. are constants, whose values will be found in p, 299;
hence, by addition, we find
2_F(L+p*q’) —C(p*+ 9°) + 2Dpqt VE=1. ob
1—2Ep’+p?
1_F+p'¢’)—O(? +7) +2Dpq—V EP—1. op
= 1—2EK¢°+¢
Moreover equations (1) may be written
=>
~1) ( =)
sAp— sAp+—
(sa (2 dp + dq on) + : (2 pt) ad.
yp 2Ap © 2Aq Wp 2Ap 2Aq
Putting here yAz+zAy ydz—zhAy
Pp a aa ’ ol al 22?
—Ys —Ye
where also [ha aca
Ay= V 1—Ey’ +7, Az=V¥1—E2+42,
and remembering that
dp dy dz ye
Ap Ay Az?’ Ag Ay Az
we separate the variables, and obtain
dy oF 2Bye ty"
lz 1—2E 2°+2* Use
ORI Lay Stat hea
| h 1-28 y?+y
AF-1 oy Ji tortie Lee ‘)
v7 12( yaa ake v(U— ie +y") —2Ey+y4
é 1—2 . Naa
+ Wt arm: ott ap Ay sof See oT a = Vb—b dr,
3828 REPORT—1873.
where
C—E-—D E Chews C+E+D ” C-E+D_»
= Gamaeiog ra? FEtewe F=aee oe
If we put eo eEEin
where «@ is a root of the equation
1—2Ke’+¢=0,
we are able to deduce
dz 1—2E,2’°+2* 128 ee
ve 1) S/ (janes) =V CO +D gy WEVA sey ty
By this substitution Gépel remarks that we obtain an equation perfect in
symmetrical form with respect to the variables. And, lastly, putting
—y" Q
v= (Izy) v= (FP)
he equations become
daW1— Mv a _ dx <4 l—m,v' aR
V (#1 —x)\1—mae)(1l—m,x)) * f (a'(1—«')(1—ma')(1— mx’)
6 ; Sr iy Ba hs eee E,) )
=2Vb16 47 Gar E)
dx V1-—me dxe'V1—m a —m,a'
A eval —x)(l—m x i Te. m,v)) + V7 (7 wx (1 = me! (1 — me’)
n1vig/ (GED)
when
E+1 E, = EE
m= f= m, => mS m, = Ss ie
Hence the solution of the hyperelliptic differential equations of the first
order is easily obtained.
Section 14.—In connexion with this part of the Report we may consider a
very beautiful method of integrating a certain system of hyperelliptic differ-
ential equations given by Jacobi in the 32nd volume of Crelle’s Journal.
Let :
Ya"—Yja"1+Yio"?.... HY, =Ry’?+28y4+T=0
be an equation represented in two different ways, where Y, Y,.... are, of
course, of the second, and R, 8, T of the nth order in y and x ‘respectively,
Then this equation, differentiated, manifestly gives
dx 2dy
Ry +8 ny. jaa —(n—1)Y,2"".. A Ss ale
Let «,, be one of the n roots of oe algebraical equation; then this
gives us
das, 2dy
J/8,2- is Bote ra Y¥(«,,— . a ( Cy — &, De : a a) Pe ”»
a
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 329
which, if
f(e)=S— RT,
gives rise to the system of differential equations
da, . 5 da, s dx, re darko sot F
W fits oi fit, eV fo, ) Wf,
ade, , wde, , wde,, «de _ 4»
fc, * Vfe, ' Vfo,' Vfo,
&e. =
ade, | x," "de, ade, _ 6
afi fe, fe, +....4+ Whe, (
Now let
f(w)=M?+N*-L?,
where M, N, L are three rational and entire functions of the nth order. But
since
M’+ N?—-T?=M?-(L+N)(L—N),
, ©, may be regarded as the n roots of the equation
(L+N)y?+2My+(L—N)=0,
Ly, v,..
or
Ld+y*)+2My+ NA—y’*)=9,
which may be written
L=M sin 6+ N cos 0,
where @ is a new variable. Substituting w,, #,, «,.. for # in this equation,
we obtain a system of equations which may be regarded as the complete
integral of the above system.
Parr II. On the Transformation of Hyperelliptic Functions.
In considering the papers of Kénigsberger on the transformation of hyper-
elliptic functions in the 64th and 65th volumes of Crelle’s Journal, it will be
convenient in this Report to follow his division as to sections. We commence
with the paper in the 64th volume.
Section 1.—Konigsberger assumes the following connexion between two
sets of variables :—
u,=2K, ,+2K, wv.+....+2K,,%,,
u,=2K, w,+2K, w+... +2K, pup,
ee
p= 2K, w+ 2K, va. 2 FAK, py
v= G,w,+G,u, +....+G i,
v,= Gy gt, +G, wu +....+Gp ot,
are
1 \ a ‘
Oe G,,p%, + Ge, +... +G, ott;
330 REPOR1I—1873.
also
7. p= 2G, okt, B +216, ne B +....+ 2G, ay ae
and r, g=7, ,,3 then function 6 is defined by the following equations :—
OY, AP > Ya+Py ++--¥, +P) =O(%,-++-%,), 2 2 2 eon (1)
OY, +7, Motte, a: + Up tT, jae Fr, o™G(v,,. re
whence
(uy, --. Ui )=
SPM trarsat ee by pring) tus Beabortanrt Mh a,p)+ M2 brite t- vet ove) ®t (3)
It will be observed that these assumptions coincide with those of Weierstrass
(Crelle, xlvii. p. 303), and which we have given in the Report (Brighton) for
1872, p. 345, by putting in the formule of Weierstrass 2rv,, 2rv,....27v,
for #, v,...,Up, and 2G, .....for G then it will be found that Jc and @
are equivalent.
We easily obtain from (2),
—n(v +n a
OU, +70; V+, a,..--)=eE er fe Be OL u,ws. + Dake
L1?
and
Av, +17, 2,5 1,2 UAT >, 1 Ms ga iss 5)
—— 2 2%+%7, M7, 2) —M,(2%, +2 Ty, ANT, Jo(v,v,. ems v,) :
and writing
T= TQ, eee Sse
— Zn (20 +7 )rig,
6(v,+7,, ORS rire ware prt) =e yh i 2 A(w,Y, - Pin Up).
This assumes, of course, that n,,,, ....%, are integers; when they are not,
Konigsberger assumes another transcendent, as follows :—
n (2
Bet CR ABD
"0(v,+7,, U,+To) Dae ‘UntT,)s
and calls it @(v,v,....¥, mn,... ,).
- . eater ' U
Then we shall have, if 7 pay rE aly, at oes ‘Meh, o)s
/ ' ' 2 fs , .
OY, ATs, YoFT apes ss MMye ees n= 7”, ¥ tar 7 Ey, tr itr}
9 Rs tot ' '
ent 20, +27 +7,) Bm +n! Qe +r +r YO(v,v, wees
(remembering that 3n')7,=n,7',)
—n'(2u +7')xt ;
=e YF OU, Uye es Ugo MEM ys MANS. 26).
Konigsberger furthermore assumes transcendents with the notation :—
= pyr 1 nan EAA
B(Y,Uy+ + + -%y),=O(y, Fam]... .Y, + aM, 5 Zn}... 35) 5
also
_ Lig ® Ime. 1
O(%, + Ue), p= OY, Hamp... .U+gm; gmy.... mn )s
an ——yA be
where m?=m; +m (mod. 2), nP=="+n, (mod. 2), and x} and nt &e.
are given by the Table, p. 20.
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 331
Section 2.—We here supply the proof of the leading theorem given at
the commencement of this section :—
Lait 1 alt
Ov,+3e}, v,+205, U,+3o3....U,+3 pA
=0(v,+4m)i +401, v,+4ms+3o4 v,+4mr+dot, dnt, Ind 1)
taee ula 2 eis, “onl Bathe Ons wat Up ea Be o> My, 2M, .-.. 2M),
Vay) a "i
Sdn(2v 4+2r+o+r, rt
Sete tet O(v, +7, t4md+iat, v,+7,+3m}+ 304,
aby Wr 1
Bee 37 3
es ni+2a%)
AO, N rN BN
mete, +m, boy +3247, ytangr,, ote: .)at
ne 1,,,A 1
0,4 Sn, tA tant Sn AB,
1 1A 1
+233 n v2, wilt PEL) +P, + 2m + 29,7, sity BZN ry v
1 lm’ 1 1
) oe yt2m3+p,+2ms +Xg,7, + Lantrs ,...-)
pA r M11,A Lah Y
= gaan (2u, my + ol banyr, yran{r, ot-- )at
we 2, n* x BM B 7
J Tq (2+ Ear, tm +m pene, g+BW,Ty, ott
eee 1A pitt
Oy, FBIM, amy + amy + Upnlr, ,
Vp+ san To yt2 m+ my + S3nh 72,»
A 1,
Us+ SEN Ts, nr 4m + ame + Syn rs erat co)
= 22, +e, +m+3nir,, 1 +4njr,, ot--)xt
—_ 9 tr
, Eq, (2v ytenir, atm +m Uankr Hie Petes ott
N d IN .
eat tm (22, +m, +m +33(np+nh), 7, ore
A(u,v,- U5) ay9
: nll pest ;
(remembering that m?==m+m (mod. 2))
AY< A 6 F
= ee, +m, +2p, tml +2(2q, +25 )Fy, o) tt
L(A + n\(2 at Ho A yl
ely +n!) (2v,+ ms +m +3d(np+ni)r j)ri
po A Me Me
2 =q, (20 bene, ot My bm, +ENGT, gt2ZI{57y, gt
rN iN .
Tn (Diner, _)wt
Ber Py % Oks TART a
— be + 2p, tm yi eT ERM +ntt)(m tnt \re
a [ey
—Zq,(m\ +m!) ri
é gm, ray )art O(u,u,-- +4, )ye
<= 2g, anh) (20,4(y +4nf)r,, it (Go+4nb)T,, gt-.)rt
; (remembering that X¢,Untr, = t3q, Ent, .+329,dn7, ,)
CUO me vine ayo
46 A oy, 3 dnl HY ni
en 1)3, (pr +9,my rt ee 3, Anh (mm +m )rt 1 Arg Mere,
Pe ae gr )(20, + (9, +antyr,, it(% +4nh)7 ot..)at
882 REPORT—1873.
a result substantially the same as Kénigsberger’s, although it seems to me
that there is a misprint in his paper.
To illustrate the Table at the bottom of page 22, I observe as follows :—
Referring to the Table at the foot of page 20, we have
8(v,%,).,,=9(Y, Famitam, v,+3mi{+ im}, 3nl+in3, 3ni+4nd)
=0(v,-3+40, unt, 30+20, 3044)
0, 2)s
which agrees with the expression given in the Table by Konigsberger. The
reader is requested to notice that Kénigsberger writes 6(v,v,), =0(v,v,), a
notation which we shall have occasion to recall hereafter. For illustration
of Table, p. 23, see remarks at the end of next section.
Section 3.—This section opens with an expression for
— a
=6(v,— 29 Usy
OU, HY. Up AUT, 1. -Tp,p)s O(U,—pU,. .Up—PUp. pry, - -PT,p)s
where, it will be seen, a change of modulus is introduced. We proceed to
prove the theorem, as it is enunciated without demonstration.
Recalling the value of (6) given in Section 1, this expression is seen to
be equivalent to 33"), where
F(u,u,.-)
= (2, +20, )u,+(2r,-26,p)y,+07 +psi)r, +(47, +po,c,)7,,+..
+(2r,+2o,)u, + (2,—2e, pv, + (v,7, +po,0;)r,, +03 +poz)r,, +..
+ &e.
+(2r, +26))Up+ (21 — Zapp Up t+ (rr, + pope, rp it(% +po5)tp.i+
Now put
y,=8, + Pty, v=8,+7, pty, v,=8, SOs Da pie a o's
o,=2,—S,, o,=N,—S,, o,=N,—S,....5
which we may evidently do, provided that we sum with regard to ,, M,.-pp
from 0 to p.
Now we easily see that
VV, +po,o,= {uu} + {n, pu, +n, py, +p(p +t l)nn,}
+ {s,u,+ SoM) +58,5,(p aK 1)},
the three brackets corresponding to the three factors in the following expres-
sion constituting the second member of the equation
O(u,+4,.. )0(u, — pr, rs y=afe™{ lan, +e) H(t: BoP re2,
where P=
2 21,uU,
{n, e+ +2(u, pr, + Sie + HpPT,,p) +P(p + 1)(m,7,,,+7,7,,,+ ag ))
Qu, : ’
+n, 2(p t+ 1)u,+— 2 + 2(upr,. + bk epr, p+ p(p+1)(m,7,,,+. ))+ oe ea
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 333
Q=
Qu
{5 (2(p+1)0, +74 2G, + ; Poh p) + (P+1)(8,7,,1. 48,744 ; .))
Qu,v
24 Our, bo potap) + (p+ Ler, + ))+ Pe tbei, .
8,
+ 3(2(p +1)v,+
from which Kénigsberger’s formula may immediately be derived, where,
however, the letter 7 must be exchanged in several places for the number 2,
for which it is plainly intended.
Putting p=1, and multiplying the exponential partly into the function @
in uw, and partly into the function @ in v, and recalling the definition of
O(v,U,-.. +p, N,N,N»)
given in the first section, we have at once
O(U, +4, . Up U7), .- -Tp,p)O(%, —%, - -Up—Up> Tr,+ » Tp.)
=BO(2Qu,. 2p, 2o,--BMpr» 271+ -27p,p)O(QY,. .QWp, Su... dptp, 2r,,,--2Wrp,p)s
A formula is next deduced for
O(u, +4, +w,. ..)0(u,—v,....).
We have moreover
Ce Me tlie ag See a or NRO ew ws Marek Asada ale
= >9(2 il 1 ¢
= 20(2u,+w,... 2p + Wp, Paani ace One Tapes
where Q,, is not connected with w.
To prove this, we observe that, if we put v,=0 in the last formule, we
are able to show that
SGA CAS TA SS
My 5 s Ny ny 9 9 m, Ny i
=e2F (Gu, +37, 1+ +27, p)e@ ety +2U, + Ft, 1t + +++ OT, pe
SO(Qu, wm, mit ar, pb. Qu, pw, MEH M7, 1. Bey BM, 2, 1+ +29, p)PM.
But
O(2u, +, -+mi+nr,, 4 Spee ‘Bhp Bila -2r, 9)
=P. PMG Qu, tw, 120, FW, + 3 My + + BMp27,, 1+ +27, 4)
Combining these two expressions together, we see that the theorem is true.
From this equation, by using 2° values of (a) in succession, and elimi-
nating, we may obtain each of the 2° values of
O(2u,+-w,...- 2+ We, Bye ++Bhp» 271+ ++2T pp)
corresponding to the 2° values of p,....s) in terms of a series of functions
of the form
A(u. 26 eUpy Tyres -Tp,p)ad(U+ W - . Unt Wp, Tite: + Tp, pas
whence the formula above mentioned for
O(u,+u,+u,....)O(U—U,--.-)
334 REPORT—1873.
will become, by the substitution of these values,
OCU UAW Up AU tps Ty y+ ++ -Tpp)O(U,—Uy- + «+ Up— Up, Ti rTprp)
SB G)OU, a sUgy 71 = xs Top oUt, Woe ae aU,” 7, Veeolaiag
a
where the coefficients (~) are to be determined.
To determine these coefficients Kénigsberger adopts a method from Weier-
strass as follows.
Taking the ratio
0,(v,v,....¥ teem : *
ete, and remembering its value as given in
OL OP RICA)
Weierstrass’s paper (Crelle, xlvii.), or in the first section of the paper we are
now considering, we see that it will be infinite when one of the quantities
#,, #,....4, is infinite, and zero when they become equal to a,.
From this Konigsberger deduces the two equations corresponding to these
conditions :—
6(v,v,...-U,) =0 to the first,
and
O(v,v,..+-+Up)a=0 to the second,
which last may be written
2p—1 a &
Oy, + 3m +....+4myP+3my+.... am™....,
y! 2, a
Vere dm eS dns + 3m? om. TS , +3m,";
aries
an, +... bane) +anti+.... gnir....)=0,
Konigsberger then states that, if the symbol (1.3.5....29—1, e,e,€9) is
called e*, and 6 being supposed to be any whole number, y equal to every
symbol of the form de, and therefore taking 2° forms, then A(V,0 Up Jety'yt" =O,
when v,v,....v, vanish, y’ and y"” being different. To show this we remark
that the increments of the arguments v,v,....v, are partly numerical, partly
consist of definite integrals. When y' and y" are different, the numerical
part becomes entire ; and therefore when v,v,....v, vanish, @ vanishes by a
proposition of Weierstrass for the expansion of 6, when the arguments are in-
creased by semiperiods of definite integrals. (See Crelle, xlvii. p. 30.) When
y' and y” are the same, they counteract each other and produce no effect.
From these considerations Konigsberger deduces the values of the coeffi-
cients (a)*.
I shall illustrate the Table, p. 28, by deducing from the last equation
of p. 27:—
8,9, .P.Q=P5 Py W014 + PoPo1%o4Ier2— Po Pr,2 Va 4%o9—Po.2P 2,413 U5"
Put w, = —», in the equation mentioned, e-=4,a=1,8=5, 0(v,+w,....)eya,8
becomes 6(v,v..-.),,4,;=9,,, (see remark at the end of our remarks on sec-
tion 2). Since we are dealing with hyperelliptic functions of the first order,
e, and e, will become 0 and 2; hence y becomes in succession in the four
terms of the formula, 5, 0, 2, 02, ya/3 (omitting B=5 and y=5), 1, 01, 12,
012, or 1, 01, 12, 34, as we shall see, ae'y becomes 145, 140, 142, 1402, or
14, 23, 03,3; Be'y becomes 545, 540, 542, 5402, or 4, 04, 24, 13, which
give the indices required.
* Konigsberger has been very brief in this paragraph from Weierstrass, I am not sure
of his meaning. T hope to add something in the Supplement.
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 335
To make this more clear I add the following proofs of some of these equi-
.valences (see Table, p. 22) :—
O(t,%,)or0 =0(v, —3-2> U,— 2» 0, 0)=6(y, .¥.- 25 0, 0)=0(2,%,) ay
(8%, U,) 402 = 9(Y, — 3-2) U,—2> +2; 2+0)=6(u,, V.—2> 0, 2)=0(,0,)5-
The other formule in the Table may be proved in a similar manner.
Section 4.—Konigsberger in this section gives the following theorem
(without demonstration) :—
If
= (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) qd)
GU,» Up) = O(MjPU, ayy... -mMPUptay, si....s80)
. ++ -O(mpu,+a}....mju,+ar, s&™,...8%),
then
8 :
Sem Pvp {rut Quy—(Syrv, p+ ++ «+ + Spry, p) bard
oma = Np taal :
x (ut 2-H At82,4 »+Spr,,p)- Gt go ~(Apt+S,70,1 +.. S,rno))
1
=CO(ru,..7Up, 77,,1- TT p,0)s
where the summation with regard to the indices n,....n, extends from 0 to
r—1, and r, A, S are given by the following equations :—
ml? +.... 4+ m0* ="
mVa) wees mM = A,,
1
ms) + 1... + mM = §,.
I have worked out this theorem for hyperelliptic functions of the first
order; and it appears from this that the demonstration for hyperelliptic
functions does not differ in principle from that for elliptic functions. I shall
therefore confine myself to elliptic functions, as the length for hyperelliptic
functions is extremely great.
Putting then p=1, the theorem becomes
81 . 1
Ze 7 (2ru+-2n—S,r,, am gut - ap (A, +8,7, ,))=CO(ru,, 77, 1).
For \=1, this equation reduces itself to the following—
—=(Qm?u+2n—msr,, ,)ri me 2 2 4
dem 1 O(mU +t —(a4+8r,, ,) +4: s))=CO(mu,, mr, ,),
or
0(muto )= Coon, mr, 1)s
which leads at once to the equivalence
3,3, <r 2mut tyr, ri Cy _y(Qmrutymtr,, ,)ri,
Put in this equation »y=v'm+y, where p is less than m. Then we have
2; ' 2nri, , ' . 1
3, S,e% mut ster, sri = Swe m (” m+), (v m+) 1t( 2mu+ (vy m+ H)T 1,1),
aun
336 REPORT—1873.
2nrt, ,
(remembering that Se m (”’"+H) vanishes, except when »=0, when it be-
n
comes unity)
on yet (Antu +v'm?7,, 1)
rar >
which is what we want to prove.
Taking now the general case for elliptic functions, we have
o(u)=O(m'ut+a' : s)O(muta®:s™)... 0(mu+ur: s*)
d it
Be (ut 2A t8,, »)
,
n 1 ie aha ee WON
owt ma + m9 4 vee MA )—HUmMVNSYM 4 ....m'S ))
It is easy to develop this expression by means of the principles already laid
down ; and we have, finally,
8, . ih 1
Xe~ 7 ade a imrh VR g(u+-—— (A, +87, ))
n
mAs) + m2)s) 4... +m
=e =
(A)
2 {2ru-+2n— (ma) +m)s)-+ 4+mNs)r,_ ifrt
am n 2m)
ead AA
ei( 2m up 7 (mVa 4... ma") —
amr,
r
VmUsO4..ms)42a) 45,7, ri
am®n 2m om ry,
seri (2m Put oe ge ma: mar) — ms) + ms) + 2a'42s7, +l"'7, xi
Lal
2mm 2m!) 2m?71,1 :
yea( 2m,u+ a (mVaD+ .. +ma)——* (ms 4 ,, +s) 42a, +874, rt
2m? )n 2m) r 2m?) _5 1
lle NEL ae a AA
eal 2m 2+ (ma), . a) 2 (ms). . mds?) 42a) 42827, -yr,,,
Vv,
Xe.
Putting in this expression », =m y+ p™, vVP9=mv+ p™, yO = mv + a,
where » is less than m™.. .., we see that the expression vanishes, except
when pD=0, p=0...., and that consequently the expression takes the
form C@(ru, rz, ,). Another theorem for ¢(u,u,....u ) is given by Konigs-
berger in this section.
Section 5.—Kénigsberger here gives two series of hyperelliptic functions,
and proposes to determine the coefficients of the second series in such a way
that they may be expressed rationally by means of the first. It follows as a
consequence that the periods of one set of these functions can be expressed
linearly in terms of the periods of the other, the coefficients in these linear
relations, however, being subject to the condition
X(K, K', —K, EK’, 2) =0-
Section 6.—Kénigsberger then proceeds more immediately to the transfor-
mation of functions 6, the expression of
(nu... . NUM, 4. ++ MTp,p) DY A(t. Up, pT, 1°* + + Tp, pis
————
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 337
In the theorem of last section, let
*9(U,U,. . Us) =O(u,u,. . 1 )0(v a 19+5) d 0(m tA. Ut ) ;
this is equivalent to assuming s=0, m=1, A=n,
ia I
a, =, — see =0,
aa.) aa
ay=a= a*® tral
- p n
Hence n—1
Be Aes ek >
and the theorem becomes
i (il eal
pes Spee es
29(m +e ee -Up+ 7; “Fe )= OAC Up, NT1 1. »TTp, p)-
We shall apply this to prove the theorem for the transformation of the Abelian
integrals of the first order given on page 32.
Put n=3, p=2; take n,n, successively 0, 1, 2.
Then 2p=9(%,—3, %— 3) +9 — 3H) +O +3 %—4)s
+9(u,—-3, %)+o(4u)+6(u,4+ 3, %,),
FOB ADE HC WADED +).
=6(4,—3, 4, — Huu OmtL wth... ee. @)
+0(u,u,—3)0(u,+3, u,)0(u,+2, wuts)... .... QQ)
+0(u,+3, U,—3)0(u, +3, u,)O(u,+3, ujt4) 2... . © (8)
+0(u,—3, u,)O(uU,, Uutz)O(u,+3, ute)... 2... .
+ 0(u,1,)0(u, +3, Ue s3)0(U, +2, ute) . . . ... « &)
+0(u,+4, u,)0(U,+3, u+3)0(u4+8, ut3) . 2... . (6)
$O(—3, MADAM, WER L tM. oe . (D
+6(u,, U%+3)0(u, +3, m+5Z0(u +9, ute ..... (8)
+0(U, +3, U+3)0(8, +3, u+5)0(u,+8, uth)... . . (9)
We see that lines (159), (267), (348) are identical; and the theorem of
last section therefore becomes
Aum, OU, +3, Ue+3 0%, +3, %+§)
7 O(u, 1 3, u,)0(u, # 3 U, ‘i 3)0(u,u, + §)
A(uyu, + 3)0(% +9, Her Z)OC +3, My)
= OO(32, Sly, (Br, 45! OT, sae e.g)
1873. Zz
338 REPORT—1873.
From this Kénigsberger deduces the well-known formule for the transfor-
mation of elliptic functions of the third degree.
Section '7.—This section opens with the following theorem
(where & applies to p,....p, Which are either 0 or 1) :—
BOD, In SUA te Welty POU oss <20p5- Bi, an wee plgy AT, > sae
Now
ee es) eee as Oils AE eietys AT a, p)
= Seli(2% Ey, P27, ost, 3 -- --) 78
eHa(2%.+HT., 1AM eT 2, 2+bsTa, st +++ )me
O20, +27, Feta teat gts:
20,4 21,7. +2p,7o, ot 2HsTo,3° + + 41,1 4759-+--)
= sli@atnn, Hah, o+bsT, g++ -+)ae
elta( 20.2 FE fyTe Fels, oF Me, a+: =: jae :
peer +27, Ae Mety, ab ee ee F271, AH 2gTy, ab. + )at ;
oP (2a + 2H To, AAMT a, at ++ F274 To, AW o, at sees )TH "
e271 (2,424.7, p2yyt1,g+..--.)me
eoa(2e, +2147, 12 To, at ++ :: yee
(where p,=0, p,=0),
ie eontn, 1+7), oT, 3) £ (eet, 1+T2,otT.,st-.--)mt
?
B_271(20, +215, p27, ot-...+2y,7,, ;+2,7),,+....)at
,
24 2(2%,+2r,, 1+25, a+. + $2947), o+2r474, g+--..)at
(where p,=1, p,=1),
pe, e(2Ma tra, ahs + )ri
S202, AB, ates HPT, HWM, gts)
eo s(2. +275, gee ee $2917, pAZH Te, gH. += + )The es
(where p,=9, pil);
The reader will see this if he will consider the following equivalences :—
Avr st Age tat 4a, 4 tan ty at Ta
=(27,+1))(2,+ Lr. (2v, +1) 2r,+))r,,,;
47, t+4y,y,7,,4+ Ay. v.75, 2r,(2r,4 Lr, + (2»,4+1)2r,7, |.
also
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 339
To illustrate the series of equations next following, I observe :—
(CREEL me SE 9
=6(v,—0—0, v,-3—-0, v,-3- ----)
=O(v,, ¥—}, Uz...)
Hence, substituting v,—4 in the value of 6(2v,....2u,, df... --3M&ps
dr, ,...-4r,,,) just given, the expression becomes
(apo. Buy Ee aps AT, vee Ata pe a a Cay
From this series of equations values are deduced for
OO etree), Od O(2y,. 4. dt, 3-2 Sr 4)
in terms of
OC ec re cacaaa es
Putting p=3 in the theorem at the commencement of section 3, and then
for u,, u,—, &c., an expression is found for
SO v,.. Mp Uas) Ty - ~<TprplaO(%, —IYy- > «= 37,1.» s+ )as
Modifying this by the equation for 0(2v,.. By, .4r, ,), which we have
My
just mentioned, we have
BOW, UY, Tr yee To, pal —3Y,- +» Br +a
= + y4s¢—1)™# vO Qu Qu; 3r 37, .)
aD ab ‘ pr 2U, 5 Sry ++. Or, ays
Spm!
5 <1) ie... By Hx os ta ab
Now we observe here that the index of (—1) in both cases is a series of
negative units, every one of which is multiplied by a quantity which is 0 and 1
alternately, Hence, in taking the sum, the expression vanishes except for
y=96, and we have, when v,=v,=....=v,=0,
DO(u,... Uys Tiss Tp aO(%; - + +Uy, ar eng JT, ade
a
ee. a 2u, 5 3r,, Birra 37, )a0(0. ba. Ppt? PET)
From this we easily obtain, bearing in mind the method by which expres-
sion (A) was found,
OPO Er. Br. Wide 0) re Te Jy ah
Md
Snlm* 0 0
=2(—1)7""0(0....0, Bry, 1+ 6 Bry, ,)g0(0+ + +09 Tate + Tp, g)gs
From this formula Kénigsberger deduces three modular equations for
hyperelliptic functions of the first order. Since 3p—3 is in this case 3, and
as this number is taken with one exception, the number of terms in the first
member of these equations is 2, the four terms in the second member corre-
spond to the values v,, v,; ¥,—4, 0,3 U,U,—33 %,—-3) %,— 3
z2
340 REPORT—1873.
Section 8.—This section is very short, and contains some formule for
transformation when the moduli are doubled.
From the equation
OCU, HY, «6 My Upy T11+ + ++ Tp, p)O(U,—U,- «+ -Up— Ups T1- + + Tp, p=
Bu, .. ioxDupplt.. BOB. su 2rp pOC2rk b>, SP Byte Sito
fe 1 p D 9? 1 ? D)
is deduced by means similar to those used in the last section,
O(2u,....2u,, 27)... +27, ,)O(2u,...-2u,, 27, -...27, 4)
1
Toe MEW Tyee Typ lA(Uy— Ms +7 arene yi
and from this equation one or two other expressions are derived.
In section 9 the application of these principles is made on a more extended
scale to hyperelliptic functions of the first order; as, however, this is pre-
sented in a more developed state in the sixty-fifth volume of Crelle’s J ournal,
we proceed at once to the second memoir, and shall follow, as before, Konigs-
berger’s division as to sections.
Section 1.—We now recur to the equations at the beginning of Konigs-
berger’s first paper. Putting p=2, we have
u,=2K, v+2K, wv, %,=G, ,u,4G, 4,
u,=2K, v+2K, .v,, », ,=G, u,+G
7, = 2G, KK’ +20G,, K, -
22a»
whence
Ea Na ed i San ;
as . CS hs, ok 7G, a id 2(K,, @ 1 —K,. x ») :
whence
Ly AUK. Ki yiy = ie J
il K, Kio = RC K
1~ 152
'
with similar values for 7’, ,, 7’. 1» To,
The following notation is adopted 1 in 'Kénigsberger’ s second paper:
R(v)=a(1—v)(1-—ex)(1—le)A1—mx),
R(yY=yA—-yWA—Py)d—vy)d—p*y),
dy dy, y dy y,dy,
—— 2 — dy ne 2/2 —qd
Vv Ry, r VRy, mw VRy, VRy, vas
dex, dx,
Vie + ——— ie = =du',=adu, + Adu,,
wv, de, vdx,
Re + V Rr,
i
=du,=ydu, + bu.
These equations are plainly connected together; and, the usual notation of
Dr. Weierstrass being used, we have
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. B41
-n\(a-»)
VG-)G—") 7 Ne 2 _ oy p y!' oy) 7 by T 1, 2? T Be we = al(u,u,, CE) Pe
' ~ O(v';,¥ a, Bites ’ ee ag
—R .
we
v— Vv —(1—y,)\A—y,) — 9» Uy 71, Ty? asa)s =al(u,u,kdp)y5
pag pee 11) iS GCs Oey 71,297 a, ae
2? ar
v', +2K u,=2K, .v', +2K
nee
where
uy =2K
1,171 ae ay
and 7’, , &c. have the values we have just given,
=— 7g — &.
i? AU : — Wp Y a? 71,19 71, 99 Ta)
4 il Ou, Brailes Tae)
= al(au,t+Hu,te, yu,tdu,+Z, ¢, 1, m),,
/ SS Sti) A O(Y,5 Vas Bat ia) Tas
Sy R(1) Os Yas Try19 Tr, 29 Ta 2)s
c’Pm?
= al(au,+fhu,te, yu,tdu,+é, ¢, 1, m),,
where e and @ are two constants introduced by the integration.
Also
au, + Bu, +e=2C, 1% +2C, wv su
yu +ou, +f=2C, ,v,+2C, v,,
where the quantities C are the same definite integrals as the quantities K,
if c, 1, m are substituted for «, \, », and 7 has the same relation to C that 7’
has to K.
After giving a variety of formule about the periods of the hyperelliptic
functions, in conformity with the notation adopted by Dr. Weierstrass,
Konigsberger states the problem of transformation thus :—
If
au, +Bu,+ 2amK, it 23mK, tte= 2C,, w+ 2C,, Ley")
yu, du, + 2ymK, it 2dmK,, i+ f=20, w+ 2C,, W's
and
1, 29
au,+ Bu,+2anK, , +2pnK, +e =2C, ,w Ww, +2C
yu, +du, +2ynK, , +26nK, , +¢=2C, ,w, +20
2,14; 2,29»
corresponding to the periodic system
al(u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, ,),=a?(uu.)ar
342 REPORT—1873.
to express w’,w', in terms of w,w,, so that
O(w',, w')i = A(w,, we) A(w',, w')3 = A(w,, W,)3
O(w',, w',)s O(w,, w,)3 O(w',, w',)s O(w,, w,)s
and also O(w',, w')is_ O(w,, w,)i, a
A(w',, we A(w,, w, ie
Section 2.—For the purpose of solving these equations, a Table similar to
that we have endeavoured to explain at the end of our remarks on section 3
of Kénigsberger’s first memoir is constructed; using the same notation, we
have
@P.Q, =—pigi rigs —PidistPisd
GP,.Q, =—psg +pigistpids —PisG
65 P, Qi 3= —PiGis—PiG +p3qi +75,3%5
These three equations, combined with the last three equations of section 1,
mauifestly give the following :
O(w',+w,, w',+w,), W(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0,
A(w',+u,, w',+w,), O(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0,
O(w',+w,, w',+w,), ,0(w,—w,, w',—w,),,,=9,
which reduces the problem to the solution of
O(w',—w,, w',—w,), =0,
A(w',—w,, w',—w,), =9,
O(w',—w,, w',—w,), s=0.
To resolve these equations Konigsberger enunciates the following proper-
ties :—
If ¢,¢, are quantities which satisfy the three equations
6(¢,¢,),=9, 6(¢,€,),=0, 0(€,¢,),,3=9,
then also the three following equations are true :—
O(u, +4, uU, +6, )i — A(u,, Uy)" A(u, +4; U, +6,)5 = A(u,, U,)s
O(u, +2, u, + es A(u,, u, Ys A(u, +45 u, + ¢)5 O°(u,; Us)
A(u, +4, U, 2 € is ba Os Mia
Ou, +e, U,+6,)5 O(u,, Uy )5
These three formule are fully proved by Kénigsberger, and present no diffi-
culty. They are the result of the equations at the end of section 3 of the
first memoir and of those at the beginning of this section. We therefore
pass on to the theorems next enunciated, namely :—
a0, a)
@ log. 0(u,u,) pat ae dv, O(u, 2, )i
dui 0, 05 «O(u,u,)e
ty) y 2» (& ‘y
dv O(u,u, du Ou, i, Z
te oe + 7 “O(n, u,
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS, 343
with two similar expressions for
@? log. 0(u,2%, )s i @ log. CRA
dub du,du,
Take the equation at the commencement of p. 340,
620(u,+v,....),0(u,—v,),=0(u,u,)30(v,v, 2
+6(u,u,)i O(v,v2)i + O(u,%, 3 (YY, )3-+ O(,%4,)i, 3 (0,4, I. s-
Expanding the members in terms of v, we have
d0(u,u,) PO(uu,), v2
8( tty), — seu Bee ee ee
0.'{9(u, u, du, 132 }
{1} — adv, 4. OC he sl teh
1 U, s
=(0,+ soy? i O(u,u, P+ (= —u,+. +) 6(u,u,),”
16 2 ;
+(3 29) LF ) Out (Gert oe .) O(u,u,)7, a"
Hence, equating coefficients of v,7, we find
dO(u,-- ++); dO(uu,)s
626 2 13/5 — a0, 3
5 (uu), die. =O, ye eae.
do,’ 10?
+ Tet Se “4 1h 20(U,u, i, a»
from which the formula we ner to prove immediately follows. This demon-
stration will be understood, if we remember that
dé,
Ge 0 LD, 6,=0, 6, »=9.
The formule for
@ log.6(u,u,), anal @ log.0(u,uU,),
du,” du,du,
may be proved in a precisely similar manner.
Combining these three theorems with the last, we find
@ log O(u, +4 U+e)s _ & Log.O( witty).
du2 dv}
@ log.6(u,+e,, ute), @ log.0(u,u,),
dus WA dua :
a log.6(u, rk a U+ C)5 ? log.6 (Uyta)o,
du,du, du,du,
where
a(e,, é,),=9, A(e,, €,)3=9, 0(e,, é,),, 3=9. 3 2 ° id A (B)
These equations, give by integration,
O(u, +e, U,+¢,),= Ps FIT Q(u,, U,)es
344 REPORT—1878.
whence we haye
é=m,+ N47, + NT, a» =m, + 14 + NT, »
which therefore constitute the solution of equation B.
Hence also the solution of the equations
O(w',—w,, w!,—w,), =0, A(w', — W,, W',—W,),=0, O(w', —w,, ww. —w,), 3=9
is
ww, =P, 7S, ave at 35 a7, 29
w',—w,=",, ahs, 27a, (+3, 272, 29
where r, ., 7, 45S, ) §,,, are any whole numbers. This formula then con-
tains the required solution ; and therefore, substituting for w, in the equa-
tions connecting w and w at the end of section (1), we have
(m—n) (aK, 1 p.,. ) =C,, ae 1 +5, 171, 1 +5, 27), a) C,, 0 at, 172, iS, a", a)»
(m— n) (yK,, it ok, ») =C, sft: 1 +8), aha its, 271, ada C, ate at, To, yt $1, a7, a):
We have already stated that this transformation corresponds to the periodic
system
al (u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, ,)?=al(u,u,)? when a=1 or 3.
In the same way, if we take the periodic system
al(u,+2K, ,, u,+2K, _) =al(uyu,)* when @=1 or 3,
we have
(m'—n (aK, + PK, )=C,, (1, +8. 97, 8, 071, DAC, As, aS, 37,1 +5, ie
(m' —n')(yK,, at 6K, = C,, Kz. 1S, itis Sa, ats a+ C,, ea a8, To, a oe Ey
We shall also have, if we take the periodic system
al(u,+2iK', ,, u,4+2iK', ,)?=al(u,u,)-, where a=1 or 8,
i(m! —n")(aK', + BK’, )=C, 1, 48s, Tat 8 at AG, 0s, ot 8s, 17, FS, ah, a)?
i(m!"—n")(yK’, “Ae oK’, J=C,, 4 Ca ae 1%, ‘eg thow ee Oe BP ae Re shi fae ara):
Moreover, taking the system
al(u,+ 2K’, py Ut 2iK’, a= au, AS
we shall have
(m" —nl")(aK’, + BK, ,)=C,, 05 8's att 8o, as, ACY, a's, at 8's, 17a, 1 +5's, ah, 2)? .
am" — a" )(yK s+ OK’, 2)=Cy C's, 8's, aT, + 8'o, Fa, 2) + Co, a7’, a+ 8's, 17s, prayer. |
Now we have already proved that
Pere Te Ki, RS)
ee Ct Oates Cas Cre
1,
ON ELLIPTIC AND HYPERELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS. 345
The equations we have just written down enable us to determine K, ,K’, ,,
&c. in terms of 7, ,, 7,,,, T2,.. Hence also’, , is known in terms ofr, ,,
71,29 To, and 7’, ,; 7’,,, can be determined in a precisely similar way. The
remainder of the paper is occupied with the discussion of special cases, upon
which I shall not enter, as Konigsberger has gone minutely into details.
There are two other papers by Kénigsberger on the transformation of hyper-
elliptic functions in the seventieth volume of Crelle, which we hope to con-
sider in the supplement.
At the commencement of his paper Konigsberger alludes to a paper on
transformation by M. Hermite, in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1855, from
which I make the following extracts :—
Let a,a,a,4,, ,b,0,b,, ¢,¢,¢,¢,, dd,d,d, be a system of entire numbers satis-
fying the equations
ad, +,¢,-—¢,b, —d,a,=0,
ad,+b,¢,—¢,b, —d,a,=0,
a,d,+b,¢, —¢,b,—d,a,=a,d,+6,c,—¢,b,—d,a,=k,
a,d,+6,¢,—¢,b, —d,a,=0,
a,d,+6,c,—c¢,b, —d,a,=0;
also let
O(a, y)=(—1 yee ree, +(2n+v)y)
(GQ p+ 2H 2+) 2n-+2) +G!(Qn-+y)2)_
then, if z; denotes the linear function a,v+b,y, where 7 is one of the numbers
0, 1, 2, 3, and we assume
6(z,+Gz,+Hz,, 2,+Hz,+G'z, elt os +7122)
ei™ Gz,?+2Hz,2,+G'z
ae) = II(x, );
then :
M(e+1, y)=(-1)"N(@, y), Ww, y+1)=(—1)"M(a, y),
Me+h, yt+7')=(—DP(e, ye PV t9),
M(a+g, y+h) =(—1"M(a, ye Ar +9),
where g, h, g' are certain ascertained functions of the above quantities,
a, b,c, d, G, H, G' and m,, ,, p,, g, certain ascertained functions of the
quantities a, b, c, d, p, v, p, q-
And the method of transformation consists in introducing sixteen func-
tions, 6” analogous to @, but in which G, H, G’ are replaced by g, h, g', and
then in employing the above relations to express II(«, y) by entire and
homogeneous combinations of these sixteen functions.
I wish to remark that the proofs of Dr. Weierstrass’s theorems, given in the
Brighton volume, were obtained by me in the course of the year 1867, I
had no assistance, except that derived from the Memoirs themselves.
346 REPORT—1878.
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnus, H. E.
Dresser (Secretary), T. Hartanp, J. E. Harrine, T. J. Mong,
Professor Newton, and the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the
purpose of continuing the investigation on the desirability of esta-
blishing a “ Close Time” for the preservation of indigenous animals.
1. Tue apprehension expressed by your Committee in their last Report, as
to the probable effects of the Wild-Birds Protection Act, has been more than
justified by events ; for, so soon as that Act came to be applied, it gave almost
universal discontent, and your Committee have not found one person who is
satisfied with it.
2. In the House of Commons, Mr. Auberon Herbert moved and obtained
the appointment of a Select Committee to consider the subject of the Protec-
tion of Wild Birds.
3. Three members of your Committee, on being summoned, gave evidence
before the Select Committee of the House of Commons.
4, The Report of the Select Committee of the House of Commons has not,
to your Committee’s regret, yet been published, but your Committee have
good reason for believing that it will contain the following recommendations :—
“(i.) That the protection of certain wild birds named in the Schedule of
the Wild Birds-Protection Act of 1872 be continued.
“‘(ii.) That all other wild birds be protected from 15th March to Ist
August, provided that owners or occupiers of lands, and persons
deputed by them, have permission to destroy such birds on
lands owned or occupied by them.
“(ii.) That one of Her Majesty’s Secretaries of State be empowered to
except, in any particular district, any bird from the protection
afforded, either by the Act of 1872 or by the proposed Act, if
he think necessary to do so.
‘“(iy.) That, for the sake of giving better protection to the swimmers and
waders, no dead bird, if such bird is mentioned in the Sea-
Fowl] Preservation Act, or the Wild-Birds Protection Act of
1872, be allowed, from 15th March to 1st August, to be bought
and sold, or exposed for sale, whether taken in this country or
said to be imported from any other country.
“(y.) That any violation of this proposed Act, or of the Wild-Birds
Protection Act of 1872, be punished by the payment of costs
alone for the first offence, except under aggravated circum-
stances, and the payment of costs and a fine not exceeding 5s.
for every offence after the first.”
5. Your Committee wish emphatically to condemn these recommendations
as a whole, and all but one of them separately, for the following reasons,
numbered as are the recommendations :—
i. The great majority of the birds named in the Schedule of the Act of
1872 do not require protection, as has been shown in former
Reports of your Committee; they therefore think that in the
present state of public opinion it is inexpedient that such pro-
tection should be accorded to them.
ii. That for the sake of protecting other wild birds, most of which cer-
tainly do not want protection, rights would be continued to
owners and occupiers of land which would be denied to other
ON THE DESIRABILITY OF ESTABLISHING A “CLOSE TIME.” 38347
persons: consequently the principle of privilege, usually urged
as one of the strongest objections to the Game Laws of this
country, would be introduced into the proposed Act, which would
thereby be subject to the attacks of all those who are opposed to
those laws. Further, that if there be any need to protect such
other wild birds, the need is greater, in most cases, to protect
them from the owners and occupiers of land than from other
persons.
iii. That the power to be given to the Secretary of State would virtually
be that of repealing the Act, either entirely or in regard to any
particular kind or kinds of birds, at his sole will and pleasure,
without his acting on the opinion of any responsible adviser or
expert assessor; and that in consequence of such unlimited
power being intrusted to a high officer of State, who cannot be
expected to have any personal knowledge of the intricacies of the
questions involved, the results would in most cases be highly
unsatisfactory to all persons concerned, it being also taken into
consideration that the state of the law would vary very consider-
ably in different parts of the country, even perhaps in different
parts of the same county. Furthermore, the granting of such
power to any authority presumes that some kinds of birds would
be at once exempted from protection, which is tantamount to
inviting persecution on such kinds of birds as would be included
in what has been termed a “ Black List.”
iv. With this recommendation your Committee have the pleasure of
entirely concurring.
y. The anticipation of your Committee, that the penalties imposed by
the Act of 1872 would be found insufficient, having been proved
by experience to be true, your Committee consider that the pro-
posed increase of such penalties is quite inadequate to secure
efficiency to the new Act—regard, however, being had to the
indefinite phrase, “ except under aggravated circumstances,” the
meaning of which your Committee cannot explain.
Finally, your Committee wish to point out that, so far as they have the
means of knowing the nature of the evidence given before the Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons, the four recommendations which they
condemn are directly opposed to that evidence.
6. The increasing interest taken by the public generally in the question
which your Committee have been now for five years appointed to investigate,
is shown by signs too numerous to mention. Your Committee, however,
observe with regret that.in the minds of some persons it has been mixed up,
if not confounded, with other questions which are entirely distinct. Two of
these may be specified—(1) the Utility of Birds to Agriculturists, and (2) the
State of the Law as regards Cruelty to Animals. Your Committee not having
been appointed to consider these questions, content themselves with remark-
ing that both are doubtless of great importance to the community, the one
from a moral and the other from a material point of view, but are likewise
entirely outside the duty of your Committee.
7. In order to assist the clearer view which your Committee hope that the
public will in time take of the question of Bird-protection, your Committee
unanimously beg leave to submit for consideration the following remarks as
to any future legislation :—
348 REPORT—1873.
(1) However much we may desire it, we cannot in practice stop the
killing of some birds during the breeding-season: if we pass a
law totally prohibiting it, that law will either be evaded, or, if
enforced, will become so irksome as to be speedily repealed.
(2) No iaw, to be effectual, should pick and choose certain kinds of birds,
leaving out nearly allied kinds.
(3) An effectual law, dealing with a whole group of birds, may be passed,
as witness the highly successful ‘Sea-Birds Preservation Act,’
(4) A law protecting birds which cannot be shown to want protection
is a mistake.
(5) The crucial test of whether a bird wants protection or not, is whether
its numbers are decreasing or the contrary.
(6) With some very few exceptions (nearly each of which can be satis-
factorily explained), none of what are commonly known as
“Small Birds” are decreasing throughout the United Kingdom
generally.
(7) Most “Small Birds” are generally increasing in numbers, some
remarkably so.
(8) Setting aside “ Sea-Birds,” which may now be considered safe, no
birds have so much diminished in numbers as “ Birds of Prey”
and ‘* Wild Fowl.”
(9) No law for the protection of “ Birds of Prey,” if passed, could be at
present carried out.
(10) A law protecting “Wild Fowl,” if passed, could be carried out
effectually, provided that the penalties are in proportion to the
inducement to break it.
(11) “ Wild Fowl” form a group subject to great persecution on account
of their marketable value, especially as articles of food: they are
commonly killed (many of them because then more easily killed)
long after they have paired and have begun to breed; they, be-
sides, lie under the same disadvantage as do the few “ Small
Birds” which are decreasing—the diminution, namely, through
agricultural improvements, of their breeding-haunts: already
many kinds of ‘* Wild Fowl,” which a few years ago used to breed
frequently and regularly in this country, have ceased or nearly
ceased from doing so: they are perfectly innocuous ; consequently
2 “‘ Wild Fowl” are eminently deserving of protection.
(12) The principle of what has been called a “ Black List,” favoured by
some persons, would be the most fatal step of all in- Bird-
Protection, since it would discourage, if not entirely check, the
healthy feeling which is steadily, if not rapidly, growing in fayour:
of many birds which have long been persecuted.
8. Your Committee respectfully urge that they may be reappointed.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 349
Report of the Committee, consisting of James GuatsuER, F.R.S., of the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Rosrrr P. Gree, F.G.S., and Auex-
anpDER S. Hurscuet, F.R.A.S., on Observations of Luminous
Meteors, 1872-73; drawn up by Auexanner S. Herscuet,
F.R.A.S.
Tue observations of meteors and shooting-stars collected during the past year
have been of a more than usually interesting and varied character. The
number of large meteors is more considerable; and the appearances of ordi-
nary shooting-stars have presented themselves in a more striking manner as
regards the explanation of their origin, than has often been the case in former
years. Of the meteors which have thus appeared, the Committee have ob-
tained much accurate information ; but the extent of the knowledge acquired
on all hands of the origin of these bodies has advanced so rapidly with the
increase of such observations, that a smaller space for discussion of the indiyi-
dual descriptions can be occupied in their Report than the Committee have
hitherto been able to bestow upon them; and a more complete reduction of
the separate observations will accordingly be attempted when the oppor-
tunities of the Committee allow of their closer examination. ‘Those meteors,
however, which have been observed simultaneously at more than one ob-
serving-station, have been selected from the collection for transcription in
suitable columns in this Report; and a list of large meteors is added, among
which some have occurred that have without doubt been noticed, and may
have attracted attention, in other directions than has hitherto come to the
knowledge of the Committee. Two of the largest fireballs seen in Great
Britain were aérolitic, or burst with the sound of a violent explosion, on the
3rd of November and 3rd of February last, over the interior of Scotland and
over Manchester and its neighbourhood respectively. The descriptions of
these two meteors are not so accurate and complete as to admit of very
useful repetitions of all their details. Aérolitic meteors and aérolites have also
been noticed in the scientific journals of other countries, which have given
rise to experiments on the composition of aérolitic substances, both chemical
and microscopical, the conclusions of which continue to extend the range of
our speculations regarding the origin of these bodies. Thus the existence of
carbon and hydrogen in the atmosphere from which the largest iron meteorite
yet found (on the shores of Greenland) was projected, confirms the discoveries
of Graham and Dr. Mallet, of the existence of those gases in other meteoric
irons which have recently been examined, and offers proofs of a relationship
between meteorites and comets (in whose spectra carbon has been recognized
as an ingredient) which it will be interesting to pursue with further expe-
riments and observations.
The past year was distinguished by the occurrence of a most remarkable and
striking star-shower on the night of the 27th of November last, to the expected
appearance of which astronomers were looking forward with especial attention,
from the unexplained absence of the double comet of Biela (to which it
belongs) at the time of its expected returns in the last three of its periodical
revolutions. The probability of the comet’s path being marked by a meteoric
stream, into which the earth might plunge on or about the 27th of November
every year, was already become a certainty by the observation by Zezioli,
of Bergamo, of such a meteoric shower on the 30th of November, 1867,
no doubt of whose belonging to the path of the missing comet could possibly
be entertained. The exact date of the shower could not be foretold with
350 REPORT—1873.
certainty, from the want of recent observations of the comet; but every pro-
bability of its being seen was favourable to its reappearance last year; and
those who awaited it, as well as many unexpectant watchers of meteor-showers,
were surprised by the display of shooting-stars which it suddenly presented
at the first approach of darkness, on the evening of Wednesday the 27th of
last November. The cloudy state of the sky unfortunately prevented ob-
servers throughout the south of England from witnessing the sight; but in
Scotland and north of the Midland Counties in England many uninterrupted
views of it were obtained. In Europe, Asia, the Mauritius, and in North
and South America observers were equally fortunate in recording its appear-
ance ; and few great star-showers have hitherto been more satisfactorily ob-
served, as well as more abundantly described. In an astronomical point of
view, the agreement of the time and other circumstances of its appearance
with the supposed path of the lost comet is so exact as to prove that the
calculations made by astronomers of that comet’s orbit cannot be affected by
any errors of a large amount; and a proof almost certain is thus obtained
that the disappearance of the comet is owing to no unexplained distur-
bances of its path; but that, like some former comets of variable bright-
ness, it has not improbably faded for a time out of view, and that at some
future time a reasonable expectation may be entertained of rediscovering
the missing comet pursuing its original path in repeated visits to the earth’s
neighbourhood and to the field of telescopic observations.
Only partial views of the ordinary periodical meteoric showers of De-
cember, January, and April last have this year been obtained, of which some
descriptions are added to the close of this Report. Reductions of the scat-
tered meteor-observations on ordinary nights of the year are an important
subject of the Committee’s inquiries, which have been kept in view in their
operations of the past year, Captain Tupman having obligingly placed a list
of nearly 6000 such observations (made by himself) at their disposal, the
greater part of which he has reduced to their most conspicuous radiant-
points, this special object of the Committee will be most effectually assisted
by the publication of the valuable meteor list which has thus unexpectedly
come into their possession. A graphic projection of the radiant-points has
been prepared, which will be printed as an illustration of the copious informa-
tion that will be gathered by observers from the contents of Captain Tup-
man’s list. The catalogue will be distributed this year to observers interested
in the research; and to enable useful meteoroscopic charts to be added to it,
it is hoped that the Members of the British Association will continue to assist
the Committee with such liberal communications of their observations as
they have hitherto supplied.
APPENDIX.
I. Merrors Dousty OBSERVED.
In the section of the last Report corresponding to this Appendix, a con-
siderable list of simultaneous observations of shooting-stars in the August and
other meteor-showers of the previous year was presented of which no ecalcu-
lations had at that time been undertaken. The attention of the Committee
having been much occupied during the past year with the questions and cor-
respondence relating to the unusual meteor-display of the 27th of November
last, their intention of calculating these meteor correspondences has not been
carried out; and a large addition to the number of duplicate observations of
351
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,
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352 REPORT—1873.
shooting-stars in subsequent meteor-showers has in the mean time been col-
lected, of which (for the same reason) it is only possible to offer in this Report
the materials for such a future computation of their comparative results. The
following list contains the particulars of a great many such observations, of
which the Committee are obliged for the present to leave the calculation to
a more convenient opportunity ; and a few results obtained by a rapid gra-
phical projection of the paths of a few conspicuous meteors of the list at
the moment when the observations were received, are all the results of their
final comparison together which the Committee are now able to present.
Two bright meteors were seen, one at Glasgow and one in South Wales,
on the night of the 9th of October last ; and again two separate meteors, no
less bright, at Glasgow and its neighbourhood, and at Bristol and Portsmouth
on the night of the 3rd of November, 1872. Of the latter two meteors only,
duplicate observations were received ; and the observations on this night ap-
pear to indicate an extraordinary frequency of bright meteors. Thus at
Milngavie, near Glasgow, “ On Sunday evening (November 3rd) a shower of
exceedingly brilliant meteors was observed falling ; one of these was particu-
larly brilliant, &c.” It appeared in the north, and left for a second or two
a line of light resembling the tail of a comet. The description of the meteor
is the same at Leshmahagow, where it is added that, after being observed, it
remained in one position and thereafter took an onward course with a rapid
flight westwards until it was exhausted. The pause in its flight and the ac-
companying tail of sparks are well described by Mr. M‘Clure in the list
of duplicate observations. The daily newspapers at Glasgow describe it as
passing there from east to north-west or west, appearing as a large bluish
fireball with a long tail consisting of coruscations of red light. The Rev.
A. Johnson, of Cambuslang, near Glasgow, describes it as of yellow colour,
moving about 45° above the horizon from a little south of east to north of
west, throwing out a red tail and brilliant bluish and greenish sparks as it
seemed to curve downwards a little in the latter part of its course. The re-
maining description at Melrose of this meteor’s appearance (see the list) is too
imperfect to afford, with Mr. M‘Clure’s account at Glasgow, a definite conelu-
sion of its height ; but the interrupted speed and curved course which seem
to have marked its motion there, probably signify that the meteor’s flight, as
seen at Glasgow, was foreshortened near its radiant-point, and that this point
was accordingly near Perseus, Andromeda, and Auriga. This meteor detonated,
being seen and heard to explode at the same time in the north of Scotland.
It appeared at half-past five o’clock. The observed paths of the next large
meteor on the same evening at Portsmouth and Bristol at a quarter past nine
o'clock, proceeded from the same radiant-point, and, together with a few ob-
servations of bright shooting-stars on the same date observed elsewhere, mark
the neighbourhood of a point near #3 Persei at about R. A. 45°, N. Decl. 35°,
as roughly representing a region of radiation of the bright meteors recorded
on this date. On the night of the 30th of October Mr. Backhouse noticed a
great many meteors at Sunderland, four of which had a radiant-point in Cas-
siopeia at 0°, +55°; eight or ten others diverged from near y, A Ceti (at
about 40°, +6°), and a few others apparently from near e Piscium (at about
14°, +7°),all of their radiant-centres being in the neighbourhood of the above-
mentioned radiant-regions. Besides these, Captain Tupman observed a shower
of ten bright meteors in forty minutes on the night of November 1st, with
three others from the same direction in about the same time on the night of
November 3rd, having a definite radiant-point at 56°, + 24°, close to the place
assigned to a similar meteor system as seen by Mr. Backhouse on the nights
ed
OBSERVATONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 350 -
of the 4th and 6th of November, 1869 (these Reports for 1870, p. 97), coin-
ciding exactly with Heis’s radiant R,, and very nearly with No. 111 of Mr.
Greg’s general list (R G) at 64°,+18°. Several meteors from a radiant-point
nearer to the latter position, at 64°,+ 20°, were observed by Mr. Denning at
Bristol, on the nights of the 6th, 9th, and 10th of November last. On the first
of these nights a meteor also proceeded from the direction of a radiant-point
in Auriga, at about 85°,+27°; and on the last date Mr. C. E. Baker, at Bristol,
noted five meteors diverging from a common radiant-point near the Hyades, in
Taurus. The whole of these affiliated radiant-points appear to be connected
with the well-known shower from near a Tauri, often noticed by observers
during long watches for the Leonids or meteors of the 14th of November,
having its time of maximum from October 30th to November 6th, or in the
first few days of November.
The next considerable meteor of which duplicate observations were ob-
tained, appeared at about ten o’clock on the evening of the 3rd of February,
1873. Owing to the cloudy and hazy state of the sky, which nearly con-
cealed the moon at many places, the descriptions of its apparent path were
nowhere sufficiently determinate to indicate its real course with great pre-
cision ; but they combine to show that the meteor moved at a lower elevation
than common amongst ordinary shooting-stars, over the northern part of Staf-
fordshire and Cheshire, passing at a height of less than forty miles above
Crewe, and disappearing at a height of less than thirty miles over a point
between Liverpool and Chester: at some point of this course a violent explo-
sion was produced, the sound of which was heard like the loud boom of a
‘distant gun or a low roll of thunder about three or four minutes after the
meteor’s disappearance. The accounts of its apparent path, and also of the
time and character of the occurrence of the report, are very discordant; but
there appears no doubt that the meteor was a detonating fireball of the largest
class, illuminating the whole country over which it passed with one or two
prolonged flashes of light at least as powerful as that of the full moon, and the
report differing altogether from that of any signal gun, of which it is said that
one took place at about the time of its appearance. Its course may also have
been rather more nearly from east to west, or from over Chesterfield to above
Chester, than that above described, the best descriptions at Manchester and
Sheffield stating that it vanished at its extinction near and directly above the
moon, which was then shining in the west. The light of the meteor was
bluish, with a train of many brilliant sparks in its track; and it burst into
many fragments, but without leaving any visible streak of light in its course.
Mr. Greg, Mr. Wood, and Mr. Sorby have collected numerous descriptions of
this meteor’s appearance at Manchester, Birmingham, and Sheffield; but the
definite results to which they all point, scarcely vary sufficiently from the
above general conclusions to make their separate enumeration necessary to
complete this notice. It is remarkable, as observed by Mr. Wood, that on
the same date and at the same local time of the evening, a very brilliant fire-
ball was visible in Australia, of which a description appeared in the ‘ English
Mechanic’ of May 2nd, 1873, p. 171.
£873. 2a
354
REPORT—1873.
APPARENT PATHS OF METEORS DOUBLY
star 55 Pegasi.
Hour, Apparent
Date. | approx. oe, Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. “| as per Stars &c.
1870:| hb m 5s
Noy.13} 9 38 0 |Radeliffe Obser-|>2 ........ eae res PDLUC sas vases ..-.|4 seconds,.....|From near Capella
vatory, Oxford. to near Omicron,
Ursz Majoris.
; 1871.
Aug.10) 10 57 O |Luxembourg Ob-|Very bright metecr}....cccceseeceersslere sete gets Heals en
(Paris servatory, Paris. From 247°+33°
time.) to 251 +13
1872.
July 22} 8 55 p.m,|Bridgewater = Sirius. Orange-red .../1:25 second .,.|For 5° N. of East
(Somersetshire). read 13° N. of
East.
Aug. 8] 10 29 16 |Bangor, N. Wales|3rd mag. ...ccesseees|eccceseeecenees «| Very swift e= d=
0:2 second. |From 809°— 3°
to 300 —15
SiMO530) (0! (Royall Observa- |Ld Mag. ....ccscsee-|.cccossceavecacessleseaceeoseascccers From 221°+37°7
tory, Greenwich. to 226 +22°7
8] 10 39 19 |Bangor, N. Wales3rd mag, ...eee...es Pree seceeeees| Very swift; {From 352°+9°
; 0:2 second. | to 344 —1;
passing right
across the small
star at
347°, +3°
8} 10 40 0 /Royal Observa- [1st Mag. ...ccceceeeel cccees eves dosuns | seveh cdameaeantte a= b=
tory, Greenwich. From 222°5+65°
7 to 221 +46;
passed through
39 Bodtis.
8) 11 36 23 |Ibidem.,.......... Ist mag. .....+0++..|Bluish white .{1 second ...... Passed towards the
horizon in con-
tinuation of a
line joining a
Persei and c Ca-
melopardi.
8) 11 37 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |2nd mag...........+. Sasa daswaansenes 1 second .,..../From « Persei to
yatory, Oxford. ( Camelopardi.
8) TY S38! "S| Lancaster, 2... ces}2NG WAL... ccovvecess|esseceoogsacanever{eqsesuceseeneetass| PASSE ClOSeEto ithe
+ 158, . star 20 Pegasi.
G. M.T.
8] 11 55 33 |[bid....ecsssseeees- (2nd TAD. syvenncasnval execuueeraxessehay|iacwspresesesees eh Passed close to the
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 355
OBSERVED DURING THE YEAR 1872-73.
Length of Direction or Apparent
Path. Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks. Observer.
:
|
Bi tccess Buanaceseses| Sceecone Stassesees se RRageesadsievncsss [Also observed at the Royal|J. Lucas (Radcliffe Ob-
4 Observatory Greenwich. See| servations, 1869).
i Report for 1871, page 34.]
P
“lsseseenscvercssces|sovececeeeeerseovesssssesecsssesvensees(A Very brilliant meteor. [Corre-|Chapelas Coulvier
,
sponds nearly, but is not iden-| Gravier.
r tical with that seen in England
at 10251™ G. M.T. See last
Report, page 80.]
|For 20° read Slope about 35° ,.....ss0..-1-008 For 8 Pegasi read Altair. ddd J. E. Clark.
35° or 40°. Place of disappearance as mea-|
sured by a house-corner close
to which it disappeared. [Cor-
rections in last Report, p. 118.]
Jee cssseneeeeee/POTSCIAssoseseeesseesseeeeseeeeseree(GOOd general position, fair direc--G. L. Tupman.
tion, and doubtful point of
disappearance of path.
en eeith ng sie2 eos seeevececeeeseesesseeeuseeeseeseeeeesse/Disappeared behind dome of the|G. Forbes.
: Sheepshanks Equatorial. <A
good observation, -
ssteeeenereersreee|PETSCICeeessssesssseeeseessetseeereee/ General position of path accurate; G. L. Tupman.
direction and point of disap-
pearance uncertain.
D|savevsvesgvesesces|socccevsnsssecesessessccescessnsacaceee|A fairly ZOOd Observation .,.see00.|G. Forbes.
SF eeeeh Ya iii ieee FOE HORE Eee eeeeeeeeeesereneeeisrsner Left a streak POPE ete ee rer eeer ee esses Te Wright.
esas ov oaae Sorat yh cu ccs cued (acadsentaasicsladaselseeae(esea tees sxdeegecroworsscnnarea |e sLOUCRBs
sesesssecgensceees(S1OPE Of Path 45° resersorsensce|sccssecerseserseserscssscsagerseveeeesces| We Davenport
PERO Ee ee eee Re eres Slope of path 45° SO CCC e ee da eenr | FMOHHHRRDSSO ee ReEseeeeeeeEoesere Hee eeeeee Idem.
2Aa2
ao
oo
oo
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
16
Hour,
approx.
G. M. T.
hm s
11 55 38
11 56 0
(+ 30")
1156 0
12 58
12 58 45
10 25
35
45
30
| 11 18 30
|
Place of
Observation.
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich.
Tbids.p.ssseserses
Radcliffe Obser-
vatory, Oxford.
Thid...... esodoot: a
Royal Observa-
tory, Greenwich.
Buntingford,
Herts.
Regent’s Park,
London.
Prior Street,
Greenwich.
Tooting, near
London.
Birmingham ,
Prior Street,
Greenwich.
Tooting, near |S sssesecsseeeees Dazzling white/l*5 second ..
London.
Radcliffe Obser- |=3rd mag. ......++. White ..,......,0°5 second ...
vatory, Oxford.
YOrk..sssenedeor. S=Sirias! teedseeeides Blne everest 1 second .....
.|3rd mag.
(Ist mag.
Fe] SITUS Ate wpesascewdeces
REPORT—1873.
Apparent
Magnitude,
as per Stars &c.
2nd mag.
eaerseaseene!
2nd mag.
3rd MAG. vecsserceeee
Ist mag.
TSG Map. vesseses rn. |
3rd mag.
seeceeeevore
UsbINAP, sessccssoset
> Ist mag. ..
eereee
‘Bluish white
[White ...sss0+
‘Bluish white .
Colour. Duration.
'0°75 second...
en ee ea
1 second
seer ne eeneetes seeeeeecenoerrere
'0°7 second ..
Bluish white ./0°7 second ..
\Bluish white .|1 second .....
White eooes{l Second .....
Orange......«.- I second .....
Bluish white ;!2 seconds.....
changed to
flame-colour.
—_—_—_—
0'3 second ...
L second ......
Apparent Path.
|
Passed horizontally
about 6° below
Polaris.
1 “=
From 167°°5+71°
to 188°5 +52
Shot from near y
Persei.
From 13 [a] Came-,
lopardi [74°°4+)
62°°3] to B Au-|
rige.
Passed between
and 7 Urse Ma-
joris.
ji
From 346°-+25°
to 335 +10
(Apparent course
as mapped.
‘ a= o=
From 30°+58°
to 27 +77
,|Passed across y Ce-'
phei. |
.|Passed a little be-
low « Honorum)
[Andromedz] to
a point between
a and 6 Pe-
gasi.
Passed above « An-
dromede.
e= o=
From 355°+8°
to 347 —8
From between f
and & Cassio-
peiz ; passed to
a point a little
below 6 Pegasi.
From
to 349 +422
[Apparent course
as mapped. ]
From A Persei to
e Aurigze.
2=
From 14°-+32°
to 8 +18
=
.
Length of Direction or Apparent
Path. Radiant-point.
a eRe Hee eebeeee ve eetetone ORO eer dete eeree eeeeeeeer
i
RRIELOTIZONGALyscedsssvansyaeesecdves
a
hs
|
12° ereterores
OBSERVATIONS
Moving from Cassiopeia to-
wards 8 Ursx Majoris.
../Radiant, 7 Persei ... deve
Plctedessesseccs: Directed from f Custodis ..,...
Ree We see |cossansarocesesiscessacvsees “corsnbonee:
On a line from the upper part
OOO RE Heme teeee
of Perseus towards « Pegasi.
POOH e eee ee eee tee COCR HOOP eee tote ae eee eee Obese ee
20° ee Oeoes|tteeeee POO EEE EE POOR POET e Pes ereeeees
Sette reared neers
14°
eeeeerees
Pegasi.
CORO He ee PROT ERE Heat ste ne tee eeeeene
-| Left a streak for 0°25 second
.|Left a streak for 1 second.......
OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
Appearance; Remarks.
Left no streak
PCa eee tere ee eaenenens
dameee
| Left a streak
Ome e neem eee eter tewens
Left a streak
OPEN OO Deo eROese rs BOG Lsseeeeee
Left a streak ......000 Sevenequeeteer
\Left a fine streak .esssscovecsscves
The stars in Perseus and Pegasus
much obscured by clouds.
Left a streak for 3 seconds .
eee
Left a magnificent train, which|
lasted 3 or 4 seconds after the
Observer,
R. Cross.
G. Forbes.
disappearance of the meteor,
Position carefully observed.
Followed in thirty seconds
by another meteor as bright
as Venus; on the same
course,
»-| Left a streak ....ssecevee ECC EDR UE, J. Lucas.
W. C. Nash.
..|R. P. Greg.
T. Crumplen.
W. Marriott.
Id.
H. W. Jackson.
W. H. Wood.
W. Marriott.
As from x Persei towards «Left a streak for 1 or 2 seconds.,H. W. Jackson.
.-| Left a streak ......00000. seccavenvestidls LUGHSa
Left a streak for one second.|J. E. Clark and T. HV.
Waller.
398
Hour,
approx.
G. M. T.
Date.
1872.
Aug.10
10) 11
10) 11
10, 11
10) 11 40
10) 11 42
10) 11 44
10) 11
10
10 46 30
10
10
10
10
1]
11
11
ell
Apparent |
én. ae Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
* | as per Stars &c.
York....ssseesseeee/20d mag. «414.4006 White ........./0°S second .., a= O=
From 319°+70°
to 289 +60
Radcliffe Obser- [4th mag. cicssciscsss|esevessseseseoseesle sessseceveveeesss{Eassed from o to
’ vatory, Oxford. x Urse Ma-
joris.
Mbid ee cccecstecacs} ond Mags wrseys secs ..|White .,......./1°5 second ,..|Passed from 6 to 8
Aurigz.
OTK seassparene as SHRORY pobauoonccade ++|Red .cccossesees/t'2 SEC. 5 SLOW. c= =
From 6°-+30°
to 8 +20
REPORT—1873.
Radcliffe Obser- 4th mag. ........606- Sear rer A soveceserscesevss(Ktom © Urs Mae
vatory, Oxford. joris to @ Canum
Venaticorum.
Birmingham ...|3rd mag. ........606- NBlae ” scene 0°5 second ... a= d=
From 284°+70°
[2194 +70]
to 197 +57
MOEK i ts cessaseenent [Sd Mae. cose ccrsesse Red wcticcktit \l second ...... From 38°-+51°
to 35 +49°5
Radcliffe. Obser-V4th map, sesescssesss|, tscdeccscccaaancaleneeeremmmandeatee Shot from near 6
vatory, Oxford. Aurigz.
[Did Gsveseenecssssce DURMH AGH e cs scesnrene| stores Ser aritrercca eocicssan Passed from o to
x Urse Ma-
joris.
WOvksercscssusemese St OMUE. setcesaacere Blue .........|0°75 second ... a= 0=
From 339°+.67°
to 306 +63
Birmingham .../3rd mag. ssececesseos|BIUC cecesace.[eeeeeeeers seeveeejErom $B Aquarii to
a Sagittarii.
Royal Observa- Ist mag. ...... veeese|Bluish white .|:++seessseseeseeee(Fell almost ver-| —
tory, Greenwich. tically down-| —
wards from Z —
Aquilz.
Birmingham .,.\Ist mag. v...eseee Vellow semawess |ucovacndncsecee »./Shot from 8 to-|_
wards Z Andro- :
mede. ‘
Royal Observa- [Ist mag. ....0....+«.|Bluish white .|1°2 second ...|Disappeared near «|
tory, Greenwich. Ursze Majoris. | —
Tbidks ses ghesvaeniiee PUG TOMES sth oeehtives|<sccceeeescscoceee|?') BECODM ieee eo
From 210°-+40° |
to 1975420 |
Radcliffe Obser- |2nd mag. ......+00004/White sesseeee. R@pid ....0..../From + Draconis|
vatory, Oxford. to » Urs Ma-|_
joris. |
Royal Observa- |Ist mag. ...cssceeee-liceccesssrececeeee SECONG sy se0 c= =
tory, Greenwich. From 220°-+35°
to 200 +427
Radcliffe Obser- |3rd mags iieetes ai. White ........- Rapid ........./Passed from above!
vatory, Oxford. Corona to n Ursa
Majoris.
. OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 359
=
Length of | Direction or Apparent ' ,
Path. | Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks, Observer.
T5° cecceocssces/.ccocecevesevedssssevesssesoeesstesess.|Qelt a streak for 2 a second ......J. E. Clark and T. H.
Waller.
Suakesisesscceiheclocees SCRCE CCECLOCHIOCE CCLEDOGERC Reno Hae capa eeee eteeceee cauehotonsacaes ape sss J. Lucas,
seccsevesssceoeeel| Directed from Polaris]......seelesssseeeceees neccus ds adankeerss srusaseues (Id.
10°5 .....000.|Radiant Polaris .....ccsssessseees Left no streak at all on its course.|J. E. Clark and T. H.
The nucleus had an almost) Waller.
sensible diameter; not bright
for its size. The second me-
teor seen from the same ra-
diant.
Madiepessacosescvelsoss ed ces ctnabaiadavasn cnsveounisad| cacnerarsueeeevanyne nhs belOUeteeite hapa CER
BWaehebascureseess Radiant y Persei.......-.4++ee{[A doubtful agreement in time W. H. Wood.
with the last meteor. The re-
corded path being also uncon-
formable to the assigned ra-
diant-point. |
2°"5 ....ssee00ee[Foreshortened path, near the) Left no streak...ssessssseeeseersees J. E. Clark and T. H,
radiant in Perseus. | Waller, ;
Racete des Dei ueainoeitecareccsecerscvoc|tataeantoavisdevensesnetevsatsseveleussius J. Lucas.
Teebeaebssssesses|..s3. oNI-OLOREEPOUERO.G sssesteeeeeeeeee{( Probably identical with the next/Id.
meteor. |
PPECESt Es Wie |tcvccscsscesscesaee eadusces seaeasecass Left a very bright streak for/J. E. Clark and T. H.
2 seconds. Waller.
pgshcceearessse seeeeeeeeeneaees oteereds|Nossaesenescen seve assooesh secesnsssoursors| Wop tenWyGOUs
Puce eedekenertecsuse FH BeOCESE ORDO NOY. Left no streak...csssssssssevssesssees T. Wright.
Resieeet secsacestsesestaasteceeesscese{Left a streak. View of its flight|W. H. Wood.
partly intercepted by clouds.
From the direction of Polaris...|Left a streak ......0s0sseesseesereee-| We As Schultz.
bee vcccetassesecessnsseseeevecseeeee[The observed position not very|G. Forbes.
accurate.
secpecoccsecees seedecccessrcceses aaswealacaans seetveGuckeiletes cvccesvaceseccossotd. MuUCaas
dod Be eee censsenves secsateeseaeaeiThe observed position fairly ac-|G. Forbes.
curate. |
Mek sae Sie SaeatesseWisiaseiess oseneds|eedenecsssconaves gcuesraeeee sereereseeene ld. Lucas.
360° ~ ( REPORT—1873.
if
Hour, Apparent |
Date. | approx. a dace of Magnitude, Colour, Duration. | Apparent Path,
| G. M. T. SErYaHON: See per Stars &c, é
i wee ee eee
(1872.| hm s
Aug.11) 10 32 0 ‘Radcliffe Obser- 4th mag. ...... poche White ........./Rapid ......+«./Passed from « Ursa
vatory, Oxford. Majoris towarcs.
| the north hori-
zon. |
| 11) 10 32 0 [Birmingham ..,'!2nd mag.........664 [Yellow ......! '0°75 second .. 2e= 0= :
| ‘(From 95°+56° | |
| to 101 +53
| PO 38) 0 TYork. ccc Meeneee PPUSLAMAPeversuatasccosl eoacnenaslss seees (0°70 Second ,,.|From 356° +12° |
to, 348; 0. 4
| 11; 10 39 0 |Birmingham .,./Ist mag. .........4. Yellow ...... l second ...... From 52°+40° |
to 88 +31
AMOROUS ON Thid.tis..yeseoche. AGH Magis teles cede» IBlue. sasssanes 05 second .../From 3 Pegasi tow —
| Aquarii. 1a
| 11) 10 51 30 |Royal Observa- [4th mag. vee,...ss0e ceeneees Vaeesuces|suravanceseucties Tn} Draco ..csvanenee |
| tory, Greenwich. :
11 10 56 0 |Birmingham .../2nd mag. .........+4 Yellow ....../>>0°5 second 2— so
| From 326° 0°
| to 323 —7
11) 10 57 30 Royal Observa- [Ist mag. .....sececclecssssevens edeces lsecond ...... From 273° +35? |
| | tory, Greenwich. to 267°5 +15
SAT Geel ONL bidsiosssersvevsvac|seveee seanerpeasieeeeas'- 'Bluish white ./0°S second .../Shot between 6
| and y, about 2°
from y Urse Ma-|
| joris. |
AMUN 3 00) | MOLKS. cece ccesesse [2nd MAP. vesereseeees (Reduercan ae lsecond ...... e= b= |
From 283°-+445° |
| to 262 +32 |
11} 11 6 O |Regent’s Park, |Ist mag. ........0... IBIUC — saseerss.levecsevers sseonsie From 115°+472° |
| London. to 166 +56 |
| [Apparent cours¢|
as mapped. J
Apel ZnO) Royal: Observa- |3rd Maps cssssccaecso|esecseccvece osgent l second ...... = |"
tory, Greenwich. From 156° 64° 19
to 162: ‘5-+53
BU TSO | MOnK ssa snscseencee = QD vrsseecccceeeeeene HB] ees. gs cneone 6°75 second ...|From 321° +28° |
to 369 +15
11) 11 10 30 |Royal Observa- j3rd mag. ......ssceee|ecescsecsseeseece 0:5 second .../From 150° + 61°
tory, Greenwich. to 160 +652
OU LO AM WG aia co nce dap ec-|ceesouseeedeseers-essenn 'Bluish white ./0°8 second .../Passed between «
and 0 Ursx Ma-
joris.
D1 ee Le) HN OV Kenan: caitech a ==) Bes o0n eee Aa WEE ccs cone td ,..0°75 second... q=~ 6=
From 322°+5§°
| to 300 +43
13} 12 11 0 |Buntingford, |2nd mag. .........48. Bluish white .!L second ,..... From 323°-+34°
Herts. to 308 +12 |
[Apparent course
: as mapped. |
11) {2 11 10 |Prior Street, Ist mag. .....,,...../Bluish white .|1 second ...... Shot from be-
Greenwich, tween y and €
Cygni in th
direction y A-
\ quilze.
11, 12.18 0 |Buntingford, [Sirius .....,.00.00... Bluish white .'1 second ,,..., 2— os
Herts, From 31°+17° ©
to- 30 +6.
[Apparent cours:
as mapped. ]
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 361
LL
Length of Direction or Apparent A ;
Path, Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks. Observer. |
|
q = = |
etree moissltieidialistais 0 Mevanseaegsiivadassescek chapmegatinecnacet.s DENdosboucesnee oben Ganley sedeaan ‘J. Lueas. |
: Rare Rantala sess SonCECOCO Te Hab COR U RECTORY Left a streak sesseeerssrseceenees W. H. Wood,
cen PARR ae porseseseeesseersrsseceesseeerseeee Left a Streak for 2seconds ......J. E. Clark and T. LL.
Waller.
Rei ek econ eaieasses)ees Pee eenseereneeecane wepenieeale sease(Mu@ib A'StLEAK: sscecenssscwsvecenendes |W. H. Wood. |
el ae 0 Cea eee tee Hae scussaebesins Bideak Pea iucnaeern eee ‘Id. |
Ria gsis det <s10 = Gedcogeage Racaceshasedsvoeeuenenespaselt.cavecienus Dusaesieesiveeaeeauasuictes veos../G. Forbes. |
sen senceecsceeees| ses pensee eee aseeecs Stee ee eeeeenneweees jLeft a streak ....... Rcveseacenent ete W. H. Wood.
We ee teedcrscicensss acree es ssa yats valepwan ance Left a streak for half a second.'G. Forbes.
Position moderately well ob- |
served. |
Bi eesasns ses» Almost perpendicularly down-|...... Rettoaatresauesuesal sassseesnatien ..(R. Cross.
wards. :
. 22° - che = AN Bpoopgo Cer ectereesescesnsseene Ceecceaes|secsccees POR OC eee ereeeeseraneeesese eeceee ve Er. Clark ard TT. Il,
Waller.
‘ sepeceresouecscans|#eepeesensenen Ssceiies “SOC ROO CRORE, Left a very bright streak ......... iT. Crumplen,
a “quanancabsocrsee seseseees|Left a streak for half a second. G. Forbes.
Good observation of position.
Mime aee tn tosses Perseid....... SEEEDORCP EOC ODOL vee...|Left a streak for 23 seconds ......,J- E. Clark and T. Il,
Waller.
Gs Son caS ese Re Sencerectaaphsossensssvossesvses eee A very good obseryation of po-|G. Forbes,
' sition.
BLU scessssese From the direction of Polaris...\Left a streak ...... sisicaseua¥atrunnn R. Cross,
Bai susennssss EYEE ea Kepecetaisacspieneas cel otk A streak, if any left, was ob-|J. E. Clark and T. IJ,
| scured by clouds. Waller.
|20°-+ ........./Radiant 7 Persei...,.....s0+++..| Left a streak for 1 second.........,R. P. Greg.
ie Wi sevagnge txtpp «Baws sooo noudessaressMaelt a Streaks. stecsveasee-ocsharancers| WO MALOU
“j10° seoesceeesee[Radiant 9 Persei.,.......s0se00004| Left a streak for 1 second......... R, P. Greg.
362 REPORT—1873.
Hour, Riaceit Apparent
Date.| approx. , Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. ae abe oat as per Stars &c. a
1872.} h m s
Aug.1]] 12 19 25 [Royal Observa- |..ssesseisesreeees ...|Yellowish....../1°3 second .../Shot | downwards} |
tory, Greenwich. from a_ point
: about 15° above; |
«them, towards
the Pieiades.
11] 12 19 28 |Prior Street, [> Ist mag. ......... Bluish white .|/I second ......\Shot from the
Greenwich. direction of €¢
Persei in the
direction of ¢€
Arietis. (Ap-
proximate posi-
tion.
19} 8 47 0 |Radcliffe Obser- j1st mag. .........66 Yellow to 2°5 seconds.../From w Aquilz to
vatory, Oxford. green. near 0 Aquila.
19} About [Bristol..........+.|S>-Ist Mag. sees Bright blue ...|Moved slowly |Passed down the
8 50 0 E.N.E. sky. |
Noy. 3} 5 30 0 |Glasgow (Scot- | apparent diam-|Vivid green to 2°5 seconds; |Began about 10°)
land). eter of the moon.| bluish white,) not rapid. left of *Capella,}
with red and disappeared}
sparks, behind a cloud},
near the N.N.W.||
| horizon,
NNW. NE |
3) 5 30 © |Melrose (Scot- |Very large and|Pink, green, {Moved so [The line of its flight
land). bright. blue, and slowly that | was from E. tol’
white. it could be | N.W.
well ob-
served,
2= 0—
3| 9 14 O [Portsmouth .../Nucleus about 10/\Red andyellow)3-5 seconds .../From 57° +69° —
in diameter. to 135 +6775,
From near
Camelopardi
Custodis) to
Ursz Majoris.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 363
Length of Direction or Apparent
Path. Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks. Observer.
| a rs | a | ee
POT teaPetUVeUE |i bevovvetvevbeitsteccssevectccesvess.(Lielt & Very fle train iiieisisss..... R. Cross.
DOS UMMENAVE NA cdipesclvacenccsccocccesscnscrccecccccccess(iGL6 & StLCAK conssecccsnsesvensseveee| We Marri0tt,
sesvecenereceeconslecesccosecsscesoneceosctensserrssseesesi(A fine meteor; radiant ap-|J. Lucas.
parently near y Draconis.
A bright meteor was seen
at a later hour of the same
night at York. See the ac-
companying list. |
Hee EP eee e eer er eel eseese rene EOO Perec eee eneenee se PO onnnoes Nucleus starlike ; left no streak WwW. F. Denning.
of light on its course. It
did not explode, but seem-
ed to burn out gradu-
ally.
Meerevendecsvceseslesssccsevssssesevessvessceseesgegseces {NUCLEUS With short red tail, ac-[Robert McClure.
f companied in the latter por-
tion of its flight by a shower
of red sparks. About the mid-
dle of its path its velocity de-
creased as if the fireball were
passing through a denser me-
dium, thereafter pursuing its
path with renewed velocity.
Viieceeteesesseeseslecscrssscssssscssesercessseesssveeess-(Lhe train was a mixture of many|A. Dodds. Communi-
colours. The nucleus exploded| cated by G. J. Symons.
with a shower of sparks. [Its
red coruscations and flight from
E. to W. in the north was ob-
served at many places near
‘ Glasgow. See Appendix II.]
teseeeeeseeeeeeeeely Andromede, radiant of Biela’s|Exceedingly _ brilliant. Com-|G. L. Tupman.
‘ comet (?). menced as an ordinary shoot-
ing-star, and increased until
it greatly surpassed Venus
at her greatest brilliancy ;
with a long train of sparks,
but leaving no streak upon
its course. The observed po-
sition very accurate,
364
REPORT—1873.
D Hour, Place of
ate. CMT Observation.
1872./; h m s
Noy. 3) About |Bristol...... decent
915 0
|
| 28; 10 25 0 |Regent’s Park,
| London.
' 28) 10 29 0 |Hawkhurst
(approx. (Kent).
time).
1873.
Feb. 3) 9 58 O [Bristol ...scrceee
3) About |Wordsley, near
10 0 O| Stourbridge.
27| About (Tooting, near
7 30 0 | London.
27| 7 35 0 [Bristol .......00..
Apr.19) 10 42 30 Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
19} 10 44 O [York.e..ec.ssseeees
19 11 15 0 |Radcliffe Obser-
vatory, Oxford.
19 11 17 0 |Street, near Bath
(Somersetshire).
20) 10 22 15 |Newcastle-on-
Tyne,
Magnitude,
as per Stars &c.
Ist mag., bright ...|
Ist mag.
Large meteor
As bright as the
half nioon,
2nd Mag. oerssseeeeee
Apparent
Very bright meteor',.....
eee eeereseees
Colour,
The train
green, pur-
ple, and
yellow.
SO .|Brilliant white
Ist mag. .,.00+....-| Yellow...... te
1st Mags weosseseeere Bluish .........
Tstsmag. sanssievaren® Blue seescceee
14 mag. ...-+....+-|Orange-yellow
1-1 second ...
Duration. Apparent Path.
ooo
.../Appeared at a point
near the zenith,
and passed down- | |
wards about 10°)|
E. of the Pleiades
in Taurus.
oO
From 73°°5+429°
to 88 -+35°5
Moved slowly
.». Rather slow |Began near 4 Ca-||
speed. melopardi.
seceeeseeeeeeeeeee/Flash of the meteor},
behind clouds
near the horizon, ||
6 seconds.,..../Shot from a point}
about 40° or 50°} \
above the N.W.
horizon towards |
and about half.
point of the ho.|
rizon,
From near
Sword-hand
Perseus to about
2° beyond 4 (a.
() Andromede. |)
More than 2
seconds.
sass |ceauneeneegensteeae Shot towards Venus||
from E. to W.
Passed 1° above
and disappeared
about 5° beyond
Spica.
Less than 1°5/From d Bootis to}
second, about 5° south of]
: B Leonis,
-|From 6 Draconis to'
y Cephei.
15 second ..
15 second , =
44°
a2=
From 295°
to 307 55 —
...|From @ Corone t
e Bodtis T}
exact position).
0°6 second
Length of
Path.
HAA a Deere eeeree
OHNE ee we near renee
pot course...
ha
i
oo
wee eeeee
Fee eee PEM e reer eseeeeeeereed Veneers
. Directed from 3 (0, #) Serpentis\Lyraid. Left no streak
... [From Cerberus]
* Lyraid FOVN owen eeneeeecereeenrree eer Left a slight StLERKs sp syecuccscedenct
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS,
365
ee
Direction or Apparent
Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks.
i a a es es es
Mevecsecsensscssescessoscecsseeneenss,(@fe Sparks and smoke on its
track. Position of apparent
path carefully observed. A
sound as of an explosion was
heard 3 seconds after its disap-
pearance.
Radiant RG ..seccseecceeeeree/ Left a streak
Towards Tarandus ......+++.06+++/Left no streak
MMMRSUSENGRsaecl-secccsccvecstevcavacces sesreeeeesseseelTlluminated the clouds brightly;
in the northern sky. [Seen
also at Manchester as a large
fireball; vivid blue, duration
10 seconds; moving from
S.E. to N.W.]. _ (Detonating.
See Appendix II.)
Inclination about|Nucleus with a long streak or
to the horizon. train as wide as half the appa-
rent diameter of the moon, and
of mingled colours.
[E. to W.]
| 40°
seoovee|Left a streak for 2 seconds (?).
Readily compared with Venus,
which was only a few de-
grees off. Had two distinct
maxima. The point of termi-
nation more correctly observed
than the commencement.
seeeeeeelSky rather cloudy. Several
bright meteors were visible
this evening, without parti-
cular attention being paid to
note them,
Radiant Vega Lyre ......,.....|Lyraid. Left a bright streak last-|
ing, with the meteor, 14 second.
Left a streak. [The agreement
of this observation with that
of the next meteor, both in
time and in apparent position,
is very doubtful and imper-
fect. |
Observer,
|
E. B. Gardiner. Com-
municated by W. F.)
Denning.
T. Crumplen.
Miss Herschel.
W. F. Denning.
‘Nature,’ Feb. 6, 1873.
|
H. W. Jackson.
W. F. Denning.
A. S. Herschel.
A. K. Brown and T. H.
Waller.
J. Lucas.
|
Teter wee eeeeoene
Lyraid .....:...scseeceneseseeeseseee( Left a white streak for? a second;
brightest in the middle of its
course,
|
J. E. Clark,
A. 8. Herschel.
366 REPORT—1873.
Hour, Apparent
Date.| approx. mh ae oe Magnitude, Colour. Duration. Apparent Path.
G. M. T. * | as per Stars &c.
a i i i
1873.| hh m 8
Apr. 20) 10 23 O |Sunderland BIA THA i Fesescs. Aleeepopseegenensoes cadeus sesecesesess(Disappeared at
(Durham). a=?) ones
35°, or at 4 (y, A)
Bodtis.
SOT 7) ONEbid.cscsessesveies Ath Mag. .essscceesssfeceaseceeeeveeeee/Rather quick...|Disappeared at 4
(kh Come Be-
renices, E Leo-
| Senish:
20) 11 7 0 |Neweastle-on- 4th mag. .......0....,White ...e000.. 0°8 second ...|Disappeared at e
Tyne. Virginis. (Ter-
mination well
observed),
BOWED NS 15 |Ubids-b.c...cccccens 35 MAG. .ssoeeee soe] LELLOW ve vaseae 0°6 second ...|From 7 Virginis to
} 2° below e Leo-
nis.
20} 11 15 30 |Sunderland 2nd MAL. veeseseveeeefeeeens sevcesvevees| QUICK sesserees Commenced 2°
(Durham), above » Virginis.
Aug. 2} 11 38 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |1st mag. ............]White ........./1 second ......|From Polaris to
vatory, Ox- Urs Majoris.
‘ford.
2| 11 40 0 |Bristol............ SON. sc saNieeses cegesaldeeyddeeenn. svececlOt8 Becond Mass a= 6=
From 43°-++54°
to 62 +56
7| 9 33 0 |Radcliffe Obser- |= 9 ........., aes Yellow ..,......(2 seconds...,.. Began at e Urse
vatory, Oxford. Majoris and dis-|
the observatory
tower.
7| 9 33 0 |Bristol...... Rec secliec tai h., AMP. JeieFibpes guess oacascae es 0°9 second ... a= O=
From 190°-++59°
to 195 +30
9| 11 33 0 |Regent’s Park, |2ndmag....... eats e | BIWC “ee sweaees lana sap eaeecrennes a= O=
London. From 225°+66°
to 223 4+45° |
9) 11 34 © [Bristol ........e00-/2nd Mag. secsseecess-lesseesseeerecereee(OG Second ,..|From 51°5-+44%5 |
to 57 +34 4
11] 911 © |Tooting, near [1st mag. .secocseees|WHItE ssccrsorslorersrtersnazooaee a= = |
London. From 65°-+81° —
to 70+72
(Position ac 1-
rately observed.)
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 367
Length of irecti A
er Die Pant p Sa, Feng Appearance; Remarks. Observer,
|
———
-
Not a long Directed from % Corone to-/A Lyraid. Left a streak for aT, W. Backhouse.
course, wards ¢ (y, A) Bodtis. moment after the head vanished.
..|Directed towards a point at|[From a radiant north of UrsalId.
dbout a=181°, d=+9°. Major. ]
TO? seccessseve. Vertically down, as from Cor|Left no streak. (Direetion ofjA. S. Herschel.
Caroli. path imperfectly observed).
10° ......s00«+|Directed from o Virginis .,,...[Lyraid .........e006 Bocenvasssssscotesse(LQe
8° or 10°....../Directed towards @ Leonis ...|Lyraid. Nucleus undefined. Left/T. W. Backhouse.
a streak.
PEP ere eee e Pees eeelsnseeneres DOC eee ee OOO rer eeeneeeeraeeeer|® 20o8 seeseeees OO eoeeereeesecereerereseees J. Lucas.
2? Ce Peeeeeeene Pegasid Seema eres eee eeeeerenecre ten! POO e ne Peo eee tee ees eae teneereereneeeeses W. F Denning.
seeseseeersereeeeeiItS Course prolonged onwards|Left a streak .ss.ceccossessseeeeeeees(Js LUCAS,
must have passed between
« and 7 Bodtis.
30° ......s0++e.|Radiant Polaris [? or ¢ Cassio-
Left a well - defined train just/W. F. Denning.
pei].
north of Cor Caroli for 7
seconds.
[Seen also at Tooting, near
London, ‘in the north going
towards Richmond,” i. e., west-
wards, and bursting out with
sparks like a rocket, as it
travelled. (Communicated by
H. W. Jackson.) ]
ee eer oeceeceeres ETE e Terr ere roi cere e rere r tire ieee ey eer eerie rer yal Tri ty T. Crumplen.
10°5 oeeeeree Radiant x Persei... rr
Feneeertoons
Left a streak for a second ....,....,W. F. Denning.
Y
en eetetene PPPS PPC Terre ey Tiree ee yy eee
Left a bright streak. A beautiful/H. W. Jackson.
explosion at the end of its
course.
368
Date ale Place of
a oo T. Observation.
|
— }
fa73| h-m s |
Aug.11} 9 11 0 |Bristol............
|
|
|
}
|
|
9 12 0 Radcliffe Obser-
vatory, Oxford.
REPORT— 1873.
Apparent
Magnitude, Colour.
as per Stars &c.
[st MAG. ...ceecssevelescevescecrerses
NUSEMGG Aovedcoauseas Yellow «......
Duration.
0°8 second ...
2°5 seconds ...|
II. Larcr Merrors and AEROLITES.
Apparent Path.
e4e= é=
From 11°+40°
to 21 +29
From Z Cassiopeiz
to 46 [w] An-)
dromede.
In the ‘Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society’ of the past year
(vol. xxxiii.), several interesting instances of very large meteors are recorded.
The earliest having occurred nearly on the same date of the year as the well-
known fall of the meteorite of Orgeuil (on the 14th of May, 1867), it may
very possibly have been, as its description renders probable, an aérolitic fire-
ball.
It is thus described by Commander H. P. Knevitt, as observed on
board of H. M. S. ‘Fawn,’ on the passage from Manzanilla to Panama.
“On the 16th of May, 1872, at 2"45™ a.m. (the weather having been squally
since midnight), a phenomenon was seen in the heavens at an altitude of about __
50°, and bearing Kast of compass; the ship at the time being in lat. 14° 55! N. »
and long. 99° 58' W. I did not see it myself, but the following is the de-
scription given of it by Lieut. Cecil G. Horne, who was the officer of the watch.
Attention was first drawn by a very bright flash, resembling a small flash of
vivid lightning, but being much more solid and lasting four to five seconds ;
the passage of the luminous body was towards the horizon for a short distance
(say 8° or 4°) in a zigzag course ; it then appeared to burst and throw off a
tail such as a comet has, the tail forming a ring and spreading itself round
the body till the whole had very much the appearance of a large Catherine-
wheel; it then gradually faded out of sight, having been visible from first
to last about ten or fifteen minutes.”
A large meteor observed at the Mauritius at about 7 o’clock p.at. on the 7th
of November, 1872, by Mr. W. Wright, is described at p. 176 of the same
volume, being communicated to the Astronomical Society by Mr. Meldrum.
The appearance of the meteor was exactly like that of the moon in her first
quarter, the lower quarter only of the disk being illuminated and the upper
three quarters being of a dull dusky stone-brown colour.
The writer’s atten-
tion was drawn to it by a sudden flash above the brightness of moonlight ;
and it appeared to him to fall from the direction of Aquarius. In communi-
cating this observation to ‘ Nature’ of January 23rd, 1873, Mr. Meldrum re-
marks that the moon was actually at the end of her first quarter, in the posi-
tion indicated by Mr. Wright as the direction in which he observed the meteor ;
id
Length of Direction or Apparent
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 369
Path Radiant-point Appearance; Remarks. Observer.
13° ....e0se0e04)Radiant Andromeda .........05- [The real radiant of the meteor,|/W. F. Denning.
by comparison of these obser-
| vations, was near B Draconis. |
SL SEeiesin 501 PEDEM CULVER tHUS— ...csosucsos|scevesccarsescessccgessescntaccesssessssee{d« LUCAS.
san E
and his description of its appearance differing widely from that of any large
fireball hitherto observed, it is questioned by Mr. Meldrum if the object which
appeared to Mr. Wright may not have been the moon itself, flashing forth, per-
haps suddenly from behind clouds, and by their motion appearing to descend
among them. A similar meteor, Mr. Wright adds, was seen at the Mauritius
about a year previously; but the entire disk of that meteor was luminous, and
the moon, at the time when the meteor presented itself, was not shining.
The following description (on the same page of the above ‘ Notices’) refers
to the bright meteor of the 3rd of November, seen at Glasgow and elsewhere
in Scotland at half-past five o’clock in the evening, which appears, from this
account, to have been aérolitic or of a detonating kind. Mr. H. D. Penny
writes thus from Nairn to Mr. Duncan :—“ I was coming up the street at
5.30 p.m. on that day, when, without any warning, I seemed enveloped in
flame ; on looking to the sky it seemed illuminated, and continued so for two
or three seconds, so brightly that I had no difficulty in seeing the smallest
stone on the ground. For a second or so the illumination waned, and then
it shone for a second brighter than before. I hurried home to see the exact
time of the circumstance; and being about 100 yards or so from the house,
I heard, on coming at the gate, a low rumbling noise as of distant thunder
away to the south-west. I then concluded that it was thunder, and remained
outside for half an hour in the expectation of hearing more, but in vain, as
thunder is rather uncommon in this quarter at this season.” On making
inquiries respecting it, Mr. Penny found that other persons, a few miles
from Nairn, more fortunate than himself, had observed the fireball itself; and
the description given to him by one of them is as follows :—‘ He saw a large
ball of fire, about the size of the full moon, coming up from the east-south-
east, about twenty degrees from the horizon, and gliding along comparatively
slowly, so that he could distinctly discern it. The ball was of the colour of
intensely heated iron, and had a tail attached to it. For the two or three
seconds that it remained in sight, the sky was so lighted up that he could
have picked a pin from the ground. It then seemed to him to descend
behind some of the hills to the south-west of him; and for a second the sky
was a i when all at once the light burst forth stronger than before ;
1873, 2B
370 REPORT—1873.
LARGE METEORS AND FIREBALLS OBSERVED
Hour, :
Date.| approx. Oe " Apparent Size. Colour. Duration. Position.
G. M. T.
1866.|} hm s
Jan. 1) 9 20 0 |Bristol ..e.vs.sceee (Brag htenmihatigthel..¢.ccc---coness-|sehorccsscsuecsens iPassed a few de-
fixed stars. grees from the
moon, and near
a certain bright
fixed star, either
Procyon or Pol-
lux.
Nov.13} 9 18 30 /York ...cce..se0 IDEXGD Ls hewariecersesanct Yellow ..sesee- (32 seconds .../From clouds close
to Mars to « For-
nacis (110°, +
22°5 to 34°, —
24°-5), Low
down along the
eastern horizon.
13| 12 30 0 |Bristol............ Far the brightest|...cccsccssssccsselssseseaevseeeseens Passed directly a-
meteor seen du- cross the zenith.
ring the Novem-
ber shower.
Dec.10} 10 24 0 |LDId.....eercccsenes Brighter than any|Blue,.....seess.[esereeneeeereeeees(COMMeEnced near
meteor seen on the constellation
November 13 to Ursa Minor, and
14, 1866, ex- taking a south-
cepting perhaps erly direction,
the above noted. disappeared
when it reached
1868. Orion.
Sep. 14| About 8 Keynsham, near|As bright as either}......s.s++esee0+-(Glided along'Commenced near
or 15} o’clock. Bristol. of the foregoing the sky. Cassiopeia. (Ap-
(Exact meteors. parent path not
time and exactly noted.)
date un-
1869.| certain.)
Aug.11] 14 8 0 |Radcliffe = L..eaaee Perpatestnirietes Mpdressdccarcue eaquducnmaed .seee.[Position of the
Observatory, bright streak
Oxford, about midway
between « Cygni
and « Aquilz.
Oct.27| 8 15 0 |Besselsleigh, = YY sscseareceeesereee/ White .,seeeee-/2 seconds or 3/From wf Tauri to
near Oxford, seconds. the Pleiades.
Noy.15| 10 13 0 |Radcliffe 5 hep cne isareeeent ..|White ...,...../2 seconds..,...)/From Pollux to A
Observatory, : Urse Majoris.
Oxford,
19). 7 <0 0 Whi Na veavere eens |= esr aidan eteseus figacxdavgisacyade-(aane naadqucte Gonqdhe GSES through
1870. Ursa Major.
Mar.30) 8 20 0 /Ibid...... yeeecaneee| > op seveeeseey| Brilliant white|/About 5 secs.|.From the zenith
to a point near
the horizon, a
little south of
east. |
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 371
CHIEFLY DURING THE YEARS 1872 anp 1873.
soreih of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &e. Observer.
————
sessesesseeeeeees(PrOm west tO €aSt ......000000.../A splendid meteor; very con-|W. F. Denning.
spicuous, though passing so
near the moon, which was very
brilliant. Sky very clear after
a cloudy evening.
203" congc ane esos From N.E. to S., in a hori-\Left a bright green streak, gra-|J. E. Clark, and several
zontal, slightly curved] dually growing fainter. Ap-| other observers.
course. parently an early meteor of the
stream of Leonids.
a
Maneater seek « afd « sf BH, tO W. voseseveceerreeeeeeeeeeeee | LefG a, vast train of light; at|/W. F. Denning.
first seen as a long streak,
but soon becoming wavy 01
serpentine, and like a nebu-
lous cloud, which grew fainter
and drifted from its place until
it disappeared, having been
visible at least three quarters
of an hour.
tem yirerarcesel| Nei tO) Sa]! eenssvspeccsecss sses.-{LHuminated the whole sky (which/Id.
was at the time hazy, with a
slight fog obscuring the fainter
stars). Immediately before ex-
tinction, burst into many frag-
ments like a rocket. Left no
perceptible streak. No sound
. of an explosion heard.
Reasvereessssevoeclecoshsconovecacneccesscessseos vseeveeee(I]]uminated all surrounding ob-|[d. =
jects with a sudden light; dis-
appeared rather suddenly, left
no streak.
—————_——— $$$
ssseeeeeereeeeeeee] The meteor must have started/The observer was startled by|J. Lucas. (Radcliffe
from, or passed near the] a bright flash, and on look-| Observations, 1869.) |s
zenith, and have disappeared] ing in the direction named,
behind trees in the west. saw the streak which re-
mained upon the meteor’s
*course. (Also described in
the ‘Astronomical Register’
for September 1869.)
PERTH E RTH eee eee lene eH eee EHH EEF EHOO OEE E HEHEHE SHORES HES FORE HE eEE HEHE RHEE THEE SHE HH BESTE EHH EEH OES Id.
Measaneeersrcesweeleceepesevapeteepernsrcceenersetessacses Left a faint streak .........c..0000e. Id
see Perens eeeders DOWNWALGS, ..ccccccstcccnccnscrecsisenceredecdsteedsscdesetetecreescevcoccecs Id.
sesteeeenssceeeees| Vertically downwards... Disappeared behind some trees ..|J. R Main.
Beg
372°
a
Date ane Place of
3 aM. T. Observation.
1870.} hm s
Sep.25} 8 51 0 |Radcliffe
Observatory,
Oxford.
26] 15 15 O [[bid.ies... cesses.
Oct. Jj/About [Did.....s.000seees.
8 0 0
1871.
Apr.10] 11 45 0 |[bid........ eee
ept. 1; 8 44 O JIbid.....c..seceeeee
Noy.13) 11 25 15 |Cambridge ......
Dec. 6} 6 25 O |Radcliffe
Observatory,
Oxford.
1972: *
July 27} 11 40 0 |Dalston, near
and London.
12 30 0
29) About Creuznach
9 30 01} (Germany).
(local time).
Aug.18) 10 45 0 |Cambridge ......
19} 10 20 0 |York
wenenceetnee
REPORT—1878.
Apparent Size.
> 4
Oe eesetaeeees
=D] cevevevesseccvoess
= Dpedenddercaat estes
GOI . ieevieevadens
Very large and
bright.
ph Fb e eee ete enrerees
The first meteor
rather fainter
than the second,
which was a
very bright fire-
ball.
Large shooting-star
Twice or thrice as
bright as a Ist
mag.*, and larger
than Venus ever
appears.
Large meteor «+.
Colour. Duration. Position.
sesseessssesseeeee/4 Seconds,,.,..{£rom @ point above
y Delphini to a
point below «
Aquile.
3 seconds......{'rom « Androme-
dee to between a
and y Pegasi.
Blue
White to blue/3 seconds......,From a little be-
low ® Urs Ma-
joris; bursting
at W Urse Ma-
joris.
sesseeseeeeeael/t S@CONAS,...+.[From a point near
€ Herculis to «
Corone.
Green to 5 seconds......|from a point near
orange. a Serpentis.
Bios ansausteveses|cvecveresqusuesens} ie Geeee a ann aemamaEs
Cassiopeiz.
White ...,..+../9 seconds......|Fell from a point
west of Polaris
to near the ho-
rizon.
vecseeeesees/Lhe first fell in the
north,the second
more to thie east,
at some altitude
in the sky.
ROG aire cavaereelanasee
seesseeee(Shot from 4, or 4
« «Pegasi, &
Cygni, straight
towards Saturn,
and nearly as
far.
Quite 5 secs.|From near Lyra to
taeeeee OO Vee ee eee see eeeeee
Brilliantly
white. if not 10} near Andromeda,
seconds ; where it disap-
remarkably | peared behind
slow speed.| buildings.
Moa adeiisiststelaealie veuonses seveeveee(Erom 35° S. of E.,
altitude 30° to
30° S. of E., alti-
tude 10°. (Posi-
tion not very pre-
cise; by refer-
ence to the
moon.)
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 373
—————————E—EEEE 2s = ae
Length of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance ; Remarks, &c. Observer.
SeeseueeudOese ev atifncescaiseees wince dueisscccvesheqpusessfecstmeens Praia es vedi tis sacscoteah seveee(J. Lucas.
EBT. cecesaccoscsodesssscevcssseeses/ ON Septe 28, ats 25, a sudden|id.
flash of light, evidently me-
teoric, was observed, but no
meteor could be traced. (See
also the ‘ Astronomical Regis-
ter’ for Nov. 1870.)
“on SURE RGR SUG BEDABREBSG BBPCOCr ERE: CLACOnener crt nga ic Preah Es caeanep menace cepescaeee Id.
0 obee SECReREEe Be oe evasec te osisaesnuaesiad| trecnenenunesmrnesininvuntanrsesayxeunndia| Lele
piuides sesveceeesee{L@ll vertically COWNWATGS .os...!.s.sneeeescceeccneesensecansereeeaserenns Mr. Keating and J.
Lucas.
Bete akateaes ov otct Horizontally from right to\One of the brightest meteors|W. Davenport. Com-
left. hitherto observed. Among| municated by W. F.
about 30 meteors mapped with) Denning.
eeetan ae = a meteoroscope on the same
= night; not more than 8 or 9
had their radiant-point in Leo.
[Also observed at Beckenham,
Kent. See last Report.]
sessecesesseveeree| Vertically downwards | ...++++++{s Lt. a. Mea MSS, Sa ee and Mr.
eating.
The first meteor faint in colour;|Joseph Seaton. (Com
the second very bright, re-| municated by G. J.
sembling a red-hot iron bolt or) Symons.)
urn-heater.
AOR R ERE eR HERR eter E HPP E EPPO SERRE EET HTE SETHE ERED OOOO STOOD
hae (Oe cdeeee adic Gabdee us eve voneseed MIChW A BGKGOME
seer tet nereeeees eee neroevereneersoretesneanenenereerer|.
ceseeeseseeseeeess|Lhe opposite direction to that Pear-shaped with a narrow short/E, H. (newspaper para-
of the Perseids, or August] train 1° or 14° long. Its} graph). _ Communi-
meteors. brightness decreased, and its} cated by R. P. Greg.
speed diminished towards the
end of its course as if by the
effect of foreshortening.
Ao ee ,....-|Probable direction :— Fireball; nucleus with a con-(Communicated by J. E.
siderable disk. Well observed.| Clark.
374: REPORT—1878.
i
Hour,
4 Place of ° cise Position.
Date. ae Ghat Apparent Size. Colour. | Duration osition
1872.; h m s
Sep.17) 7 50 0 /Ticehurst Very large fireball |........ss000004{About 10 secs.|Fell from $.W. to
(Sussex). S.E.
22} 8 54 O /Tooting, near |= a Lyre; very)...... erereenee sae Swift ..sc0ce Apparent course as
London. bright. in the sketch.
Vega.
@
e
aOphiuchi.
Oct. 9} 919 O |Glasgow ..... ..../One tenth appa-|Yellow ...... 0°75 second; |From ¢ to x Persei.
rent size of the very swift. ,
moon.
9) About Hay, S. Wales...|About = 2......... Yellowish....../Slow motion.../Passed from near
12 0 0 and a little n. f.
g, towards §
Ceti, disappear-
ing a little before
reaching _ that’
star.
27\A little Samoa, South /Unusually large|...cccrccsccceceselesssssesesseevevee{Lt became visible
before Pacific. fireball. near Z Ceti, and
12 0 0 rushed towards
(local mid- the south-east.
night.)
|Nov. 1/About Portsmouth 45.)= Q vscccssovesvesess.| White (?)...00- 4 second ...... 2 oO
1150 0 From 100°-+-48°
to 132 +49
6) W045: VOM idieevescsit sence ED inaasaneerenene ch White .........{Very swift; |From 77°+35°
0°3 second. to 91 +47
17; 6 10 0 South Shields (Brighter than ¢.../White ..,......;About 14 or|/From a point about
p-m. (Durham). 1g second. | N.W., altitude
15° or 20° to a
point about
W.N.W., _alti-
tude 3° or 4°.
19} 910 0 [Bristol ....... woe{Very bright meteor|ss.sceeeveceerees lascateavaneesyssen(SHOt — down apie
north-west sky.
OBSERVATIONS
OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
375
Length of
Path.
Direction or Radiant-point.
Appearance; Remarks, &c.
Observer.
Liteserssanbsueces[escevecescceserssssseeeesscssseeseneeee(Lhe meteor did not burst, but/Communicated by A.
OUUUUUUTISICOCOO SECT ECEC eee eee)
20°
~
sessssibeoeestaees(Path a little convex to the
Pee eee ee wbbertoee
15°
eeeeeerserenler
zenith.
ROO O Re eee eae e eee ORe esses es OOtaeenee
POOR O eee eee tees eee ee eeeeseeeesrsOeEsee
began small and grew brighter
and brighter until it went out.
Just before disappearance it
“appeared as large as a break-
fast-plate.”
Left no streak ...cccsscccceccvece Acce
caveeeveeees [SHOE UPWATAS sessssssveeeeseeeeeeep NUCLEUS Accompanied by sparks ;
disappeared with an explo-
sion: left a white streak in
passing over « and y Persei,
which remained visible fifteen
seconds.
For three fifths of its course
it continued equally bright,
a fireball with sparks round
it, and a slight train. In
the rest of its course it
diminished gradually to dis-
appearance.
Left a bright train in its wake.
Nucleus of the meteor of very
large apparent width. Several
other bright shooting-stars were
visible on the same night. [See
this Appendix, below].
The meteor appeared behind a
cloud, through which it shone ;
and it must have been exceed-
ingly bright.
Nucleus accompanied by a slight
train ; left no streak.
BOWE 25° cns|ecccerccsssiscsccesccsdascscsccecceeece| Meteor very. bright. when. ; first
PHPPRR eee oebeeereelsonees
eaeeae POO ee bee eere reset ee etes
seen, and remained so until it
disappeared without bursting
close to the horizon. Nucleus
with short tail of red sparks;
left.a streak for a moment or
two along its track.
|The brightest meteor seen du-
ring the month. A flash of
light, apparently meteoric, ap-
peared at about 95 p.m. on the
18th of November, when the;
sky was nearly overcast.
Eden.
H, W. Jackson.
Robert M‘Clure.
T. W. Webb.
(‘ Nature,’ Oct. 17.)
S. J. Whitmee.
(‘ Nature,’ Jan. 30th,
1873.)
G. L. Tupman.
Id.
|
F, Hurmian and Johan |
Taylor.
W. F, Denning.
a sasaesaiae
376 REPORT—1873. -
Tlour,
Date.| approx.
x M. T.
Place of
tion.
Observation. Duration
Apparent Size. Colour.
—
1872.; h m s
Nov.22| About
514 0
South Kensing- |Rather — brighter|.....1...sseseereeleoesees
ton, London. than % at his
brightest.
23) 7-20 (0 | Bristol .......0-00. Se oonnce Sreaeenee BlUGyesccrsesens About 2 secs. .
30} 8 10 0 |St. Thomas
(local time).| (West Indies).
Dec. 9} 11 15 0 |Tooting, near
London. slow speed ;
not less than
5 seconds or
10 seconds.
23} 610 O |London
fixed stars.
26] 7 58 0 |Bristol.........00 = Daa Te. AOS. BING weateness 2 seconds
26) -OeS0 Oullbids.,.cetc.00..25 About as bright as/Blue
the quarter-moon.
POee et aeeleeteerons
1873.
Feb. 3} 10 © 0 /Australia...... veo WEXVADNP CMs ceesecs|-sassnsenseons+cea|scsaseassesreavisss(neeuuuaneneeee
p.m.
(local time).
April 6) 9 8 0 [Tbid..........ss...[Nearly as bright as|......... sessevess(About 1°5 se-
Venus at ber cond ;
brightest. tion slow.
seoseeesese(Disappeared about
From 18°+44°
Large mctcor ees...Jeoe. Sarcencueesuen|scapsieesoseire salencgeeeNsiessnccein eevee
A bright meteor .../Deep red...... Exceedingly |Shot on a line from
baaeaeent Brighter than the}.........sccccssesfeetessevessseeees-(Er0m Close to Po-
...|From 343°+422°
First seen at alti-
mo-|From B3°-+-42°5
Position.
10° before reach-
ing the zenith,}.
which it would
have gone about
5° or 10° to the
south of.
a= b=
to 164 +63
From the N.W.
part of Andro-
meda, across thc
sword-hand of
Perseus, and Ca-
melopardusto the
head of Ursa Maj.
6B through z Pe-
gasito y Cygni,
beginning near
a Pegasi and
ending near y
Cygni.
laris, passed
close to a, £
Ursze
through
square of Ursa
Major.
to 338 — 4
tude about 60°
in the north-
west,
a= O=
to 56+31
Began between
«, B, @ Au-
rigee and ended
near Z Persei,
about 10° above
Venus,
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
377
a aa aaa aaa
Length of
Path.
Direction or Radiant- point. Appearance; Remarks, &c,
— ———
tion of position rougher than
that of the time.
Observer.
Jecavcesssscessece({NeEs tO S.W. ..scccssccceseveeeeee(A bright shooting-star. Fistima-|Mr. Merrifield. (Com-
municated by Dr. W.
Huggins. )
snide Seb aBSqr. 206054 se eran peEEROocE sarnc Nucleus globular; faded and|W. F. Denning.
brightened again very rapidly
several times. Illuminated the
sky very strongly in its flight ;
left no streak, but emitted a
spark in its course,
1D, Oy We ctnenasbenpudoornceacnennc ce cneeccensenececenecssreoeeeescensseerane
.|Nucleus with a short tail 2° or
3° in length, which distinctly
tapered towards the end.
PO ee wee tet ee ewer were neeee Peewee reeiie Peed near ee ee ree eee sete renee ee sees reas
.....|Directed from a little north of/The light of the nucicus faded
B Pegasi downwards, almost} and revived rapidly several
perpendicularly. times, like that of the meteor
See P Oa w et eeeeeane | sttoe Pema meee trees ereetenee seers reees:
on Noy. 23rd. Left no streak.
~ IIE HOSWs “scewesvecccecesecccsseeeees{GlObular;...no. |sparks . ors ex-
plosion, and it left no streak;
but on a prolongation of its
path, a small meteoric spark
seemed to continue to some
distance beyond its point of
extinction.
.s..e..On the same date and local time
as the large meteor seen in
England.—‘ Mechanics’ Maga-
zine,’ May 2nd, 1873.
The nucleus did not explode, but
disappeared gradually, and it
left no streak.
SPEC e Per eee etree reer e er eeeoeaee
Communicated by Mr.
R. C. Rawson
(Governor of Bar-
badoes). ‘£ Nature,’
Feb. 6th, 1873.
H. W. Jackson.
H. Hardcastle.
W. F. Denning.
F, Denning (and seen
by several observers).
Communicated by W.
F, Denning.
‘Communicated by W.
H. Wood.
W. F. Denning.
Hour,
approx.
G. M. T.
s
Date.
1873.| h m
April 8)/About 9
o’clock.
(‘Tuesday
evening.’)
May 1) 12 40 0
July 1/1315 0
11 32
Ang. 2} 10 28
10 35
12 11
9 10
11} 11 30
16) 11 27 30
Sept. 9/10 5 0
Place of
Observation.
Cardiff, 8. Wales
MONON Jecteseves
Bristol...
Radcliffe
Observatory,
Oxford.
Grasmere,
Cumberland.
Radcliffe
Observatory,
Oxford.
Tooting, near
London.
Birmingham .,..
Hawkhurst
(Kent).
Pontefract,
Yorkshire.
Apparent Size.
Very brilliant me-}...
teor.
Brighter than any
of the fixed stars.
REPORT—18738.
As bright as the
full moon.
= 9? atherbrightest
Much brighter than
2. A sensible
apparent disk.
flame.
| Yellow
White ..
Colour.
ee tetene
Bright yellow
Duration. Position.
...+./Shot across the sky
from N. to S., and
burst before reach-
15° below Polaris.
Appeared at a great
eleyation in the
southern
passing
north-west to a
low elevation in
the south.
i 6=
From 210°+49°
to 200+38
Shot from Arcturus
towardsthe N.W.
horizon.
...|Disappeared at a
point as far from
y Pegasi as @
Andromede on
line drawn
beet eee e en eneree
0:8 second ...
3 seconds...
mede, 6 Pegasi.
From near 58 to!
near 63 Aurige.
0°5 second ,..
Vivid blue ;
like the
magnesium
Nearly 2 secs..|.....000+ ebeeseseas Perr
3 seconds...... e= o=
From 339°—20°
to 1 —20
l second; very|Passed close to}
slow. and on the
left of 0 Pis-
cium.
0°75 second,..|From 37° south of/
east, altitude 49°
to 48° south o
east, altitude 10°.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
379
penal of Direction or Radiant-point. Appearance; Remarks, &c.
sessseceseeenessse| Ne £0 S. sevsereesseesessesoneveesee| Durst like a rocket, the fragments
illuminating a large area of the
sky.
Observer.
‘The Western Tele-
graph,’ Thursday,
April 10th, 1873.
seaveeasseevevesssleceasessececsnscueceecesseeesetseesees/ NUCLEUS pear-shaped with a long/T. Crumplen.
broad tail, and leaving a few
sparks along its track.
Mereceteseserscceelsccssstececccscvesteccecsdésoosssccsees/A Magnificent fireball. Nucleus
of very intense light, separated
into two halves and afterwards
into numerous pieces which
immediately became extinct.
14° ...ccsevees-(Fell vertically ; radiant in Pe-|......ccccsccsscesses
gasus.
feneee Febeeeereeeeres
W. Bowman and other
observers. (Commu-
nicated by W. F.
Denning.)
W. F. Denning.
Dec csecabbecvessts/AIPZAG PAE. ..ccssccesssecsnessoess (Left A StLCAK .ssccecieess serssseeeeee(Js LUCAS.
sevesseseveseveeee|Directed from y Andromedz,|Left a streak. Imperfect view of/T. W. Backhouse.
and from 3 (y, 7) Persei. its course among clouds, be-
hind some of which it may pos-
. sibly have disappeared.
TETITT TTT Teer Ty ee [A bright meteor on the samelJ. Lucas.
evening at 95 33", See the
foregoing list.]
sevevesssvevcesseslsecseecscesscoesssecrssscesesesscssseesiAd Very beautiful meteor; left aH. W. Jackson.
faint streak.
seceeceeeceeseeess{ Radiant O; (Neumayer).........|Left astreak. Nucleusverybright;/W. H. Wood.
appeared occasionally through
the clouds (between which the
moon shone) as if below them.
Nearly approached the horizon ;
disappeared with an explosion.
AO. .ssevsseoves.| Directed from 2 (6, 7) Pegasi.a|.....ctssseccssvccccsscscevesessosseseevee|Miss Herschel.
.
sscveseeeesseeesss(Lnclined about 70° to a verti-\Seen through the window of a|E. Worsdell. Commnu-
{ cal direction, thus :— well-lighted room. The view) nicated by J. H. Clark.
i of the beginning and end were
perhaps intercepted, and no
streak was certainly percept-
ible.
3880 REPORT—1878.
and shortly afterwards he heard a sound as distinctly as if three or four
cannon had been at once discharged at a distance of a quarter of a mile.
But the last lighting up of the sky seemed only for an instant, when all was
as dark as before. .... There must have been a meteor of extraordinary
size trayelling from the southern part of Banffshire on towards the centre of
Inverness-shire, and bursting somewhere near the source of the river Nairn,
The brilliancy of the light was as if a brilliant flash of lightning had remained
visible in the sky.”
Aérolites.—The following extract from a journal of travels in North-west
America, ‘The great Lone Land,’ by Capt. W. F. Butler, F.R.G.S. (1872),
deserves Dieuon, as the existence of the mass of meteoric iron which it
describes appears to have been hitherto unknown, or unrecorded.
“In the mission-house of Victoria (on the Saskatchewan river, not far
from its source) there lay a curious block of metal of immense weight ; it was
rugged, deeply indented, and polished on the outer edges of the indentations
by the wear and friction of many years. Its history was a curious one.
Longer than any man could say, it had lain on the summit of a hill far out
in the southern prairies. It had been a medicine-stone of surpassing virtue
among the Indians over a vast territory. No tribe or portion of a tribe
would pass in the vicinity without paying a visit to this great medicine: it
was said to be increasing yearly in weight. Old men remembered haying
heard old men say, they had once lifted it easily from the ground. Now no
single man could carry it; and it was no wonder that this metallic stone
should be a ‘ Manito ’-stone, and an object of intense veneration to the
Indian ; it had come down from heaven; it did not belong to the earth, but
had descended out of the sky; it was in fact an aérolite. Not very long
before my visit, this curious stone had been removed from the hill upon
which it had so long rested, and brought to the mission of Victoria by some
person from that place. When the Indians found that it had. been taken
away, they were loud in the expression of their regret. The old medicine-
men declared that its removal would lead to great misfortunes, and that war,
disease, and dearth of buffalo would affect the tribes of the Saskatchewan.
This was not a prophecy made after the occurrence of the plague of small-pox ;
for in a magazine published by the Wesleyan Socicty in Canada there appears
a letter from the missionary setting forth the prediction of the medicine-men
a year prior to my visit. The letter concludes with an expression of thanks
that their evil prognostications had not been attended with success. But a
few months later brought all the three evils upon the Indians; and never,
probably, since the first trader had reached the country, had so many afflictions
of war, famine, and plague fallen upon the Crees and Blackfeet as during the
year which succeeded the useless removal of their Manito-stone from the
lone hill-top upon which the skies had cast it.”
Siderite of Augusta County, United States (see ‘American Journal of
Science’ for July, 1872).—Analysis of the gases occluded in the iron, by Dr.
J. W. Mallet, U.S. (¢ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xx. p. 365).
Both shavings and a small bar of the iron cut and polished cold, and freed
from oil, from the most solid part of the iron were heated first to redness and
then to whiteness in the vacuum of a Sprengel pump. The experiment lasted
143 hours, only a quarter of the whole volume of gas being extracted in the
last two thirds of the time, and a small residue still remaining unextracted
at its close. The quantity of hydrogen and carbonic acid diminished most
rapidly; and those of nitrogen and carbonic oxide continued to be discharged
most abundantly towards the end of the time, as the following Table of the
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 881
percentage volumes shows, which were obtained from 15-87 cubic centims. of
the iron in successive intervals of—
2h hours. 2} hours. 92 hours. Total. Horseshoe-nail
percent. percent. per cent. per cent. (Grahame).
Givdragen........+... 22:12 10°52 3°19 35°83 35°0
Carbonic oxide ...... 15:99 Tz 11:22 38°33 50°3
Carbonic acid ...... 7:85 1:02 0-88 9°75 he
ot 6:06 1:45 8:58 16:09 fal)
52:02 24:11 23°87 100-00 100-0
Reduced to the standard temperature, 60° F., and barometric pressure, 30
inches, the whole volume obtained was 50:40 cubic centims., or 3:17 times
the volume of the iron, while Grahame found 2°85 times its volume of mixed
gases occluded in the Lenarto iron. The quantity of hydrogen contained in
the Augusta-County iron is 1-4 times its volume, while ordinary terrestrial
iron only occludes about 0-42 or 0-46 times its volume; and the meteoric
origin of the mass is thus confirmed. But the quantities of carbonic oxide and
carbonic acid, especially, are much larger than the corresponding quantities
found by Grahame in the Lenarto iron, and more nearlytesemble the pro-
portions found in a sample of a horseshoe nail. It cannot be supposed that
the Augusta-County iron has undergone any artificial process to test or to
improve its quality; and hence it may be inferred that the atmosphere in
which it originated as a meteorite was more rich in carbon than that from
which the Lenarto iron was derived.
_ Siderite of Ovifak, Greenland.—Among the discoveries made by Sir J. C.
Ross in his Arctic voyages, was that of some implements partly made of iron
by the Esquimaux of Greenland, the metal of which was found on analysis to
be probably of meteoric origin. The iron used in their manufacture was
reported by the Esquimaux to exist on the shore of Cape York, some hundreds
of miles north of Disco Island, on the west coast of Greenland. During his
investigations of that coast in the year 1870, Prof. A. EK. Nordenskiold, of
Stockholm, by offering rewards for its discovery to the Esquimaux, learned
the existence of such masses of native iron at Ovifak, on the south side of
Disco Isle. Arrived at this indicated spot, Prof. Nordenskidld was there
shown the largest piece of meteoric iron yet known to have been found.
Two other large, and many smaller fragments lay at no great distances from
it. heir site was between high- and low-water mark on the shore, among
sea-worn blocks of gneiss and granite at the foot of a high rock of basalt.
A Swedish vessel transported them to Europe ; and they are now deposited in
the Royal Museum at Stockholm. The largest one weighs about 50,000 lbs.,
and the two smaller masses about 20,000 lbs..and 9000 Ibs. the rest of the
fragments together weigh about 1500 lbs. Nickel, cobalt, phosphorus, and
sulphur enter into their composition; and the probability of their meteoric
origin is ably maintained by Nordenskiéld in his narrative of this expedition
_ ( Redogirelse for en Expedition till Grénland.” Stockholm: 1871), and in
a later work on the history of the iron. Not many yards from the place of
the discovery a siliceous stone, enclosing grains and lumps of metallic iron,
and a vein of that metal some fect in length and a few inches thick, projected
from the basalt breccia of the locality, and differed in its trap-like composition
entirely from the stones among which it lay. A portion of this iron, together
with specimens of the larger blocks, was presented to Dr, F. Wohler for
382 REPORT—1878.
analysis, who found in its chemical composition the following approximate
ingredients :—
Fe Ni Co Fe,0, FeS Cc P Total.
46°60 119 O47 40:20 7:75 369 015 100-05
On heating the iron strongly in vacuo, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid gas
are given off by the reaction of the free carbon on the magnetic iron oxide
with which it is in contact; and the amount of oxygen present i in the iron is
so great (11:09 of its weight of oxygen being extracted from it when heated
in hydrogen gas), that no lower oxide of iron than that here assumed can be
regarded as its original mode of combination. As octahedra of magnetic
oxide were found by Nordenskiéld in the larger siderites, the highly siliceous
stone appears to be of the same origin as the large iron masses; and the ad-
mixture of free carbon and magnetic oxide of iron in its composition appears
to indicate that it has never been exposed to a very high temperature, since
its deposition in its present site. (F. Wohler’s Analysis of the Ovifak
meteoric iron, Poggendorft’s ‘ Annalen,’ July 1872).
Montlivault, Loir-et-Cher, France, 1838, July 22.—This and the following
meteorite have lately been added by M. Daubrée to the collection in the
Geological Museum of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. The meteorite
weighs 510 grammes; it has the form of a three-sided pyramid. Its mate-
rial is a finely granular mineral, consisting chiefly of olivine and augite with -
grains of nickeliferous iron and magnetic pyrites belonging to the aérolitic
group to which the name of leucite has been given. (‘The Academy,’ May
15th, 1873.)
Beuste, Basses-Pyrenées, France, 1859, May.—Two pieces of the stone
were found 700 metres apart, the larger weighing 1-4 kilogramme, and the
lesser one 420 grammes. The smaller stone penetrated the ground to the
depth of half a metre; it is covered with a black crust half a millimetre
thick; and its specific gravity is 3°53. It belongs to the Chantonnite group,
and most nearly resembles the meteorites of Poultousk, Its grey compact
mass is penetrated in every direction by veins of a black mineral, which
anastomose and exhibit irregular ramifications. (Jbid.)
Shergotty, India, 1865, August 25, 9 a.m. (local time).—This stone was
recently analyzed and examined by Prof. Tschermak (‘ Jahrbuch fiir Minera-
logie,’ 1872, No. 7). The chief mass of the stone is a greyish brown augijtic-
looking mineral, of which, however, the following analysis shows that it does
not possess the true augitic composition :—
Silica. Alumina, Iron protoxide. Magnesia, Lime. Total,
52°3 0:2 23°1 14:2 10:4 100:2
Another mineral having the percentage composition
Silica. Alumina. Lime. Soda. Potash, Total.
56:3 25°7 11:6 51 1:3 100-0
forms small octahedral crystals with vitreous fracture in the mass; and having .
not been observed so definitely hitherto, it has received the name of Maskelynite
as a new species. Bronzite, magnetic oxide, and sulphide of iron form the
remaining ingredients of the stone, whose mineral and chemical characters
strongly resemble those of the meteorites of Stannern, J uvenas, Jonzac, and
Petersburg, these stones as a class forming a group that is widely separated
from the great majority of ordinary avrolites, (1hid.)
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389
Ibbenbiihren, Germany, 1870, June 17, 2 p.m. (local time),—In the same
No. of Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen’ as that last cited (of July 1872) is contained
the analysis by Dr. G. vom Rath, and the microscopic examination of thin
sections by Dr. O. Biichner, of a meteorite which fell in Westphalia in June
1870. The principal meteorite, weighing 22 Ibs., struck the earth some
distance from a countryman who heard it fall, and, when passing by the same
place two days afterwards, observed the hole where it had penetrated the earth
of a well-trodden footpath to a depth of 2} feet. It was almost uninjured,
being covered, except at some corners, by the usual black crust. It was
brought, several months after its discovery, to Dr. Heis at Miinster, by whom
some of the particulars attending its fall are related. A lightning-like flash,
followed in about one minute by thunder, preceded the fall of the stone,
which was heard striking the earth about three minutes after the flash. A
small fragment, weighing about 1 oz., was found 300 or 400 paces from the
larger stone ; and no other fragments (the ground having since been tilled)
could be afterwards discovered. The black crust is dull and extremely thin,
its rippled texturé and penetration into fine crevices of the stone being only
discernible by means of a magnifying lens. As seen at the fractures, the
interior mass is greyish white, compact, and contains no grains of metallic
iron (which, with chrome-iron, are absent in this meteorite), but interspersed
yellowish crystalline grains, generally minute, but at one of the exposed sur-
faces reaching to 7 inch, and even to 1 inch in diameter. The microscopic
sections show that this structure is continuous, the whole mass being com-
posed of the same crystalline ingredients in larger or smaller grains, The
specific gravity of the grains is about 3-425, and that of the matrix about
3405. Chemical analysis also leads to the same conclusion, the separate
crystals being found to have the composition—
Oxides of manga-
Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. nese and calcium. Alumina, Total.
54:51 17°53 26°43 1:33 1:26 101-06
SS a
Oxygen 29:07 14:82 0-59
which is also the composition of the matrix, Classing the manganese with
the iron, and the calcium oxide with the magnesia, the mineral substance is
a bronzite, or enstatite (RO, SiO,), in which the atomic proportion of iron
oxide to magnesia is as 4:11. This simple composition is almost unique
among meteorites; but the aérolite of Shalka (India, November 30th, 1850),
as analyzed by G. Rose and Rammelsberg, consists mainly of a bronzite
(86-43 per cent., together with olivine 10:92, and chrome-iron 2°11 per cent.),
haying almost identically the same composition, yiz. :—
Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. Calcium oxide. Sodium oxide, Total.
55°55 16:53 27:73 _ 0:09 0:92 10082
The single-silicate composition of the Ibbenbiihren meteorite occurs again
remarkably in the nearly pure bronzite or enstatite materials of the aérolite
of Menegaum (India, June 29, 1843), as determined by Rammelsberg and
Maskelyne, the analysis of the crystalline portion of which (as given by
Maskelyne), from which that of the matrix scarcely differs, was as follows ;—
Silica. Iron protoxide. Magnesia. Calcium oxide. ‘Total.
55°70 20°54 22:80 1:32 100°36
differing only slightly in its specifie gravity (3-198), and in a rather higher
884 REPORT—1873.
atomic proportion of iron-oxide to magnesia, from that of the foregoing
minerals. No examples of terrestrial enstatites present nearly such a high
percentage of iron in their composition as the above specimens of the same
mineral found in meteorites are shown to exhibit by their chemical analysis.
Lancé, and Pont Loisel, Loir-et-Cher, France, 1872, July 23rd, 5" 20™ p.m.
(Tours time).—A brilliant meteor passed over a spectator stationed between
Champigny and Brisay, towards north-east, in the direction of Tours. It
presented the appearance of a spear of flame with two spheres of fire of an
orange colour. The track of one seemed to incline downwards, that of the
other to proceed straightforwards, the whole appearance becoming somewhat
more luminous at the instant that a slight divergence of the course of these
two spheres was first seen. It was lost to sight behind a cloud at St. Maure,
and an explosion was heard at 5" 26". Many observers affirm that they
heard two distinct explosions very near together; others noticed but one;
all testify to the appearance of two meteors pursuing nearly the same path.
A meteorite fell in a field near Lancé, Canton of St. Arnaud, and passed a
metre and a half through the light soil into a bed of marl. It weighed
47 kilogrammes [104 lbs.]. Some fragments separated by the fall were
found near it.” (Note by M. de Tastes, presented by M. Ste-Clair Deville,
‘Comptes Rendus,’ July 29th, 1872.)
«In the last No. of ‘Comptes Rendus’ [August 5th, 1872] M. Daubrée
records the more recent discovery of a second meteorite at Pont Loisel,
12 kilometres [74 miles] south-east of Lancé. The line joining the two
localities coincides with the direction of the trajectory of the meteors; and
the Pont-Loisel stone, though much smaller (it weighs 250 grammes [about
3 1b.]) bears the closest resemblance as regards mineral characters to the
Lancé stone. The smaller stone fell first [i. e. behind the larger one ]—a cir-
cumstance observed in former showers—and penetrated the soil to a depth of
only half a metre [about 1} foot].” (Extract from ‘The Academy,’ Septem-
ber Ist, 1872.)
As a phenomenon perhaps connected with the appearance of the Lancé
aérolite, it may be added that a large bolide (as described by M. W. de Fon-
vielle, in the ‘Revue des Courses Scientifiques’ of Aug. 3rd, 1867) was
visible at Bayonne on the evening of the 23rd of July in that year; but no
further particulars of its appearance and of its apparent course were stated.
Orvinio, Italy, 1872, August 31st, 5" 15™ a.w. (Rome time).—In the
‘Comptes Rendus’ of October 1872, the occurrences of some bright meteors in
August last are thus described by Father Secchi. One of these appeared on the
11th, and was visible at Rome, Velletri, Naples, and Palermo. A more remark-
able one was seen at Rome on the morning of the 31st, at 5" 15™ a.m., as a
bright reddish fireball appearing near the §.8.W. horizon, and disappearing in
the E.N.E. It moved slowly at first and then rapidly, expanding as it advanced
to the form of a cone with a rounded base, and flaring up at disappearance
with the emission of several bright lines, which were not seen by all the ob-
servers. <A train of light like smoke remained upon its course, which shone
as if illuminated by the sun’s rays, although the sun had not yet risen. The
sound of a violent explosion was heard a few minutes later which shook the
windows of the houses. This was more like the dull heavy sound of the ex-
plosion of a powder-magazine than like thunder; and it was followed by a
rumbling sound like that of distant musketry. Father Secchi heard the
noise, but did not see the meteor. It was, however, also seen at Viterbo and
Veroli; and the explosion was there heard quite as loud as at Rome. A
farmer watching his fields near Porto d’Anzio, saw the meteor at first over
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 385
the sea apparently motionless, and at a quarter past five he perceived it again
in another place. A shepherd near Subiaco narrowly escaped being struck
by a fragment of the meteor, which proved to be aérolitic. Father Secchi
regards the occurrence of this meteor as one of the most interesting appear-
ances of the kind on record. [Several other stones fell, weighing from less
than an ounce to one or two pounds, and the largest were found near Orvinio,
about thirty miles E.N.E. from Rome. Smaller pieces were picked up at La
Scarpa and Gerano, eight and fifteen miles south of the former place. See
Poggendorff’s ‘ Annals,’ vol. cl. p. 171; November 1873.]
III. Mereoric Suowers.
Italian Observations.—1838, June 23rd.—The No. for June 1869 of the
‘ Bullettino Meteorologico’ of Urbino contains the following citation by Prof.
Serpieri of a passage of the scientific works of Count Joseph Mamiani
(Florence, 1845), where he describes, in six letters to Arago, the meteoro-
logy of Pesaro. ‘‘A few minutes before the occurrence (about 9 P.M.) of a
very violent earthquake in that part of Italy on the 23rd of June, 1838,
many shooting or falling stars were seen coming from the east; and they
disappeared, gliding with their accustomed swiftness towards the south.
They were pretty bright, of large volume, and appeared in such unusual
numbers that people in Pesaro asked each other if fireworks were being dis-
charged in some part of the town.” Additional observations of this shower,
or of its returns, if they can be traced, will be of great interest and im-
portance.
1871, August 9-11th.—As seen at most of the Italian stations, it was
observed that the frequency of the meteors in this annual return of the
August shower was nearly equally great on the nights of the 10th and 11th,
and the time of the maximum abundance was variously estimated as having
been shortly before, or at some time after, sunrise on the morning of the
11th of August. Thus, at Cosenza Signor Bassani (assisted on the first night
by Signor Scrivani) counted the following numbers of meteors in the half
hours ending at
9 pat, 924 10 1OZ2 11> 112» 19h 193m 13h 134 14h 142h 15h 152% 16% Total.
Meteors seen
August ie bs 383 34 28 49 58 43 58 59 57 57 32 44 46 58 674.
(2 observers)
Meteors seen
August ies ba 10 15 15 23 11 25 23 24 24 18 22 16... ... 248
(1 observer)
If the numbers seen in the first night are halved (having been reckoned by
two observers), it will be seen that they were scarcely less abundant on the
second than on the first night of the shower. The numbers seen at other
places on the night of the 9th of August were much less than those counted
on the nights of the 10th and 11th. A large number of the meteors seen
were very bright, many descriptions of considerable fireballs occurring in the
long accounts of this August star-shower collected in Padre Denza’s ‘ Bul-
lettino Meteorologico’ of the Moncalieri Observatory for August to November,
1871, from which these notes of the star-shower are extracted. From the
above list of observed hourly numbers, Signor Bassani concludes that the
hour of maximum abundance of the meteors at Cosenza was during daytime,
at about 10°34™ a.m. (local time) on the forenoon of the 11th. Padre Secchi
at Rome and Prof. Galli at Velletri also consider it to have taken place
1873. 20
385 REPORT—1873.
during daytime of the 11th; and by comparing together all the descriptions,
Padre Denza regarded it as occurring between 2" and 3" a.m. on the 11th,
irrespective of the effect of the rising moon in greatly diminishing the
number of the meteors visible after that hour. A peculiarity of many of
the brightest meteors was observed that they disappeared, and then again
reappeared further on upon their course. The number of sporadic meteors
was also greater than usual, being about one third of the whole number seen
at Velletri in place of one fourth part, as was recorded in August 1869. The
horary numbers of the shower at Velletri on the 11th of August, 1871, were
greater than on the corresponding night (with an equally clear sky) in the
year 1869, in the proportion of 102-2 to 67-5. The reduction of all the obser-
vations made for the determination of the radiant-point is being undertaken
by Prof. Schiaparelli, to whom all the observations were forwarded, at Milan.
The November Shower in 1871.—In the same journal of Italian observations
for December 1871 and January 1873, a few notices of observations of the
November shower in 1871 at Italian stations are described. The sky was in
general overcast, or nearly so, and few extensive watches could be kept. It
was, however, found in Italy, as in England in that year, that the number of
meteors from Leo seen on the nights of the 12th and 18th scarcely exceeded
that of the unconformable meteors seen on the same nights. The time of
central passage of the earth through the stream on the morning of the 15th
(see the last volume of these Reports, p. 96) appears to have escaped obser-
vation at the Italian stations, the sky on that morning having been every-
where overcast.
Meteor-shower of August Tth-12th, 1872.Observations of this shower were
communicated to the Committee from most of the observers usually recording
their notes of such phenomena for the British Association, by the staff of
Mr, Glaisher’s observers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and by Pro-
fessor Main’s assistants at the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford. The sky
was completely overcast, with wind and heavy rain, on the night of the 9th
of August ; but with exception of this interruption a long list of observations
of the shower was recorded on the other nights of its duration. The accom-
panying Table shows that the apparent paths of 447 meteors were mapped,
of which nearly the same numbers were seen on the nights of the 10th and
11th by about the same numbers of observers watching for nearly the same
time, in equally favourable conditions of the sky. Many of the shooting-
stars were very bright, but the shower was not so conspicuous in the number
of bolides, and of other meteors of all descriptions, as it was in the previous
year. About twenty-five of the meteors seen were doubly or triply recorded
by observers at distant stations, enabling their real paths to be computed,
and a list of these simultaneous observations will be found in the foregoing
catalogue of such results. The whole of the recorded tracks have been more
or less completely projected upon graphic charts; but it has not yet been
found possible to determine very clearly the predominating centre of emana-
tion, or the general limits of radiation of the shower from the miscellaneous
groups of evidence which so many valuable independent observations will
in the sequel afford. For this purpose a thorough sorting of all the recorded
tracks among the known radiant-points of the epoch will be required, for
which sufficient time has not yet been at the disposal of the Committee.
Meteor-showers of September—November, 1872.—On the nights of the 5th
to 9th of September, 1872, Mr. Clark recorded the paths of several shooting-
stars at York, radiating chiefly from Cygnus and Andromeda, the greatest
number mapped being ten per hour on the night of September 8th.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 387
The sky was almost everywhere overcast on the nights of the 18th to 20th
of October, 1872, and the moon shone brightly, so that no useful observations
of the October meteors on this occasion of their annual return could be
obtained, The condition of the sky was equally unfavourable on the annual
date of the November shower of Leonids; and among the few meteors seen
in this interval, the small groups noted by Mr. Backhouse at Sunderland on
the night of the 30th of October, and by Captain Tupman at Portsmouth on
the night of the 1st of November*, are the only indications reported to the
Committee of meteors during the months of September to November having
been more than ordinarily abundant on any night before the appearance in
the latter month of the bright display of shooting-stars connected with the
recent periodic approach of Biela’s comet to the earth.
The instructions communicated by the Committee to the observers of these
meteoric showers included directions to record any unusual abundance of
meteors observable during the last week from the 23rd to 30th of November,
and to note their radiant-point. The anticipated watch was regarded by all
the observers with attentive interest ; and the first symptoms of an approaching
frequency of meteors was reported by Mr. Jackson of Tooting (Surrey), who,
observing at Hyde Park in London on the evening of the 24th of November,
in four 10™ intervals between 75 30™ and 9° 15™ p.m., saw four meteors as
bright as first-magnitude stars, all diverging from the expected direction of
the Andromedes or Biela’s comet-meteors. Between 11" 20™ and 12> 40™
on the night of the 26th of November, the sky being equally clear and star-
light, no shooting-star was visible in an equally attentive watch.
The occurrence of a distinct shower of the Andromedes on the night of
the 24th of November, 1872, was well proved by the observations of them
obtained in America (‘American Journal of Science,’ 3rd ser. vol. v. p. 53,
Jan. 1873). They were first seen by Mr. T. Hadley, Prof. Twining, and
Prof. Newton at Newhaven between half-past seven o’clock and midnight on
that night, when their number was about forty per hour for one observer.
Several of their tracks were mapped, and the position of their radiant-point
was estimated by Prof. Newton, at the time, as being two or three degrees north
of the star y Andromedet. They were also noticed by Mr. Gummere, of
Bethlehem, Pa., on the same night. On the night of the 25th the sky was
more obscured by clouds ; but in comparison with the unconformable meteors
visible at the same time, the frequency of the Andromedes appeared to be
scarcely more than a third of what it had been on the previous night.
During the night of the 26th the sky was quite overcast.
A correspondent of ‘The Field’ newspaper of January 25th, 1873, Mr.
K. L, Layard, adds at the end of an animated description of the Biela comet-
shower, as observed in his vicinity at Para in Brazil, “on the night of the
26th of November [7.e. the 27th, European style] one of my servants
informs me she saw an equally fine display on the 23rd inst.” This notice
of the earlier shower in South America evidently relates to the same border-
stream of the Andromedes, observed also by Mr, Maxwell Hall (‘ Nature’,
* As described in Appendix I. (Meteors doubly observed, November 3rd, 1872), viz.
three radiant-points by Mr. Backhouse on October 30th, at 0°,+-55° (4 meteors) ; at y, A
Ceti (about 40°, +6°, eight or ten meteors); and perhaps a third radiant-point ate Piscium
of a few meteors not conformable to the two former points: and lastly a distinct radiant-
point of ten pretty bright meteors seen in about 40 minutes on the night of November Ist,
and of three others seen in about the same time on the night of November 3rd, at 56°,
+24°, notified to the Committee by Captain Tupman.
t A radiant-point of some fainter and more rapid meteors was at the same time
noticed in the eastern sky, perhaps in the neighbourhood of Orion.
2c2
388 REPORT—18738.
March 6th, 1873) in Jamaica, with about the same radiant-point on the
night of the 24th. The display of the 27th, Mr. Hall relates was simply a
repetition of a star-shower quite similar to it on the former date.
The first announcement of the principal display on the night of the 27th of
November was received by Prof. Herschel at Newcastle-on-Tyne, by tele-
graph, from Messrs. Waller and S. P. Thomson at York, and Mr. Backhouse
at Sunderland at about 6 o’clock P.m., when it was also being watched at
most of the observatories and other points of observation in the north of
England and Scotland, while an impenetrable veil of cloud unfortunately
prevented all the observers, south of a line drawn from Wisbeach on the
Wash, through Birmingham, from obtaining a momentary view of it in the
south of England. The best series of observations were accordingly only
obtained at a few northern stations, where the sky continued cloudless
throughout the night; and the rate of frequency of the meteors was thus
counted continuously until the end of the display by Mr. Lowe at Beeston,
near Nottingham, and by Prof. Grant at the observatory at Glasgow. During
100|= Sty Sree eae ee Dee ar i Dern es Seen | |)
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Meteors per minute for one observer.
Meteors per minute for one observer.
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the latter part of the shower a continuous enumeration of the meteors was
also obtained by Lord Rosse at his observatory at Birr Castle in Ireland.
The numbers counted by other observers in general only applied to very
limited portions of the shower. It was thus observed by Captain Brinkley
and his two sons, near Dublin, that bright meteors were already visible in
full daylight on the afternoon, and that about twenty-three per minute could
be counted by one observer as soon as dusk set in on the evening of the 27th,
at about 5° 20™ p.m. Counting alone, Mr. Lowe reckoned that an even
greater number per minute could be counted by one observer at that early
hour. The numbers, however, rose as the hour grew later; and between
ebout half-past six and eight o’clock p.m. the shower continued to be visible at
its greatest brightness, declining gradually after this time until an observer
near Dublin, Mr, M. H. Close, looking out for more than a quarter of an
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 389
hour immediately after 2 o’clock a.m., with a sky fairly clear for observations
saw not a single meteor in that time. By examining the accompanying
diagram, it will be seen that the curves of meteoric frequency, 1, 2, 3, which
represent the rates of appearance of the meteors observed by Mr. Lowe,
Prof. Grant, and Lord Rosse, all descend towards midnight to the low
average of about five meteors per minute for one observer.
At about the latter hour (corresponding to 6" 52™ p.m., Washington mean
time) the shower first began to be visible in the United States of America,
where it was carefully observed by the astronomers at Washington, by
Profs. Newton and Twining at Newhaven, by Mr. Marsh at Philadelphia, and
by many other observers for some hours, with a view scarcely obscured by
clouds. The following rates of appearance for a single observer are derived
(as nearly as such reductions can be made by the convenient table supplied
for this purpose by Prof. Newton; see these Reports for 1867, p. 412) from
the numbers counted by the party of observers at Newhaven, and by Mr.
Marsh at Philadelphia; and the correspondence, if not complete, yet shows
that the rate of appearance of the meteors at the commencement of the
shower in the United States of America, did not differ very greatly from that
observed nearly at the same absolute time in England, when the most long-
enduring series of observations there of their decreasing frequency towards
midnight were discontinued.
Approximate numbers of meteors per minute for one observer of the star-
shower in the United States of America on the 27th of November, 1872*.
Newhaven.
Washington mean time ...... 6h44m 4m Th4m 15™ 28" 49m H8m Bb17™ 38"
Meteors counted per minute... 8-2 77 51 45 44 37 37 31 25
Greenwich mean time ......... 11552m 12hg" 12™ 23m 36m 50™ 1356" 25m 46m
Philadelphia.
Washington mean time ...... 6516" 623m 37m 7h20™ 54™ = 11537"
Meteors counted per minute... 5'5 3 2:5 2 15 02
Greenwich mean time ......... 11524m)41h3gi™ «45m «12h28mghQm 16845"
During the height of the shower various maxima occurred, the principal
of which were seen by the English observers shortly before 7, and shortly
after 8 o’clock p.m., with a less marked maximum between them. The
greatest disagreement and uncertainties of the observations relate to the
commencement of the shower, which set in and was first begun to be
counted during the departing twilight. But as the sun had set nearly three
quarters of an hour in Italy, and about an hour and a half at Athens when
it disappeared in England, the observations begun at dusk in those more
eastern stations supply materials to complete the curve of frequency towards
its commencement, which may be more fully relied upon than the imperfect
observations made at the same time in Great Britain. In the accompanying
diagram, the curves 4 and 5 represent the numbers of meteors per minute for
one observer, as recorded in Italy by Padre Denza at the observatory of
* The times of observation in the first list are the middle points of the periods in
which 200 meteors were counted at Newhaven ; und the numbers of meteors “‘ per minute”
are the average rates of frequency in those periods from the numbers counted in the sepa-
rate intervals as stated in the original list, reduced in each case to the number that would
have been recorded by a single observer watching for the same interval of time. The
numbers in the second list are similar average rates for the middle points of the intervals
of his watch, as obtained directly from Mr. Marsh’s observations.
390 REPORT—1873.
Monealieri near Turin, and by Prof. Carlo Bruno at that of Mondovi in
Piedmont. The curve No. 6 is the average rate of frequency per minute,
as given for each hour of Athens time, beginning from about 4 o’clock p.m.
(G.M.T), in the results of his observations of the shower by Dr. J. F.
Schmidt, the director of the Athens observatory. All the curves thus shown
are drawn in the figure in their proper relative positions in Greenwich time.
The progress of the meteoric shower was intermittent, or composed of
alternate lulls and outbursts of the intensity of the display which almost
defeated attempts to count the meteors when flights of large numbers of them
often appeared almost simultaneously. The mode of counting adopted by
Professor Grant at Glasgow, and by Professor C. Bruno at Mondoyi, of noting
the numbers visible in successive intervals of 5 minutes, fails to show the
rapid oscillations of intensity which took place, while it gives very distinctly
the gradual variations of the shower. The method adopted by Padre Denza
at Moncalieri was to record the minute and second of time at the end of each
interval in which 400 meteors were counted, and the curve of frequency thus
obtained shows all the sudden oscillations of the shower*. The description
of its appearance by Padre Denza suggests that in the clear Italian sky more
remarkable features attended it than have been recorded in any other
meteoric shower. ‘‘ Frequently small white or yellowish clouds sprang up in
the clear sky, and after remaining visible for -a few seconds disappeared.
Some of these as soon as they appeared dispersed themselves in shooting-
stars, in general minute, but sometimes all of considerable brightness,
radiating towards every side like fragments from a bursting shell. The most
remarkable of them made its appearance suddenly near and north-west of the
radiant-point above Capella at 6"35™ p.m., in full view of the observer, Signor
Vergnano, without being preceded by any shooting-star. It formed a round
white or yellowish nebular patch of light, about 2° in diameter, in the appa-
rent position 71°,445°. It slowly drifted a short distance towards the west,
becoming elongated and assuming various shapes as it gradually grew fainter
and yellower in colour. At 6"50™ its position was near a and 2) Persii at
57°,+53°, and it disappeared at this place at 6"56™ p.m., having been con-
stantly visible for not less than 21 minutes.” Similar meteoric light clouds
are stated by Padre Denza to have been seen in the November star-showers
of 1868 and 1869 at Madrid and in the United States, and in the August
meteor-showers of 1867 and 1872 by the observers at Modena and Urbino;
a substance of unusual tenuity in such cases perhaps entering the atmo-
sphere, and either emitting some denser shooting-stars at its collision, or
remaining luminous alone at the point where it first encounters the upper
strata of the air. “A more singular appearance, not exemplified in any
former star-shower, took place at about 7°30" p.m., during the greatest
intensity of the shower. A cloud of faint greyish light, like a thin veil,
spread itself in one instant over the wide space in Camelopardus between the
Pole-star and the Lynx, with its centre at about 55°,4+ 66°, and with a
breadth of about 20°, hiding the faint stars in that direction. From this
cloud Signor Vergnano and I beheld with surprise a perfect shower of
meteors of the smallest size falling vertically on all sides, like the slenderest
serpent fireworks, differing entirely from the star-shower that occupied the
* A process of equal-weight reduction, recommended by Mr. Glaisher, for levelling
very abruptly varying observations, was three times applied to the meteoric rate-curve at
Moncalieri before all the extraordinary oscillations which it presents were so considerably
removed as to produce eyen the very irregular curve of frequency represented on the
accompanying figure. ~
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 391
other portions of the sky, and continuing to appear as long as the principal
shower was at its height until 5 minutes after 8 o’clock. The cloud then
gradually dispersed, and at 8 minutes after 8 o’clock it left the portion of the
sky which it had occupied as clear as it had been at first. So small and
frequent were the meteors of this group that they could not be counted, and
they were omitted from the enumeration of those which passed across that
region of the sky.”
Although many meteors of great brilliancy were seen, Padre Denza esti-
mates the proportion of first-magnitude shooting-stars not to have exceeded
the fifth or sixth part of the whole number visible. Their courses were short,
their speed moderate, and their colour white or bluish white. A faint aurora
was visible during a great part of the continuance of the shower.
These singular features of the display were not, however, recorded by the
majority of the observers; but a faint aurora was observed at Palermo and
at other places in Italy, which, owing to commotions of the sun’s photo-
sphere on that day, and not in the anticipation of any meteoric shower, Prof.
Tacchini telegraphed to some distant stations would probably be visible during
the night of the 27th. It was seen at Liverpool, and elsewhere in England ;
as well as a much brighter aurora at Bristol on the morning of the 24th.
The shower was seen at Bombay, beginning at 8 o’clock p.m., and lasting
with great brilliancy for eight hours; at the Mauritius passing its maximum
between 11” and half-past 11 o’clock p.m. (where pulsations of the Aurora
Australis were also seen); and at Para in Brazil beginning at dusk and con-
tinuing until nearly midnight, besides at numerous places in Europe and
the United States of America where it was carefully observed. From the
nearly vertical descent of the meteors in Europe and America from a radiant-
point overhead, their apparent paths and durations were short, and a few
only of the brightest left very persistent streaks. It was remarked by Prof.
Newton that the bodies themselves were without doubt smaller, and would
therefore in any case be more quickly consumed than the usual August and
November meteors. None were observed at Washington or Newhaven that
_ would have appeared notable in either the display of August 10th or of
November 14th. Among the 10,000 meteors counted at Glasgow Obser-
vatory by Professor Grant, only eight are described as having been as bright
as Sirius or Jupiter; and about the same number were regarded by Mr. Lowe
as sufficiently conspicuous for description among about 14,000 meteors, which
he estimates to have been visible from his point of view. By Padre Denza
about twenty meteors are stated to have been as bright as Jupiter or Venus
among the 33,000 shooting-stars counted by his assistants. In a foggy and
lamp-lit atmosphere on the Capitol at Rome, Padre Secchi reckoned only a
fifth part as equal to second-magnitude stars, and a twentieth part as bright
as first-magnitude stars. Of the latter kind 188 were recorded, and only
thirty-three leaving phosphorescent streaks, among a total number of nearly
14,000 meteors seen there by his observers. One of these bright meteors was
a fine bolide, leaving a bright streak visible for about 3 minutes. Prof. Tacchini
states the numbers of various brightnesses seen at Palermo thus :—
Ist 2nd 3rd 4th 5th and 6th magnitudes.
Numbers of meteors seen ...... 10 1 40 53 698 (Total 802)
Of the ten first-magnitude meteors four were unconformable, and radiated
from a point below Orion, leaving very persistent streaks. Among about
8000 meteors seen at Athens, Dr. Schmidt could also not include a single
bolide having a sensible apparent disk. The average magnitude of the
3892 REPORT—18738.
meteors at all the stations where they were carefully described is regarded as
not having much exceeded the fourth magnitude of the fixed stars. Orange,
red, and yellow, and more rarely green, were the predominating colours of
the brightest ; and when thus conspicuous an aureole of red and yellow sparks
surrounded the nucleus in mid course, while a short white streak was left for
a few seconds, and very rarely for a few minutes, upon the track. The astro-
nomer at Bordeaux, M. Lespiault, however, records (‘ Comptes Rendus,’ 1872,
Dec. 2nd) that “many of the meteors left bright streaks, some of which re-
mained visible 10™ or 15", changing their shape and position in the sky
slightly before they disappeared.” The great majority of the meteors were
mere points of dull white or yellowish light, without sparks or streak, moving
with very moderate speed in short courses of from 4° to 6° only, attaining
greater lengths of 10° or 15° and brighter white or bluish colour only in excep-
tional cases of the larger meteors of the shower ; their extinction was always
without explosion and quite gradual, but a few showed two maxima of
brightness or intermittent light. A frequent peculiarity of the meteors was
a curved or wavy course. This was noticed by Dr. Schmidt at Athens, by
Prof. Newton at Newhaven, and by Mr. E. L. Layard at Para in Brazil, who
writes, ‘Some I saw apparently disappear for a moment and come out again,
and two to my great surprise had a wavy course.”
At the Mauritius, on the other hand, where the radiant was nearer the
horizon in the north, the meteors had long courses, and frequently left long
streaks upon their tracks. ‘The first meteor at 11" 22™ p.m. started from
the tail-stars of Aries, and vanished south of the ecliptic. The train of this
meteor was distinctly visible for 4 minutes, slowly wheeling from horizontal to
vertical, and remaining 2 minutes vertical to the horizon. The other meteor,
starting from a point at right angles to Aries and the Pleiades, passed through
the Pleiades, Taurus, and Orion, and vanished near Sirius. Its luminous
train was visible for more than a minute. Nearly all the meteors observed
radiated from a point near Aries, at right angles with the Pleiades, and shot
either like the last or transverse to it. A streak as broad as the head in all
cases, and in 80 or 90 per cent. of them 10° or 20° long, remained visible on
their tracks generally for a second or two. In the last two cases the broad
bright streak was at least 40° long.” (Messrs. Bruce and Hon. E. Newton.)
“ From 10°15™ to 10"30™, the Hyades, Pleiades, and Orion being about
40° or 50° above the north horizon, the meteors appeared flying from north
to south, and from N.E. to S.E. or from N.W. to 8.W. on each side of north.
Their rate of appearance was about one per second, two or three sometimes
appearing together. The nearer ones every few minutes showed trains and
sparks like a rocket, varying from 2° or 3° to 5° or 6° in length, and seldom
reaching 10°. Towards 11 o’clock fewer seemed to be falling than before.”
(Messrs. A. C. M‘Pherson and Hon. Robert Stein.)
In lat. 19° 52’ S., long. 50° 25’ E., Captain Gaston of §. ‘ Penelope,’ “ saw
an extraordinary star-shower beginning at about 7°30". The meteors shot
from north towards south-east. Some of them were bright, others leaving
only a slender streak, and this display lasted until 2" a.m.” The radiant in
the Mauritius must have been near o Z Persei, and the time of maximum of
the shower at or soon after 11" p.m. (Mr. C. Meldrum’s report on the shower
in ‘ Nature’ of January 23rd, 1873.) ‘
The radiation of this star-shower was very scattered, and the positions
assigned to it by various observers often differed very considerably from each
other. Thus the last-mentioned position assigned to it by Mr. Meldrum
from the observations at the Mauritius, is at about R. A. 54°, Decl. + 31°;
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 393
while an observer near Dublin, Mr. M. H. Close, describes its position as near
— Andromede at R.A. 19°, Decl. + 45°; and independently of their geo-
graphical position, such differences are found among the notes of many ob-
servers of the shower. The great majority of the best determinations of its
place are, on the other hand, very near the latter place. The accompanying
diagram shows the recorded positions, from ninety independent determina-
North Declination.
35U 2U 10 v)
R.A. in degrees.
tions of its place, which are described as definite points among the accounts
given by different observers of their observations of the shower. The prin-
cipal region comprises a compact group of about thirty-five observations,
having their centre or average place at R. A. 25°1, Decl. +42°9. There are
besides many observations of radiant-points on the northern and eastern side of
this group (twenty-two observations) in the same ten-degree square of R. A.
and Decl. with it, of which the centre is at R. A. 25°-9, Decl. + 46°-7,
forming an apparent diffuseness of the principal radiant region in that
direction. Lastly, the average position of all the outlying radiant-points
(thirty-three observations) is at R. A. 23°-0, Decl. +45°3, and the average
position of all the ninety observations projected in this map, at R. A. 24°54,
Decl.+ 44°74, can scarcely be more than half a degree from the general di-
rection of these numerously recorded centres of divergence of the shower.
The position fixed by Mr. Hind’s computation of the radiant-point of par-
ticles of Biela’s comet had the shower been visible at the comet’s last return
in 1866 is at R.A. 25°-25, Decl. +42°, not quite 3° southward from the
general radiant place, and 1°.south of the mean principal or central radiant-
point of the shower as found by these observations of its recent great appear-
ance in November 1872.
The November Meteoric Shower in 1872.—The annual appearance of the
star-shower on the morning of the 14th of November, 1872, was observed at
the Lyceum at Matera, in Piedmont, by Signor Viso Eugenio ; and from the
numbers seen, it appears to have been of considerable brightness. The
following were the hourly numbers counted. Although the number of the
394 REPORT—1873.
observers is not stated it was probably four, the number who watched the
appearance of the following star-shower on the 27th of the same month, and
who counted during the whole of that single night 44,644 shooting stars!
(Communicated by G. V. Schiaparelli and Padre F. Denza).
Total numbers of shooting stars seen at Matera, Italy, on the morning of
November 14th, 1872, in the half-hours ending at—
12 30™ aw. 12 1230™ 2b Qh39m 3h 3h30™ 4h 4b 30™ 5h 5230™ 6 Total.
Nos. of
meteors i 10-9 13°17 25) 41-79 122 149: 109" 57 ~ “638
seen
Star-showers of December 12th, 1872, and January 2nd, 1873.—From the
effect of bright moonlight and of a cloudy sky, no observations of the
December meteors in 1872 could be obtained. The sky was equally overcast
on the night of January 1st, 1873; but accounts in the newspapers (‘ Daily
Telegraph’) of the 3rd mentioned the occurrence of several bright meteors on
the morning of the 2nd of January between 1" and 2” 4.m. at Wrexham. On
the night of December 31st, Mr. Denning traced the paths of twelve meteors
in 3 hours on a map, without perceiving a distinct radiant-point, the principal
centres of divergence being apparently near 6 Leonis, a Geminorum, and in
Ursa Major. The sky was clear, and the light of an aurora rather bright in
the north. ;
On the night of January 2nd the sky was clear between storm-clouds at
Bristol, and Mr. Denning saw an intense flash of lightning (which was per-
haps meteoric) from the south, at Bristol. But shooting-stars at this place
and at other stations where the sky was clear were exceedingly scarce until
midnight, not more than two or three small ones appearing in an hour. The
largest number counted was six meteors per hour, by Mr. Wood at Birming-
ham, of which only one diverged from the usual radiant-point of the January
shower. The appearance of the star-shower at Wrexham on the morning of
January 2nd was, however, fully confirmed by Mr. Backhouse at Sunderland,
whoin a watch kept between 5" and 7" a.m. on that morning, recorded the
paths of 31 meteors, the rate of their appearance being 37 per hour for one
observer. The radiant-point, or rather the centre of a radiant area, which
seemed to be 7° or 8° in diameter, was at R. A. 234°, N. Decl. 48°, within
3° of the position near ¢ Quadrantis, where it was observed by Professor
Herschel on the 2nd of January, 1864 (‘ Report’ for 1864, p. 98), and
agreeing well with the bright character of the display, and with the great
scarcity of meteors on each of the adjacent nights, in marking the shower as
a very well-defined reappearance of the January meteors of that periodic date.
On the nights of the 25th and 27th of February, 1873, bright meteors
were seen by Mr. H. W. Jackson at Tooting, who drew attention to their
appearance as perhaps indicating special star-shower dates. On the latter
night several bright meteors were also noted by Mr. Denning at Bristol while
observing Jupiter through a telescope, without paying particular attention to
record their numbers and directions. A bright flash like hghtning appeared
behind a cloud in the south at 10° 30™, the rest of the sky being clear; and
a bright shooting-star observed at 7" 30™ was recorded simultaneously by
Mr. Denning and by Mr. Jackson at Tooting (see the foregoing list of double
observations).
The April Star-shower in 1873.—On the nights of the 19th and 20th of
April, 1873, the sky was in general clear, with fog or clouds at some stations
a“ Os aa
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NUMBERS OF METEORS SEEN (s.) AND MAPPED (m.) IN AUGUST 1872
To fuce page 395. ae g
o fuce page ] Dates and Durations of the Observations.
Y Anew 1872. | 7th. | 8th. | 9th. 10th. | 1th. Ph,
|———— Se SEEEEEEESEEeeee| EEE SET EET saa a ee ae = ae =a = ed
Hour. | No.of | , eke &, |. Hour. No. of | « ; _ Hour, | No.of | , aaa Tanne loNoot |e i Geer alla lee
One eu ern te eel RESO ihes | iim Te afte Stato of Sky, 0) From (‘To Moteors. | Balch {pez orcas | astadca, | State of Sky, &. | From To | Meteors] State of Shy, &e- | rom To | Meteors State of Sky, ka | =
| a es a == je ae | |
= / } | | | [hm hm] h hm h | S|
hm hm | {hm hm | j hom hm} : | a! m ’ m hm
Portree, Skye. | | | At 1050) Im. rn cee ss ove 0 Quite overcast. At 10 33 | 1m, udy. In 10™ & 0 Quite overcast. - re The TW. Backhouse
| | . . Torr ; | 5
‘At night. Afine aurora, | «+ nae ) Torrents of rain. ire. see cen arene oe z .
| en 5 | 950 1050| 158 | },then quiteover-| 10 14 1047] 15s, | Fclear in places, | 1040 12 0/908. | ¥ clear; 1020 1150] 58s. |4fairlyclear; 49) | a Cet reo tet BR MClure
a } | 8m. cast; 2 obser- | (40™ watch.) 5m. then quiteover- | | 21m vers; 80 Per- 16m Perseids, 9 un- | ‘Perseids, 97 W 2 E, Clark.
| } | vers; aurora at cast | | seids, 10 nn- conformable. | | enforce am | 1. HL Waller.
| 9.56 and 10, | conformable. | le.)
ee an, oe gl ec ere | 0) Overcastandrain.| 11 30 1230] 15s, | Clouds 4. 10 82 1056] 4m. | Cloudy 3, then | Idi per’ en
cat | = (tlm. tle ofereat | "4, oar on WH Woon
| | 1043 1052] 2m. |Thelatterbright*; fiaak fa eee
| | | | | | F elles }ithen 4 cloudy. | sky. unconformable,
Birmingham a | | | | | } 9 0 1085) 8m. | Cloudslightrain,| ... ... oe a Allin and near | D. Smith,
pasar bec | | | | | | then } clear. | lis Parseusl racllarit|| ama
| | | | 11 0 12 0| 13m. | Cloudy }, in last | | at xp.
| | | | | 30 often over- | |
| | cast. |
| | | 13 0 14 0| 25m. | Meteors frequent. |
. | | | | 14 0 15 0} 7m. | Meteors at wide | | H
| | | | ] | intervals. | |
Bangor, North) 1027 ll 2 | js. 4 Perseids, lun-| 10 0 1045) &m ?Sky; 7 Perseids, | wo 20 By | lees , ate 2h i Vi cece es on | cts G. L Tupman.
| ‘Wales. : 4m. conformable, | 1045 1140] 2m. | 3. uuvonforai-| |
| | able. | | |
Tatone Saye a | = Wt 2 4s. |Smallones;bright} .. + 0 | Overcast and | . a. | 0 Cloud and wind. At 1015] 1s. |VerybrightinW.,| ... ae an lw.
Weston - Super | ry brig] F, Denning.
Miaralenccuoc ett | aurora, and on windy. | | only downwards. ai
| the 3rd. | | Clear in W. for |
| | afew minutes.
Buntingford, | }1015 1045| 5m. |Clearsky; aurora} -. - a At 10 1m. | Cloudy, almost) 1045 13 0 | 35m. |Clouds; bright} 1030 12 0/ 13m. | Clear; 1 bright| RP. Greg.
Herts.........+++4] | | }__ at 126, | overcast. one at 12.18 t. at 11.12.30.
i don | | 5 | 9 0 935| 0 | Pretty clear; no| 2 ss AD e | 1047 1155] 9m. | Olouds (1 very} 10 20 11 10| Many | Cloudy }, then ae H.W, Jackson
Tooting, Loi | iy J y of
| | | | meteors in 30. | bright at seen, quite overcast ; |
| | 10,04*). 2m. 1_ bright at |
‘ 10.48. |
Regent's Park,| =. --. Bilt paces | 5 10 8| 3m, |Cloudsondrain.| .. ... 0 Quite overcast. | 10 3 1215] 23s. | }clearinpatches,| 910 935] Im. | 4 clear; no Per- | 1. Crumplen.
Tiondon .........| | | | 12m. then quite over- seids; bright, |
| | cast ; 2 bright, at 9.18, Lyraid. |
| 10.3 and 10.46, b| |
Pior Street,| 10 20 1044} 3m. |Smallones;1ob-| 1012 1112] 5m. | Bright ones; 1 et 0 Overcast. 938 11 3|12m. | Bright ones at| 937 1237 | 52m. | Bright one at | | W. Marriott
: 2.
Greenwich......| | server, observer. 10.58* and 11,3. 12.19.28 t.
One observer. One observer. | |
Royal Observa-| 948 1045] 95. | Afterwards over-| 959 11 56| 20s. | 1 observor. li wen ees 0 Quite overcast. | 13 31 13.37 | 2m. | Generally over-| 953 12 0} 29s. |15perhour; one) .. .. | G. Forbes.
y.
tory,Greenwich| Gm. | cast. 17 m. cast. One ob- | 19m. observer. ? sky.
| server. |
Royal Observa-| 1014 1221| 9m. |Some bright; 3| 934 15 8| 28m. |Small bolido at| 912 941| 2m. |Smallones;2ob-) 945 1830 | 34m. |1 vory bright ot | 922 1242) 55m. | Bolides 2x x at| 10 52 12 55 | 10m. | Small ones; 1 ob-| W. C. Nash.
tory.Greenwich | observers. 14.27.45. 3 ob- sorvers, | 13.34.30 in N. 10.641 and | server. T, Wright.
| | | servers, then 1 2 observers, 11.19.48. 3, | W. Bishop.
| | observer. | then 3 obser- then 1 obser- R, Cross.
| | vers, ver. W- A. Schultz.
Totals . 948 1221 Pretty clear; 6} 9 0 15 8| 918, |Clovds about 4. 912 1047|17s | Wind and min;| 9 0 15 02968, |Cloudy,}to}. 15] 910 18 0 [217s |12 observers; 4| 1090 1265|23s. | Clear; 2 obser- 610s
observers. 78m, 14 observers. 7m. almost entirely {153 m. observers. 164 m. to $ cloudy. 23 m. | vers. 7m.
an overcast. | |
* A bright meteor triply observed at Greenwich, Tooting, and Birmingham at 10% 63™ r.s1., on August 10th (seo the first Table in Appendix T.). A fine aurora was seen at Rothbury, Northumberland, between 9° and 104 p.w, on this night by Mr. G. A. Lebour,
+ A bright meteor triply observed at the Royal Observatory and at Prior Street, Groonwich, and at Buntingford, Herts, nt 124 19™ 4.s1., on August 12th (see the general list of duplicate observations in Appendix I.),
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 395
only, but on the 21st it was generally overcast. In London, and at Bristol,
Street (near Bath), York, Sunderland, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, observa-
tions of some hours’ duration on each night were made; and a list of shooting-
stars was also recorded on the night of the 21st by Mr. Denning at Bristol.
The number of meteors from Lyra did not exceed that of the unconformable
meteors (amounting together to about eight per hour) on either of these
periodic nights ; but the proportion observable on the 19th was slightly higher
than on the other nights. A long-continued watch was kept by Mr. Lucas at
the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford from 10 o’clock p.m. until half-past two,
and half-past one o’clock a.m. on the nights of the 19th and 20th of April
respectively, with similar results. The centre of the April meteor-stream
appears from these observations to have been crossed by the earth during the
daytime of April 20th, when daylight intervening between two slender indica-
tions of the shower must have caused the period of its greatest intensity to pass
unobserved. Four double observations of shooting-stars occurred among the
lists recorded on the first two nights, descriptions of which are contained in
the foregoing catalogue of such identifiable accordances.
The August Meteors in 1873.—The observations of this annual shower
were much incommoded by clouds, and the brightness of the full moonlight
concealed a large proportion of the meteors of the shower, which would
otherwise have been visible. -On the night of the 10th the sky was every-
where completely overcast, and on that of the 11th so much so that a conti-
nuous record of the numbers seen could not be obtained at any of the ob-
servers’ stations. The following are the numbers seen at Bristol by two
observers, looking towards the N.E. and N.W. quarters of the sky, during
successive quarters of an hour, ending on the night of the 9th of August at
Totals in
TOe30™, ~45™ 028 ote do™, 30", 45s och ome
Nos. of meteors
seen in the N.W. 2 3 ieee fee 0) 1 2 1 9
(C. P. Denning) .
Nos. in the N.E.
(E. Barker) .... ; e : a 4 2 26
Total numbers seen 11 v4 1 6 5 5 35
On the night of the 11th Mr. Denning found them to be more frequent
than on the 9th, and the appearance of their display was that of an August
star-shower of somewhat considerable brightness. At the other stations it was
not found possible to count the meteors, as at Bristol, so as to trace the pro-
gress and apparent brightness of the shower on account of the frequent in-
terruptions from the general prevalence of cloudy skies; but a continuous
watch kept at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, by Mr. Lucas, for about
four hours on the night of the 9th, and for an hour and a half on that of the
11th, corroborates Mr. Denning’s observations. About 50 meteors were
mapped at all the stations in a total watch of about 7 hours on the 9th, and
about 30 meteor-paths in a total watch of about 33 hours on the 11th. Those
meteors of the collected list which were simultaneously observed at two or
more stations in the watch are described in the above catalogue of double
observations. The position of the radiant-point and other particulars of the
appearance of the shower will be examined for comparison with the observa-
tions of the previous year, when the necessary projections of the meteor-
tracks can be completed.
396 REPORT—1873.
Meteors of September 1st, 1873.—Quite an abundance of bright meteors
(as communicated by Mr. J. E. Clark) was seen at Street, Somersetshire, on
the night of the Ist of September, 1873. Nine meteors, some of them very
fine ones, were seen between 11" and 12" p.m., mostly in the south; but the
directions of their apparent paths were not noted with sufficient accuracy to
determine the place of their radiant-point, or if all the meteors of the display
diverged very definitely from a common centre.
IV. Papers RELATING To MretEorIc ASTRONOMY.
The discussions relating to the second great star-shower in November, now
known to be connected with Biela’s comet, occupy the principal place of in-
terest among the various published papers on meteoric astronomy during the
past year. In the Reports of this Committee for the years 1868 (p. 399) and
1869 (p. 305), the communications of Professors d’Arrest and Galle on the con-
nexion of certain comets with meteor-showers are briefly abstracted from two
Numbers (1633 and 1635) of the ‘Astronomische Nachrichten ’ of the month of
March, 1867 (the same apparent connexions having already been announced
by Dr. Weiss, of Vienna, in the next preceding No. 1632 of the same Journal),
with some errors and omissions which require correction. The star-shower
indicated by d’Arrest differs entirely from the principal December star-shower
of December 11th—13th, there supposed to be signified, whose radiant-point
is between the constellations Gemini and Auriga. That indicated by Prof.
d’Arrest is a star-shower, having a more north-westerly radiant-point in
Andromeda, appearing in the British Association list of 1868 as A,, (Nov. 23-
Dec. 18), connected perhaps with A,, ,, of an earlier date, and in Dr.
Heis’s list of the year 1867 * as A,, and A,, in the latter half of November and
beginning of December, whose positions are all in or near the constellation
Cassiopeia. It is pointed out by Prof. d’Arrest that meteoric showers having
this direction occurred on the following dates :—
A.D. 1741. ap. 1798. A.D. 1830. A.D. 1838.
Dec. 5. Dec. 6. Dec. 12. [?A bolide only.] Dec. 6 & 7.
which may be supposed to be connected with the passages of the earth through
the node of the orbit of Biela’s comet. On the last of these dates the position
of the radiant-point was found by Flaugergues in France, and Herrick in the
United States to be near Cassiopeia, at about 30°, +40° for the former, and
in less R. A. and greater declination for the latter observer’s estimate of its
osition.
3 In ‘Nature’ of Jan. 16th, 1878, Mr. T. W. Webb thus recalls some excel-
lent observing-notes of that star-shower, which he formerly reported with
many similar notes to the late Professor Baden Powell :—‘‘1838, Dec. 7.
A great number of falling stars were observed between 6" and 7° p.m. In
about half an hour 40 were counted, sometimes by one, sometimes by two,
sometimes by three observers, two at a medium. They were of all magni-
tudes up to the first. The larger dissolved into a train of light, but left no
train behind them. The S. and W. quarters were chiefly observed, but their
prevalence seemed to be universal. They all fell in nearly a vertical direc-
tion ; but those in the N.W. and§.E. quarters inclined towards 8.W. [7. e. the
radiant-point was not far from the place occupied by it in November 1872].
The colours of the more conspicuous ones seemed to verge towards orange.
Their courses were of no great length. There was at the same time a pale
* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1642. See end of this Report.
+ These Reports, 1852, p. 185.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 397
auroral light along the north horizon, extending from N.W. to N.E., apparently
equally extended on each side of the true meridian. The meteors were not
watched after 7"; but about 11", on looking out again, I saw one, the only
one in several minutes in the 8.W.; but it had now no longer a vertical di-
rection, its course pointing now to the N.W.” ‘The endeavours of the Com-
mittee to consult an account of the same phenomenon by Mr. Maverly at
Gosport, if it was published as stated by Mr. Webb, have not hitherto been
attended with the success that will, perhaps, await the further continuation
of their search.
An error of omission is also contained in the above-mentioned abstracts of
the Papers of d’Arrest and Galle; as it is not observed that the latter as well
as the former astronomer pointed out the probable connexion of such meteoric
showers with Biela’s comet. At the close of his note on the cometary cha-
racter of the April star-shower, Dr. Galle adds:—“< Amongst other comets
yielding meteor-showers, if some overtake the earth they would appear more
deflected from their real orbits than meteor-streams arriving from the oppo-
site direction. As an example of this kind, I calculated the radiant-point of
the comet of Biela at its descending node, since the date of this (Nov. 28th) is
found to occur in a period of considerable frequency of meteors; but I have
not found in all the observations to which I could refer that the date of
Noy. 28th is especially distinguished from other days near it; and it appears
to be connected with the weeks immediately preceding and following it in
the prevalence of meteoric displays. The comet’s direct motion makes the
date of its nodal passage less fixed and less certain, and the agreement with
observations accordingly less likely to be so perfect in the case of this comet
as in other cases. Yet renewed observations on the night of the 27th of
November certainly deserve to be very carefully repeated.” (Breslau, March
11th, 1867; ‘Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1635.) D’Arrest’s communi-
cation in the ‘Astr. Nachr.’ No. 1633, is dated Copenhagen, Feb. 25th, 1867.
The calculations showing the probable connexion of two comets (1861, I., and
Biela’s comet) with the April and November to December star-showers by
Dr. Weiss, are contained in an earlier No. (1632) of the ‘Astronomische Nach-
richten.’ The latter memoir was extended and completed by Dr. Weiss in the
‘Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No. 1710, and in the valuable paper presented
to the Academy of Sciences at Vienna on the 16th of January, 1868, ‘ Beitrige
zur Kentniss der Sternschnuppen’ (see these Reports for 1869, p. 304).
A short review of the above predictions was presented to the Royal Astro-
nomical Society (‘Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxii. p. 355) during the summer
of last year in preparation for the expected approach of Biela’s comet to the
neighbourhood of the earth’s orbit in the latter months of the year; and the
attention of astronomers appears to have been already drawn to the favour-
able prospect of a meteoric shower from the above-cited papers sufficiently
to make its character at once decided by the majority of the observers when
the abundant star-shower was observed. Prof. Klinkerfues at Gottingen,
whose observations of the shower were most complete, immediately dispatched
an instruction by telegraph to Mr. N. Pogson, the astronomer at Madras, to
search the portions of the sky opposite to the radiant-point for any cometary
body which might be visible in the direction of the departing and retreating
meteor-group through which the earth had passed. Such a comet was found
by Mr. Pogson on the 2nd of December, about 13° from the place of the anti-
radiant-point, and close to the position pointed out by Dr. Klinkerfues.
Another observation of it was obtained on Dec. 3rd, and there is sufficient
resemblance in the observed track of the comet to that which meteors con-
398 REPORT—18738.
nected with Biela’s comet might pursue to make it probable that this tele-
scopic body is at least a member of the cometary group, of which it is not
impossible that the double comet of Biela may contain other representatives
hitherto not detected by telescopic observations*. Should the principal bodies of
Biela’s comet have undergone no uncaleulable perturbations, it is shown by
Mr. Hind (‘ Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxiii. p. 320) that up to its expected return
in the year 1866, no calculable causes depending upon its actual position until
that time have been overlooked, and that if uninvestigated disturbances may
yet explain its presence in the recent meteor-shower at a place of its orbit which
‘it should have passed at least twelve weeks before the date of the meteor-
shower, those disturbances must have affected its course during the last re-
volution (1866-73) which the comet has performed. It appears more pro-
bable that the comet has faded out of sight ; and it is pointed out by Professor
Schiaparelli, in a new volume of three lectures on meteors published in con-
nexion with these recent discoveries at Florence, that more than one instance
of variability has been observed in comets, of which the two portions of
Biela’s comet itself presented a remarkable example at the last return, when.
interchanges of brightness were observed between them. It may also be
added that when first discovered to be periodical in the year 1826, it was
found to be identical with a comet observed in the years 1772 and 1805,
haying accordingly escaped observation during two previous series of returns
in this and the last century, when it might be expected to have been detected,
had not some diminution of its light, perhaps, rendered it invisible on each of
those occasions. Telescopic and meteoric observations may thus be found, if
perseveringly conducted and comprehensively carried on together, to assist
each other in tracing the effects of the sudden variations in their physical
condition to which comets, from their small masses and highly eccentric
orbits, are exposed, more than all other classes of astronomical bodies, in
their circumsolar revolutions.
The newly discovered connexion between meteor-showers and comets,
according to which the periodic comet of Biela and the recently observed
star-shower are associated members of a common stream of bodies following
each other in nearly the same path about the sun ; and the question of the pro-
bable nature of the physical connexion between the invisible particles of the
meteor-stream, and the faintly or brightly luminous body of its-attendant
comet, have given rise to considerable discussion respecting the extent and
mode of the connexion in which comets in general, and all the different
forms of meteoric substances may possibly be regarded as allied phenomena.
With respect to appearances of the latter class, it must be admitted that
many of the grounds for such conclusions regarding detonating fireballs and
aérolites are hitherto very indefinite and uncertain. ‘The directions and real.
velocities in space of very few aérolites and detonating meteors have been
exactly ascertained ; while, on the other hand, the collected proofs derived
from observations of a distinct connexion between star-showers and periodic
comets are as abundant and precise as the most rigorous process of research
in any kindred subject of scientific inquiry would demand. Reviewing
certain instances of hyperbolic velocities of fireballs and aérolites that have
been sufficiently well observed to be accepted as examples of their class, and
contrasting the evidence which they present with the remarkable absence
among comets of very excentric hyperbolic orbits, Prof. Schiaparelli is led to
recognize two different original sources of these two classes of bodies, and to
regard comets as cosmical bodies belonging to the same star family, or “ star-
* Astronomical Society’s ‘Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxili. pp 128 & 1380.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 399
drift” as the sun, and some aérolites and fireballs as derived from more
distant regions of the fixed stars, the direction and speed of whose motions in
space (as gathered from the recent researches of Dr. Huggins and Mr. Proctor)
resemble each other, but differ considerably from those of the sun. As
examples of hyperbolic velocities among fireballs and aérolites are of rather
rare occurrence, it is, however, admissible to regard these instances as
exceptional cases, and not as the normal representatives of their class*. In
that case aérolites, as well as shower-meteors, may be parts of cometary
systems; and it is not impossible that the extraordinary meteorological
changes which comets undergo from the excentricities of their orbits, may,
by the process of a kind of ‘ weathering,’ disintegrate their surfaces suffi-
ciently to scatter such bodies in crowds along their pathst. In this view,
instead of presupposing the existence of cosmical clouds containing all these
several bodies separately formed, comets may be regarded as parent bodies,
from which aérolites and shower-meteors are similarly derived. Adopting a
special theory of the origin and of the physical constitution of comets,
Zolner explains the production of such star-showers as that which was wit-
nessed last November, by a process very similar to the lastt. Supposing the
remnants of a shattered star or planet to be scattered by some ‘catastrophe
into intrastellar space, besides the materials of aérolites and detonating fire-
balls which would result, it may be assumed that fluid masses, as of their
seas (and possibly hydrocarbons) and other easily volatilizable substances
would occur among the débris of such a shock. Among the fluids and easily
vaporizable materials thus ushered into space, and there maintained as
liquids or solids by cold, and by their own attractions, the sun’s heat acting
upon their otherwise fixed masses, when first drawn into its immediate
neighbourhood, would effect a surface distillation sufficiently abundant to
detach some vaporous portions from their spheres, or even to volatilize them
completely, and to efface them after many periodic revolutions from the sky.
These vapours might possibly recondense afterwards into solid dust or drops,
to assume the form of meteor-streams along the cometary orbit, producing
on their collision with the earth’s atmosphere, the extraordinary phenomena
of star-showers§. In accepting such explanations of their origin, it must be
borne in mind that the streams of meteor-particles with which some periodic
comets are associated are altogether differently constituted from the tails and
envelopes of such comets, in obeying, as far as has yet been discovered,
without any deviations like the extraordinary exceptions which those appen-
dages present, the simple law of universal gravitation which governs the
* Schiaparelli, ‘ Entwurf einer Astronomischen Theorie der Sternschnuppen’ (Stettin,
1871), pp. 207-210, and 216-229.
+ Ibid. pp. 212-13.
¢ F. Zollner, “ Ueber den zusammenhang von Sternschnuppen und Cometen,” Poggen-
dorff’s Annals, vol. cxlviii. pp. 822-29. See also ‘Ueber Die Natur der Cometen’ (Leip-
zig, 1872), by the same author, p. 109. ;
§ That even mineral substances are gradually volatilized at comparatively low tempera-
tures, and sublime or are recondensed in appreciable quantities, is shown by sume remark-
able experiments by the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt on various minerals placed for many
years under the hearth of an iron smelting-furnace, as described in the volume of these
Reports for 1860, p. 175 ez. seg. (with coloured plates). Under the action of a prolonged
heat, in which neither copper, zinc, lead, nor tin were melted, the oxide of copper which
formed a crust upon the plate of that metal, had sublimed, and deposited itself in red
erystals along with sublimed metallic copper, not only upon the surface, but also in the
interior of the neighbouring piece of lead. The adjacent pieces of the other metals were
similarly calcined, and coated with a thick crystalline crust of their oxides which had
diffused itself in a similar manner among the substances of the surrounding blocks (see
the explanation of the experiments and of the plates, at pp. 188 and 192 of that Report).
400 REPORT—1873.
motions of the planets and of the comets in their paths. It is also important
to observe that among the spectra of several telescopic comets which have
been examined, there is a typical resemblance which leads us to infer that the
coma or envelope of such comets is at least in great measure composed of
gases shining, for some reason, with self-resplendent light. A state of
liquid or solid aggregation of vyaporizable materials by extreme cold cannot
on this account be regarded as a complete explanation of the original con-
dition of their nuclei, unless, with Zollner, we admit that a feeble electrical
excitation accompanies the development of the vapours from them that pro-
duce the envelope and tail; and that a restoration of the disturbed electrical
equilibrium among these vapours produces in them (as in the extensive tracts
of auroral clouds) a sufficiently strong illumination to be visible on account
of their great depth; as even bright auroral beams may be produced by weak
electrical discharges lighting up vast volumes of air through which they pass.
The free electricity with which the vapours are charged would be suffi-
cient, as shown by Dr. Zéllner, to account for the rapid projection of the
extremely rarefied materials of the tail in an outward direction from the
sun, if its tension, and that of free electricity similarly present in the sun
itself, is supposed not to exceed the amount assigned by Hankel as the ordi-
nary tension of free electricity in the earth’s atmosphere. On account of
their larger masses (compared to the surfaces, upon which electricity resides)
no sensible effect of repulsion is produced by solar electricity on the nucleus,
and on the larger fragments separated from the comet’s mass, that appre-
ciably diminishes the force of universal gravitation upon them, to which, in
common with all other bodies coming within the sphere of the sun’s attrac-
tion, the separate particles of the cometary cloud are principally subject.
Similar views to those of Dr. Zollner on the electrical origin of the sun’s
repulsive force on the tails and envelopes of comets (a force whose intensity
was first mathematically investigated by Bessel) were previously entertained
by Olbers, and discussions of some of their principal consequences, with
excellent illustrations derived from cometary observations by M. Faye, will
be found in the ‘ Comptes Rendus’ (vol. xlviii. p. 421) for 1870, and in a con-
temporary number of the French ‘ Revue des Courses Scientifiques.’ The -
theory of a self-luminosity in comets, and perhaps in the vaporous nebule,
resembling the glow-discharge in the vacuum of a barometer-tube when the
mercury is shaken, suggests, as shown by Dr. Zéllner, no insuperable diffi-
culties, when the enormous thickness of the vapour-tracts is considered, in
which a very feeble illumination of this description would be sufficient to
render them very discernibly self-luminous, with all the visible characters
of a glowing gas.
During the last two or three years the discovery of energetic forces of
eruption on the sun, and therefore also probably on the surfaces of the stars,
has demonstrated the occasional occurrence of some convulsions so extremely
violent that they would suffice (at least, if they were but little stronger, or
equally energetic at an earlier period of the sun’s history, when its diameter
was somewhat larger) to project molten and gaseous matters from its mass
to distances beyond the sphere of its own attraction. One of the most violent
eruptions of this description was observed by Prof. Young in America on the
7th of September, 1871, when masses of glowing hydrogen left the sun’s
surface with a velocity of projection which cannot have been less than 200
miles per second; had it started with this velocity from an elevation but
little more than twice its actual distance from the sun’s centre, it would have
been projected beyond the orbit of the planet Neptune, and a velocity of
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 401
projection from the sun’s present surface of 380 miles per second would have
sufficed to carry it beyond the limits of the solar system never to return*.
The existence of such forces, and the evidence which the microscope affords
that aérolites have had their origin among mineral masses in a state of
fusion, if not of vapour, combine to support a theory formerly entertained by
other writers, and recently announced most definitely by Mr. Proctor in
England? and Prof. Kirkwood in America as an “ astro-meteorological
hypothesis” of the origin of meteors and meteorites. By a still more
remarkable supposition Mr. Proctor proposes to regard the class of periodic
comets with their attendant trains of meteors as originally projected from
the major planets Jupiter, Uranus, or Neptune, in the neighbourhood of whose
orbits it is well known that the greater number of their aphelia are placed ;
and some peculiarities of the light as well as of the dense atmosphere of the
largest of these planets, Jupiter, renders it probable that it is partially self-
luminous, and that it still continues to be in a more sunlike state than the
smaller primary and secondary planets of the solar systemt. A close appulse
of the November meteor-comet to the earth is pointed out by Mr. Hind as
haying probably occurred in the year 1366, when it was observed in China in
the same month of October with the memorable star-shower recorded in some
parts of Europe in that year. Another visible return of the comet appears
to have taken place in 868, when its path among the constellations was also
recorded in China, and appears to be in good agreement with the orbit of the
present comet§. It also appears that the November meteor-shower may be
of older date than the period assigned by M. Le Verrier (4.p. 126) to its last
encounter with the planet Uranus, a previous encounter with that planet not
less close having been shown by Prof. Kirkwood (in the journal above quoted,
p. 338) to have taken place in the year n.c. 43, while the next close appulse
of the comet to the planet will happen in the year 1983.
A general list of approximate agreements between orbits of comets and
those of observed meteor-showers, extracted from the works of Weiss, Schia-
parelli, and Schmidt, will be found collected, exclusive of the four well-known
examples of perfect correspondence in the cases of the April, August, and two
great November showers, in the Report of the Council to the last Annual
General Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, where the length of the
list, and a due regard for the limited space of this Report, will only permit
its insertion to be noticed||; but a peculiarity in two of the accordances
appears to claim exception in order to explain the supposed agreements which
they present. In the early parts of April and August two meteor-showers
are found to proceed, the former from a radiant-point between Corona and
Bootes, and the latter from near the north pole of the heavens, agreeing well
with the radiant-points of corresponding comets whose line of nodes the
earth encounters at those dates. But the orbits of these comets falling far
within the orbit of the earth, it is not possible that an encounter of the earth
with any meteors lying upon their tracks could be produced. ‘These accord-
ances must therefore be rejected, unless, with Weiss and Schiaparelli, it is
* « Astro-meteorology,” by Prof. D. Kirkwood, U.S., ‘The Popular Science Monthly,’
1871, p. 335.
ie“ Cornhill Magazine,’ November 1871.—In the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
vol. xiv. pp. 120-129, March 1865 (see these Reports for 1865, pp. 132 and 140), the late
Prof. Brayley, founding his observations on the microscopical investigations of Mr.
Sorby (vol. xiii. of the same‘ Proceedings,’ p. 333), strongly maintained, although he some-
what less lucidly developed, the same hypothesis.
¢ “The Origin of the November Meteors,” by R. A, Proctor, Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiii. p. 45, § Ibid. p. 49, | Ibid. p. 260.
1873, ay
402 REPORT—1873.
supposed possible that some parts of the cometary substance, repelled from
their proper orbits by the sun in the form of the tail and other luminous
appendages emitted by the comets near their perihelion passages, may have
extended to such a distance in their orbit-planes as to intersect the orbit of
the earth, It is known that substance repelled in this manner from the
comet, if it consists of materials capable of finally gravitating towards the
sun, will describe closed orbits round it, and might thus periodically produce
the appearance of a corresponding meteor-shower. for the purpose of an
approximate comparison with the known meteor-showers, the repelled par-
ticles may be assumed to move in orbits which differ little from those of
their derivative comets, excepting in having a larger perihelion distance.
In order to complete and facilitate, as far as possible, the comparison of
meteor-streams with the orbits of known comets, lists of observed radiant-
points of meteor-showers continue to be compiled and recorded by obseryers,
an important contribution for that purpose during the past year being the
‘* Catalogue of Observed Radiant-points ” obtained by Captain G, L, Tupman
from his observations of shooting-stars made in the Mediterranean during the
years 1869-71*. This list contains the places of 102 distinct radiant-points,
independently determined, and for the most part confirming the results
presented in the earlier catalogues of other observers. Thus, in about sixty
cases, the same showers appear to haye been recorded by Dr, Schmidtt at
Athens; and the agreements with the general list of radiant-points for the
northern hemisphere, exclusive of Dr, Schmidt’s results (see the last Report),
compiled by Mr. Greg are equally numerous, Captain Tupman regards
fifty-eight of the meteor-showers described in his list as identical, and
twenty-one others as fairly in accordance with those of other observers ; of the
remaining twenty-three positions, nearly the whole may be regarded as well
determined and as probably true radiant-points. Among the brightest
showers and the most conspicuous radiant-points were remarkable displays
of about fifteen or twenty shooting-stars per hour on the nights of April 30th
and May 2nd, 1870, from the direction of a point at R. A. 325°, 8. Decl, 3°;
and showers of less abundance on March 7th, September 8-10 and 13-15, and
October 5-10, 1869, and November 1-9, 1869 and 1872: the last was the
well-known shower from Taurus in the early part of November; and a good
average position of its apparently double radiant-point in about R. A. 53°,
N. Decl. 12°, and R. A. 57°, N. Decl. 20°, was obtained by several well-
agreeing observations on successive nights.
The following corrected Table of radiant-points, compiled and published by
Dr, Heis in April 1867 (‘Astronomische Nachrichten,’ No, 1642), was
included by Mr. Greg in his general list of radiant-points contained in the
last volume of these Reports. In a future continuation of that list it will
be attempted to condense and to add to it a similar reproduction of the new
materials afforded by the two ample catalogues of Dr. Schmidt and Captain
Tupman, of which no comparison has yet been included in its collection. A
suitable analysis of their contents will thus complete the discussion of all the
known radiant-points of shooting-stars of which published or private informa-
tion has hitherto been obtained by the Committee. Itis proposed to exhibit
the results of this examination on maps of a special kind, adapted to assist
observers in recognizing immediately the particular radiant-points or showers
to which any observed meteor-tracks might correspond, and thus to enable
* Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for March, 1873, vol. xxxiii, p. 298.
_ tT In his Catalogue of Radiant-points for successive months of the year, ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten,’ No, 1756.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 403
them to arrange and classify their observations. It is further intended to
accompany the maps with a printed catalogue of Captain Tupman’s obser-
vations, only a certain proportion of which are designated in the catalogue as
belonging to some of the numerous meteor-showers included in his list,
while the greater number have not yet been distinguished as conformable to
any known centres of radiation from which they may very possibly have
been derived. A complete analysis of the catalogue, and of the scattered
_observations collected for the Committee within the last few years by
observers for the British Association, will during the present year occupy the
attention of the Committee, and will continue to engage their consideration
with the best opportunities and facilities for reducing and arranging them
under their proper radiant-points which it will be in their power to bestow
on their discussion. '
List of Corrected Radiant-points by Dr. Heis, ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten,’
No. 1642 (May 1867).
Half-monthly, Monthly, or Meteoric Periods and Positions of the Radiant-points.
R.A. N. Decl. R.A. N. Decl. R.A. N. Decl.! R.A. N. Decl.
January 1-15. February 15-28, April 1-15, June 1-30,
° fo} ° i}
Ay. 28 450 | A... 76 440 | A,.. 84 445 | Nip... 158 +83
M
—
K, , 227 +54 | M,... 173 +63 | M,... 180 +49
1 ae
M,... 145 +451 toe 45 +76 | Ny os 260 +86 Q 242 +12
me. 200 ed |S... 174 416 | Be... 185. +22 ... 292 +15
January 16-31. March 1-15. Period of April 20. July 1-15.
ai 80 461 | AL... 50 449 | Asa. 58 +66 | Ny 20 485
K, ... 227 +60 | M,... 1290 +54 | M,... 160 +49 | A,.. 41 +62
M,... 169 +45 |N,... 15 +80 | N,.. 275 +83 | B,... 31d +54
N,... 35 +87 |8.... 181 +6 |8, ... 199 +14 | Q,... 262 +412
On OTP) #58
February 1-14, | March 16-31, May 1-31. | duly 15-31.
61 +56 N, «.. 315 +79 | Ar. 51 +58
M,... 171 +56 ['M,.., 150 +447 | 8 ... 202 +9 | By... 320 £70
N, ... North Pole. | 8,'... 176 416 | B,... 825 +55 | Nj,... North Pole,
Q, ... 282 +27
Period of August 10.| September 16-30. | Period of Nov, 14. | December 16-31.
fA... d1 +55 | A... 44 +63 | PL... 46 +43 | Aro 37 +09
B,... 297 +68 | B,... 811 +465 | A,,... 15 +462 | N,,... 340 +89
N,,... 345 +85 |N,,... 65 +84 |D... 279 +56 | K,... 2385 +52
Ps 1 +11 |} R,... 85 +16 |
R, 46 +37 |L ... 148 +24
August 16-31. October 1-15. November 19-30, |
A... 35 +61 | A,;... 51 +461 | Ay... 15 +62
B, -. 8306 +59 | N,,... 105 +81. | Nj... North Pole.
es ct Oe ely | Ry. (4) E82) Py aed ye 4Oi) +44
.., s1£. 1b. | By
September 1-15. | Period of Oct. 16-31.| Period of Dec. 1-15.
Aj... 385 +63 1+ ,28 +40 | Aj. 21 +54
By «oe. 293 +57 | Ajgsee 72° +44 | Noo. 123 +78
N,,... 180 +84 | B,,... 834 +54 | M,... 112 +89
T, ... 843 +10 | N,,... 205 +85 |
—
Pa ra
404, REPORT—1873.
On the Visibility of the dark side of Venus.
By Professor A, Scuararix, of Prague.
[A Communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Ir is well known that the unillumined side of the planet Venus has been
sometimes seen shining with a faint grey light, like the dark side of the moon
when illumined by the earth.
Schroter in 1806 thought he had made for the first time this remark-
able observation; but it was found afterwards that Harding had made it
almost simultaneously, and Olbers pointed out an old observation made by
A. Mayer at Gryphiswald in 1759. Arago found a still older observation of
the same kind made by Derham at a date not fixed, but certainly anterior to
1729, the date of publication of the French edition of his ‘Astrotheology.’
- Nevertheless this phenomenon is stated in the best text-books of astronomy
to be one of the utmost rarity. Midler knows only two observers of it, the
profoundly learned Humboldt only three, Arago only five; and even re-
cently Dr. Winnecke, of Karlsruhe, believed that he was the only witness of
that phenomenon in daylight since the time of A. Mayer; but under these
particular circumstances it has been seen by eleven observers, and by five
of them more than once.
It was known to me for a long time that there were on record far more
observations of this phenomenon than is ordinarily supposed; and when,
some years ago, I happened to be a witness of it myself, I undertook to
collect all existing observations of it.
This I have now done; and as I have succeeded in collecting the sur-
prising number of twenty-two observations, many of them repeated more
than once, a short account of what I have found will perhaps be not unin-
teresting to astronomers.
1. The first observation recorded is that of William Derham, Canon of
Windsor, referred to in his ‘ Astrotheology ’ as made in the perigeum of Venus,
probably in bright twilight, when he saw the dark side of the planet shining
with a dim reddish light. Arago, who mentions this observation, quotes
from a French translation published in 1729. It would be interesting to
ie if this observation is found also in the first English edition published
in 1714.
2. The second in order was Christian Kirch, first astronomer of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He saw the phenomenon twice (June 7, 1721,
and March 8, 1726), both times with moderate optical power and in bright
twilight. He remarked that the bright crescent was apparently a part of a
larger sphere than the faintly shining dark side. (Astronomische Nachrichten,
No. 1586, vol. xvii. p. 27.)
3. Third came Andreas Mayer, Professor of Mathematics in the Gryphis-
wald University, who, on October 20, 1759, observed Venus, culminating
only 10° from the sun, with an unachromatic transit-instrument of only
13-inch aperture, and saw the whole disk “like the crescent moon which re-
flects the light of the earth.” (Observationes Veneris Gryphiswaldenses, 1762,
p. 7h) Schréter, Beobachtungen des grossen Cometen yon 1807, Appendix,
p. 74.
_ 4. The fourth witness is Sir William Herschel, who about 1790 several
times saw a part of the limb of the dark side in a faint light. Neither date
nor time of day is given. (On the planet Venus, Philosophical Transactions
for 1793.)
ON THE VISIBILITY OF THE DARK SIDE OF VENUS. 405.
5. Count Friedrich Hahn, of Remplin, Mecklenburg, saw the phenomenon
unusually well and often during the spring and summer of 1793, in twilight
as well as in daylight. He employed excellent instruments, and gives a
very detailed description of what he saw; also two sketches. No other ob-
server seems to have seen the phenomenon so often and so well. (Berliner
astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1793, p. 188.)
6. The venerable old selenographer Schroter saw the phenomenon only
once, February 14, 1806, in faint twilight, with an excellent telescope, and
gives a very accurate description and sketch of it. He remarked an im-
portant feature in the phenomenon: the limb of the dark hemisphere was
brighter than its central part. (Berliner astronomisches Jahrbuch fiir 1809,
p. 164, and Beobachtungen des grossen Cometen yon 1807, Appendix,
p- 66.)
7. Simultaneously with Schréter, and independently of him, C. L. Hard-
ing, at Gottingen, succeeded in observing the dark side of Venus on three
different evenings—January 24, February 28, and March 1, 1806. On the
second of these days the light was reddish grey, and on all of them the
phenomenon was seen with the utmost sharpness and distinctness. (Berliner
Jahrbuch fiir 1809, p. 169.)
8. The well-known observer of the sun J, W. Pastorff, at Buchholz in
Prussia, saw the phenomenon (as he reports) many times so distinctly that
he could distinguish bright and dark patches in the faint grey light. Only
one date and a corresponding drawing are given, February 10, “1822, at 5
v.M., when the breadth of the crescent was 0-23 diameter of the whole disk.
(Berliner Jahrbuch fiir 1825, p. 235.)
_ 9, June 8, 1825, at + a.m., almost in full daylight, the phenomenon was
witnessed by Gruithuisen at Munich. No particulars given. (Astronomisches
Jahrbuch fiir 1842, herausgegeben von Gruithuisen, p. 158.)
10. The next observation was made by Mr. Guthrie, near Bervie, N.B.
(Great Britain), during the inferior conjunction in December 1842. Mr,
Guthrie saw a narrow ; fringe of light around the whole disk ofthe planet.
(Monthly Notices of the Roy. Astr. Soc., vol. xiv. p. 169.)
11. G. A. Jahn, at Leipzic, saw the dark side of Venus on September 27
and 28, 1855, at 11 a.m., in broad daylight. (Jahn’s Unterhaltungen im
Gebiete der Astronomie, vol. ix. p. 320.)
12. Mr. Berry, of Liverpool, saw the phenomenon on the evening of
January 14, 1862. (Month. Not. vol. xxii. p. 158.)
13. Mr. C. L. Prince, of Uckfield, observed Venus almost daily during her
inferior conjunction between Sept. 23rd and 30th, 1863, in bright daylight,
and could trace on every day the whole disk, or at least a faint fringe of
light around the edge. (Month. Not. vol. xxiv. p. 25.)
14, Mr. W. Engelmann, of the Leipzie Observatory, saw the phenomenon
repeatedly—most advantageously, as it seems, on April 20, 1865, immediately
after sunset. The dark side was greenish grey, a little brighter than the sky.
(Astron. Nachr. No. 1526, vol. Ixiv. p- 223.)
15. During the inferior conjunction of 1867 Venus was well observed by
Professor C. s. Lyman, of Yale College, Newhaven, U.S. The extension of
the crescent over more than 180° was seen during a period of eleven days:
on 10th and 12th of December the thin bright crescent formed an unbroken
ring; on the day of conjunction (11th December) the close proximity of the
sun permitted no observation. (American Journal of Science, 2nd series,
vol. xliii. p. 129.)
16, Mr. Th. Petty, of Deddington, near Oxford, saw the dark side of Venus
406 rEPoRT—1873.
on May 23 and June 9, 1868, probably during twilight. (Astronomical Re-
gister, No. 68, p. 181.)
17. In the same year I was observing Venus attentively for some months,
chiefly in broad daylight, with a small but good achromatic. I saw spots on
different occasions ; and on July 4, 1868, at 1 p.m, I could see traces of the dark
disk, though unsteadiness of the air and insufficient optical power prevented
me from becoming certain of what I saw.
18. On February 5, 1870, the dark side of the planet, then near inferior
conjunction, was seen (in daylight, I suppose) by Mr. R. Langdon, of Sil-
verton, Devonshire. (Month. Not. vol. xxxii. p. 8307; Astron. Reg. No. 115,
p. 163, where the year is erroneously stated to be 1872.)
- 19. Captain W. Noble, of Leyton, Essex, saw the dark part of Venus very
distinctly on February 22, 1870, only twenty-four hours before conjunction,
in close proximity to thesun. In a later communication, Captain Noble adds
that he saw the dark side always darker than the surrounding sky, and that
he rarely failed to see it whenever Venus was in or near inferior conjunction.
(Month. Not. vol. xxx. p. 152; Astron. Reg. No. 88, p.74, and No. 130, p. 258.)
20. At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, March 11, 1870,
Mr. Browning stated that, without any special contrivance, he could see all
the globe of the planet in his 12-inch speculum—perhaps on twenty different
evenings, as Mr. Browning told me orally, and always in bright twilight.
The unillumined side appeared darker than the sky around it. (Ast. Reg.
No. 88, p. 74, and No. 131, p. 281.)
21. On August 9, 1870, I was regarding Venus in bright sunshine at
11 A.mw., when a lady who was with me at that time immediately perceived
the whole disk of the planet. I showed to her Schréter’s drawing, which
she declared to be in perfect accordance with what she saw in the telescope.
I fancied only at moments that I saw a faint line of light all round the
greyish disk. Illumination unusually large (0°35) ; air much disturbed at
the time.
- 22. Dr. A. Winnecke, of Karlsruhe, saw the phenomenon twice, on Sep-
tember 25, 1871, at noon, and November 6, 1871, at5a.m. (Astron. Nachr.
No. 1863, and No. 1866, vol. Ixxviii. pp. 236 & 287.)
On the day subsequent to Dr. Winnecke’s first observation, September 26,
Captain Noble could not make out the dark hemisphere so well seen by
him a year before that time, but he adds that the sky was not clear. (Month.
Not. vol, xxxii. p. 17.) :
From the above conspectus it appears that the unillumined side of Venus
has been seen by 22 different observers :—
In twilight by 13 (once by 4, many times by 9).
In daylight by 11 (once by 6, many times by 5).
4 observers saw a faint line of light encircling the dark disk, 19 of them saw
the disk itself. Of the 22 cases reported, 12 have been observed during the
last eleven years, say one per year; and I am disposed to think that the
phenomenon is a normal one, and that with sufficient optical power and
attention under a favourable sky it is to be seen at every inferior conjunc-
tion, though I would by no means advance that it is constantly visible,
which would be a statement directly opposed to facts.
For the explanation of this remarkable phenomenon the following causes
have been suggested :—
1. Phosphorescence.—This was the idea of Sir William Herschel, Harding,
and partly of Schréter. It does not appear clearly whether they under-
ON THE VISIBILITY OF THE DARK SIDE OF VENUS. 407
stood the word in its modern sense, meaning substances which absorb
sunlight and emit it in darkness without being chemically changed, or
whether they included under that name, like all the elder physicists, slow
combustions also, like that of phosphorus and rotten wood, which in modern
terminology do not belong to true phosphorescence. In both eases it is
difficult to imagine the whole surface of the planet to be covered with
such substances as sulphide of strontium, diamond, phosphorus, or rotten
wood.
2. Auroral phenomena.—tThis was partly Schroter’s idea; it is supported
by a most extraordinary observation of Miidler, who, during the whole
evening of April 7, 1833, saw Venus surrounded by long bright immovable
rays. Professor Zollner, of Leipzic, strongly advocates this idea, and trusts
that the spectroscope will reveal bright lines in the grey light of the unillu-
mined hemisphere of Venus.
3. Proper light——An explication upheld by Pastorff, who supposed the
atmosphere of the planet to be large and self-luminous. Possibly also the
planet might still be incandescent, as is supposed to be the case of Jupiter by
Mr. Nasmyth; but on this supposition the secondary light should be always
visible, which is positively not the case.
4. The light of the Earth.—This, as seen from Venus, far exceeds the
greatest brightness of Venus as seen by us; and according to the calculation
of Dr. Rheinauer, of Munich (Grundziige der Photometrie, 1861, pp. 58-77),
the grey light of Venus, if resulting from this cause, should equal a star of
the 14th magnitude. That this explanation is insufficient is so clear as to
need no further proof.
5. Negative visibility, as it is called by Arago, or projection on the coronal
light of the sun, as suggests Mr. Lynn (Astr. Reg. No. 109, p. 12) and, if
I am right, Mr. Noble (Month. Not. vol. xxxii. p. 17). This explanation
suits only those cases in which the unillumined side of the planet was seen
darker than the surrounding sky (Messrs. Browning and Noble), but not
those of the majority of observers, who make it brighter than the sky.
6. Accidental combustion and other illumining processes.—Gruithuisen
suggests large luxuriant forests set on fire, an idea by no means absurd in
itself; Lut, indulging in the fantastic cast of his mind, he brings it in
connexion with general religious festivals of the inhabitants of Venus, a
speculation in which it is not quite easy to follow the famous Munich seleno-
grapher.. Immense prairies and jungles would do still better; but even
these will hardly suffice for so frequent and general a phenomenon.
I will suggest another explanation, without laying too much stress on it,
though perhaps it is not a mere fancy. The intense brightness of Venus,
and particularly the dazzling splendour of her bright limb, is deemed by the
late G. P. Bond and by Professor Zéllner, a competent authority in photo-
metric matters, not to be explicable without assuming specular reflection on
the surface of the planet. This Professor Zéllner supposes to be done by a
general covering of water; and indeed if the faint grey spots of Venus,
delineated in 1726 by Bianchini and rediscovered by Vico in 1838, are land,
then nine tenths at least of the surface of Venus are covered by sea. Should
Venus be in a geologically less advanced state, viz. less cooled than our
globe, a supposition rendered not improbable by her considerable size and
her nearness to the sun, then the present condition of Venus would be
analogous to that of the earth in the Jurassic period, when large isolated
islands were bathed by immense seas, blood-warm, and teeming with an
abundance of animal life difficult to be conceived.
408 REPORT—1873.
The intensity of the phosphorescence of the sea, shown not unfrequently
by our tropical seas, gives us some idea of the intensity which this mag-
nificent phenomenon could acquire under such unusual circumstances; and
it is, I think, not unreasonable to expect that such a phosphorescence could
be seen even at planetary distances. It would explain the fact that the
edge of the dark hemisphere of Venus is seen brighter than its central
part; for itis demonstrable by calculation and confirmed by observation (as
in the case of the sea near the horizon, or the edge of the full moon), that a
rough surface emitting diffused light is seen the brighter the more obliquely
it is regarded.
It is satisfactory to think that my suggestion can be put to the test of
physical inquiry. M. Pasteur found the spectrum of cucuyos (tropical
phosphorescent beetles) a continuous one ; and, according to Mr. Piazzi Smyth,
the same holds good for the phosphorescent animalcule of the sea (Month.
Not. vol. xxxii. p. 277), so that the spectroscope will be able to decide be-
tween Professor Zéllner’s hypothesis and mine.
Since the foregoing note was read before the British Association, Dr. H.
Vogel has published observations of Venus with the large refractor of Baron
Bilow (Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Bothkamp, Heft 2, pp. 118-
132). He saw the secondary light of Venus on seven mornings between
October 15 and November 12, 1871, in bright twilight. The light was
yellowish, faint, brighter near the terminator, fading away on the other
side, and never extended over more than 30° of arc on Venus. On five
other mornings nothing was seen.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Ro.iuston, Dr. ScuateEr,
Dr. Anton Dourn, Professor Huxiey, Professor WyvitLe Tuom-
son, and HK. Ray Lanxester, for the foundation of Zoological
Stations in different parts of the Globe. Drawn up by Anton
Dourn, Secretary.
Tur Committee beg to report that since the last Meeting the building of the
Zoological Station at Naples has been completed. [A photograph of the
building was exhibited at the Meeting when the Report was read. |
The internal, mechanical, and scientific arrangements require two months
for completion; and though the cost of the whole has exceeded the esti-
mates in no small degree, Dr. Dohrn hopes nevertheless to balance them by
finding new means of income for the establishment. He has succeeded in
obtaining a subsidy of £1500 from the German Empire, and his scheme of
letting working-tables in the laboratories of the station has met with general
approval. Zwo tables have been let to Prussia and two to Italy, one to Bavaria,
one to Baden, and one to the University of Strasburg; a letter from the
Dutch Ministry of the Interior informs Dr. Dohrn that Holland accepts the
offer of one table for the stipulated annual payment of £75; and, moreover,
Dr. Dohrn has been informed that the University of Cambridge intends to hire
one table for three years. Applications have also been made to the Imperial
Government of Russia, both on the part of Dr. Dohrn and by different
Russian scientific authorities. A correspondence has taken place between
Dr. Dohrn and Professors Loyén and Steenstrup about a possible participation
FOUNDATION OF ZGOLOGICAL STATIONS. 409
of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but has as yet led to no definite result. The
ease with respect to Switzerland and Saxony has been similar ; but hopes are
entertained that these countries may join the others in their endeavour to
support the Zoological Station, and to afford every facility to their naturalists
of profiting by this new and powerful instrument of investigation.
Dr. Dohrn thinks it desirable to explain once more the leading ideas that
have induced him to request the assistance of all these Governments and
Universities.
The Zoological Station has sprung up altogether in consequence of the
desire to facilitate investigation in marine zoology, and to enable naturalists
to pursue their studies in the most effective manner and with the greatest
possible economy of money, time, and energy. All zoologists who have
visited Naples during the last year (amongst whom have heen Professors
Gegenbaur, Claus, Oscar Schmidt, and Pagensticher) consider that this end
will be fully attained by the organization and arrangements made or intended
to be made in the station. They all agree that it is in the highest degree
desirable that nobody who ¢ares at all for the progress of zoology should fail
to join Dr. Dohrn’s exertions in bringing about a universal participation in
the expense of keeping up the new establishment ; and thus it is due to Pro-
fessor Oscar Schmidt’s influence that the Imperial Government at Berlin have
hired a table for the University of Strasburg, and to the initiative of Pro-
fessor Pagenstiicher that the Grand Duchy of Baden has also taken one table,
whilst Professor Claus has promised his best services to induce the Austrian
Government to take a similar step.
As is, we believe, universally known, no money-speculation whatever is
contemplated by the founder of the Naples Station, in so far as money specu-
lation means a high interest and the return of the capital invested into the
pocket of the founder. Nevertheless, every honest means will be used to
procure as large an income as possible, for more than one reason. There is
not only the necessity incumbent upon the establishment to repay some of the
capital to those who have lent money to Dr. Dohrn, in order that he might
complete the building in its actual enlarged state (a task for which his own
means would not have sufficed in spite of the German Government's subsidy),
but, further, there must be provided reserve-funds for the eventuality that the
income of the aquarium may not cover the outlay for the year’s manage-
ment, thus causing a sudden stand-still of the establishment: and last, but
not least, it is intended to have every year a certain sum to spend for scien-
tific pursuits. If, for instance, Professor du Bois Reymond, as- he has ex-
pressed to Dr. Dohrn his wish to do, should proceed to Naples to carry
on experiments on the electric Torpedo, it would require no inconsider-
able means to buy the necessary apparatus and physiological instruments,
and to provide this famous physiologist every day with fresh material to
conduct his investigations on a scale large enough to yield a distinct result.
Or to enable embryologists to carry on an investigation on Comparative
Selachian embryology, it would be necessary to buy large quantities of female
sharks and skates, which are by no means so cheap as a foreigner might
think. And for conducting researches well and accurately, every naturalist
knows what an amount of money must be spent in dredging-expeditions, how
much trouble, how much time and work are necessary to get at the animals
and to determine their identity or non-identity with the known and described
species. And this is one of the foremost duties which the Zoological Station
will propose to itself, as it is too well known how great a confusion exists
with regard to systematic and zoological questions of the Mediterranean
410 REPURT—1873.
fauna. To bring this confusion to an end, it will require more than one
lustrum and more than one thousand pounds. There may perhaps have
risen a prejudice among Systematists against the new establishment, as one
which, in consequence of the partiality of its leader for Darwinian views,
might dispense altogether with Systematists. Nothing could be more erro-
neous than such an opinion. ‘The leader of the Zoological Station is as little
opposed to Systematists as the Darwinian theory itself. He is of opinion that
zoological battles may be best won, according to Count Moltke’s principle, “ by
marching separately and fighting conjunctively,” thus leaving to Systema-
tists their own route, as well as to anatomists, physiologists, and embryolo-
gists, on condition only that they will, when meeting the enemy (Error and
Ignorance), fight together ; and he desires the Zoological Station to become
such a battle-field, where all the different zoological armies may meet and
fight their common adversaries.
That such wars need much of the one element, which, according to
Montecuculi, best secures victory, “‘ money, money, money,” will be illustrated
by two letters, which Dr. Dohrn has received from Professor Louis Agassiz,
and which he has been authorized to publish.
The celebrated American naturalist writes, under the date “ Museum of
Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., 10 June, 1873,” the following :—
“It is a great pleasure and satisfaction to me that I can tell you how,
in consequence of the munificence of a wealthy New York merchant, it has
become my duty to erect an establishment whose main object will be similar
to that of your Naples Station, only that teaching is to be united withit. The
thing came thus to pass :—During last winter I applied to our State autho-
rities to secure more means for the Museum in Cambridge (Mass.). Among
the reasons I alluded to the necessity of having greater means for teaching
purposes. I addressed my speech to our deputy, and it was afterwards re-
ported in the newspapers. By chance the report fell into the hands of a rich
and magnanimous tobacco-manufacturer, Mr. John Anderson, of New York.
He sent on the same day a telegram, asking me whether I would be at home
the following day in order to meet two friends : to which I answered, Yes! The
two gentlemen came by order of Mr. Anderson, offering me a pretty island in
Buzzard Bay for the purpose of erecting a zoological school. I accepted this offer,
of course, but added that without further pecuniary means it would be difficult
. toteach there. After two days a sum of 50,000 dollars was handed over to me ;
and now I am erecting there a school for Natural History, which at the same
time will be, as a Zoological Station in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Gulf-stream, of the greatest assistance to our zoologists, especially as splendid
dredging-ground existsthere. This certainly must greatly promote zoological
study in the United States. Already forty teachers of our normal and high
schools have applied for this summer’s lessons ; besides, I shall be accompanied
by my private students.
“Some of my colleagues are ready to assist me, so that I may hope to
obtain already some results before winter’s approach.”
The next letter is dated “ Penikese, August 13th, 1873,” and contains
some more information.
“The school was opened on the 8th of July. Some of my friends have
assisted me as teachers; several other naturalists are occupied with special
studies; the bottom of the sea is very rich, the general situation quite
excellent. The solitude which prevails is a great help for our teaching pur-
poses. As students, forty teachers of our public schools are present, besides
ten younger gentlemen, who are preparing for a scientific career,
FOUNDATION OF ZOOLOGICAL STATIONS, 411
“ The buildings are very well constructed and adapted to their uses. The
two chief houses have a length.of 120 feet, and a breadth of 25 feet each. In the
lower story are the laboratories, each with 28 windows ; every student occupies
one window, and has for himself one aquarium. In the upper story of each
house are twenty-eight bedrooms, one for every student. ‘The professors and
naturalists are lodged in another house of the shape of a Greek cross. The
dining-room is in a third house, which contains also the kitchen and the
servant-rooms. Besides, we have an ice-house, a cellar for alcohol, stables
for domestic animals; about one hundred sheep are feeding in the pasture-
grounds of the island ; some smaller hutches contain rabbits, guineapigs, &e.
“ Next year physical, chemical, and physiological laboratories will be con-
structed. ’
«.... I believe I did not tell you before that my son-in-law presented
me on my birthday with 100,000 dollars for the enlargement of the Museum ;
I intend to apply this sum chiefly to the augmentation of the collections,
hoping the State will pay for the adequate enlargement of the buildings... ”
These letters prove that the name of this Committee has not been ill-chosen ;
for though the American Zoological Station has not been founded by its direct
intervention, there can be little doubt that the foundation of the Zoological
Station at Naples has been the signal for a new and powerful movement to
assist zoological research.
Of course the American station has met with such extraordinary advantages
that a competition between it and the Naples Station, as regards means and
favourable circumstances, would be all but hopeless for the latter. Neverthe-
less it may prove a powerful instrument in carrying out strictly the self-support-
ing principle, by earning money through the aquarium, and by letting tables
in the laboratory. And though any act of munificence to the Naples Station
is exceedingly desirable and would be heartily welcomed (as the moment has
not yet arrived when any scientific establishment in this world has at its
disposal more money than it can spend), the greatest stress will always be
laid upon these two elements.
The Reporter is further glad to state that the library of the Zoological
Station has constantly been augmented. A magnificent gift has been made
by the Zoological Society of London, which has presented a complete set of its
illustrated ‘ Proceedings.’ The Royal Academies of Copenhagen, Naples, and
Berlin have also granted their biological publications, and promised to continue
to do so in future. The Senckenberg Institute in Frankfort-on-the-Main,
as well as the Zoological Garden of that city, have sent all their Transactions ;
so has the Smithsonian Institution in Washington with respect to its biological
publications. Well-founded hopes are entertained that in a short time many
other Academies and scientific Societies will follow the example of those above
mentioned.
German publishers have continued to send their biological publications
gratis to the library of the Station ; and great quantities of books, pamphlets,
and publications, in separate form, of papers published in periodicals have
been forwarded from all parts of the scientific world through the kindness of
the authors.
On the part of the Zoological Station, though still in an embryonic state,
considerable activity has been displayed with regard to furnishing continental
zoologists with collections of well-preserved marine animals. Thus, Prof.
Wilhelm Miiller, indeed, has been supplied with Amphioxus and Tunicata,
Prof. Greeff, of Marburg, with large quantities of Echinodermata; mixed col-
lections of every kind of animals haye been sent to Prof. Oscar Schmidt,
412 REPORT—1873.
Strasburg, Professor Claus,Vienna, to the Senckenberg Museum at Frankfort,
the Natural-History Society at Offenbach, and many others.
Several German zoologists have already announced their intention to come
during next winter and work in the Station; a similar announcement is
made from au Italian zoologist and from Dr. M. Foster; and I am informed
that two young English biologists will arrive at the Station in January.
The Committee hope this Report will convince the Association that the
year between their present and last Meeting has been one of steady and con-
siderable progress for the Zoological Station at Naples. The Committee
refrain from making any further proposition to the Association, but express
their wish that every influence may be used to secure to the Station at Naples
such assistance as will serve to promote the eminent scientific ends for which
it has been erected.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Harkness,
Wituram Jotty, and Dr. James Bryce, appointed for the purpose
of collecting Fossils from localities of difficult access in North-
Western Scotland. Drawn up by Witu14sM Joy, Secretary.
Durine the past year search has been made for fossils at various points along
the great limestone strike of the N.W. Highlands, but, with the exception of
the Durness basin, from which the fossils already collected have been alone
obtained, none have been found at any new locality. The lessee of the
lime-kilns of Loch Eribol has been obliged to give them up. This the Com-
mittee have to regret on their own account, as, from his interest in the
subject, they anticipated good results from the intelligent search he was
making in the large development of limestone in that interesting locality, which
till now has continued barren of organic forms. Special search has been
made by two teachers in the limestone at Inchnadamph on Loch Assynt, but
as yet without success. The Committee have not been fortunate enough to
find any thing in this locality, except one piece found by the Recteniye
which it is hoped may prove to be organic.
None of the Committee have this year found it possible to proseugiie the
search in person; but this continues to be done by several gentlemen resi-
dent in the district, whose services they have been fortunate in securing.
The Committee have, during the last two years, gathered a considerable
number of specimens. These fossils, with those obtained for Professor Nicol
of Aberdeen, and deposited in the College Museum there, they think it impor-
tant that the Association should have carefully examined by an adept in
fossil remains, in order to lead to more certain determination of the age and
place of these North-western rocks in the geologic series. They think, how-
ever, that this examination should not be made till a larger collection has
been obtained. As the discovery of fossils at other localities than Durness
is most desirable, especially in order to determine if the fossiliferous Durness
limestone is the same as that in the line of the great strike from Eribol to
Skye, they are anxious that the search should still be prosecuted in these
hitherto barren localities. The Committee would therefore propose their
reappointment by the Association for this purpose.
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 413
Fifth Report of the Committee on the Treatment and Utilization of
Sewage, consisting of Ricuarp B. Grantruam, C.E., F.G.S. (Chair-
man), F. J. Bramwe.t, C.E., F.R.S., Professor W. H. Corriztp,
M.A., M.D. (Oxon.), *J. Battey Denton, C.E., F.G.S., J. H.
GitsBert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., W. Horr, V.C., Professor A. W.
Wittramson, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., and *Professor J. T. Way.
N.B.—Those members whose names have an asterisk prefixed haye not attended any
meeting of the Commitee during the year.
Tur Committee, in presenting its Fifth Report, has to state that it has con-
tinued that part of the inquiry for which it was more particularly reap-
pointed, viz. the examination of the typical case of sewage-farming at
Breton’s Farm near Romford; and similar Tables to those furnished last
year are again supplied, and are described in the portion of this Report
referring to this subject.
Another analysis has also been made of the soil of the farm, showing a con-
siderable increase in the amount of nitrogen and of phosphoric acid contained
in it.
A further examination has also been made of the sewage-farm at Earls-
wood, with more satisfactory results than on previous occasions ; and Dr. Gilbert
has again furnished a note on the dry earth system, which he has made a
subject of special investigation.
Whitthread’s process, which was described in‘last year’s Report, and of
which a short account will be found in the subjoined abstract, has been for
a few days at work on a considerable scale at Enfield. A member of the
Committee, who recently inspected what was going on there, states that an
excellent opportunity for further investigation will now be afforded.
It has been considered advisable at this time, when the Committee has
(within a few pounds) exhausted its funds, to prepare and present with this
Report an abstract of the four previous Reports made by it to the British
Association; this has been done by Professor Corfield on its behalf, and the
abstract will be found in another part of this Report.
Since the Committee’s last Report the Local Government Board has pre-
sented to Parliament a Return moved for in the House of Commons, dated
May 13th, 1873, and entitled a “ Return of the names of Boroughs, Local
Boards, Parishes, and Special Drainage Districts which have, through loans,
provided Sewage-Farms or other means for the Disposal of Sewage by Fil-
tration or Precipitation.” The various Tables contained in this Return
profess to give information, which, so far as it goes, would be valuable if
exact. One radical error in the scheme of the Tables is, that there is no
separation of the capital expenditure and working expenses of the year, while
in the case of sewage-farms the cost of purchasing land is not separated from
that of works.
Suction I.— Additional Note on the Dry Eurth System.
In former Reports the Committee has given the results obtained by
Dr. Gilbert on the determination of the nitrogen in the soil which had been
used in a Moule’s earth-closct once, twice, and three times. The same soil,
after passing through the closet the fourth time, has been again examined,
and the results of the series of determinations are given below :—
414 REPORtT—1873,
Before |After using | After using |After using |After using
used, once. twice, |three times.| four times.
—<—_-| ———<——_—$ —_—
Percentage of nitrogen ‘7 i : AA “5
in soil dried at 100° C. | 0-073 01240 0-388 pe46 One0
In the air-dried condition the soil, even after being used four times, con-
tained less than a half per cent. of nitrogen, and, as the Table shows, only
0-54 per cent. in the fully dried condition. Thus, after passing through the
closet four times, the soil was but little richer than a good garden-mould ;
and the Committee must still say, “‘ that such a manure, even if disposed of
free of charge, would bear carriage to a very short distance only,”
The Committee would refer to former Reports for its opinion of the
system in other aspects than that of the mere manurial value of the product ;
and its conclusions will be found summarized further on.
Sxcrion II,.—Harlswood Sewage-larm,
The Committee paid another visit to this farm on the 17th May, 1878, and
found that nearly the whole of the land was occupied by Italian ryegrass,
except about one acre which had been planted with potatoes. There was a
very small sale for the ryegrass when green, so that it had been made into
hay and stacked; some of last year’s stacks still remained on the ground;
this shows the necessity of growing crops suited to the neighbouring markets,
or else of keeping live stock to consume them, and more particularly cows,
for which Italian ryegrass and similar forage crops (grown by means of pro-
perly conducted sewage-irrigation, and periodically cut and carried to the
stalls) are especially suitable.
At the above date the first crop of ryegrass was only just being cut, whereas
the third or fourth crop ought to haye been ready, and would have been on a
thoroughly drained, properly laid out, and systematically managed sewage-farm.
Samples were collected of the effluent water as it flowed in a ditch, on its
way to the river Mole, about half a mile from the farm; and the results of
analysis showed that the sewage was much more satisfactorily purified during
the dry summer of 1873 than during the wet one of 1871, when the land
was supersaturated,
In former Reports of the Committee attention was drawn to this farm, which
was then receiving the sewage of Red Hill; it was intended that the sewage of
the town of Reigate should also be conducted to this farm, but the works for this
purpose are not yet completed.
Analysis.
N.B.—Sam ples taken twice a day, in the proportion of yoo of the flow per minute.
Results given in parts per 100,000.
E Solid Matter. Nitrogen.
Ele | a
od = a - lo
, o4 . in suspen-| ¢ ales
Goae Description of 25 Sonesta sion. e in cole 3 \25
- “ § iS} o8
“ie samples, Sq = : a|os
sive). = oe Slay Ss : co - v re
G8 | 85 |/_,8} FO },8] O B/-8 |.83/ 9 |] #|8e
o, | 3 o.9) 2 2 0 Bo 1) ihe ey os 3 =]
RA) ee 62\ % les 42/8 |228! 6 | 2/32
o ‘BS BES |4°3 ale |263/ a r=| ue]
1 t= he a ee H|o BEE ales
1873 galls |
From Effluent water )
16th June,! from Earlswood;| 270 | 36°10] 24:90)... ... | 4°93] 0:008/0:155} 0:96 | 1125) we. [1128
to Sewage-farm 1 all
| Sth July, | |
if 1 { 1 |
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 415
Srcrton LI1.—Breton’s Farm, Romford.
The systematic observations hitherto carried on with regard to this farm
(for a record of which sce previous Reports and the following abstract) have
been continued during the past year, and the form of last year’s Tables has
been again adopted to set out the results arrived at,
tons,
The quantity of sewage received from the town of Romford into
the tanks and pumped on to land from March 25th, 1872, to
March 24th, 1873 (inclusive), is according to the gaugings.. 405,443
The quantity of effluent water repumped on to land during the
DEI nce be okie haere Spay eta ae bide Shs MISES” 38,671
The total quantity of diluted sewage pumped for distribution 444.114
BL Sills Gayl oe od S58 aOR eee ne ane ec ar ke :
The quantity of sewage received from the town of Romford and
distributed on to land by gravitation during the above periodis 74,499
The quantity of effluent water distributed on to land by gravita-
Mereurne the kgine period is... ee eee ecg awn 8,980
Therefore the total quantity of sewage, diluted sewage, or 527.593
effluent water which we have to account for is~.......... "
Accounted for thus :—-
As appears by the cropping Table the quantity of
sewage applied to the land is .............. 523,810 tons.
Supplied to Mr. Gooch (adjoining farmer) ...... 1,548
MPAA SATION, oi ari gs sa los de boce was yee 2,235
Pafalalt Pou. GE dorian onewds day 527,593
Tables I. & IT. are continuations of the Tables of last year bearing the same
numbers, and are records of the observations made with regard to the quan-
tity and composition of the sewage and the efiluent water. From the organic
nitrogen column in Table II., referring to the effluent water, it will be seen
that an improvement has taken place, due probably to the solidifying of the
earth over the drains; the proportions of total nitrogen in the effluent water
for the two years show a difference of only 0-01 in 100,000 parts.
Table IIL. shows the absolute quantities of nitrogen contained in the
sewage and in the effluent water, as calculated from the details summarized
in Tables I, and IT.
From this it will be seen that the volume of sewage distributed was con-
siderably greater than in the previous year ; but the proportion of nitrogen
was smaller, indicating a greater dilution due to. the large increase in rainfall.
It would appear that the total amount of nitrogen distributed on the farm
was 26-9814 tons, while the previous year’s total would appear from the Table
to have been only 21-0245 tons ; but the explanation is that during the previous
year a large quantity of undiluted sewage, namely 83,962 tons, “ was run
upon a plot of land at the lower part of the farm by gravitation, and simply
filtered during periods when it could not be put on the farm, owing to further.
drainage-works being in progress.” The amount of nitrogen which must be
added to last year’s total to make it comparable with this year’s is 6-1964
tons, which makes 27-2209 tons, or practically the same quantity as this year.
416 REPORT—1873.
The quantity of effluent water measured was 470,552 tons as against only
195,536 tons last year. This is to be accounted for partly by the greater
dilution by rain, indicated by a difference of 0-01 of nitrogen per 100,000
parts in the composition of the effluent water, but principally by the fact
that the extra drainage alluded to in the last Report has been carried out.
Although, therefore, the effluent water this year shows less total nitrogen per
100,000 parts, yet the absolute quantity contained in it amounted to +
instead of -1, of the absolute quantity distributed over the farm.
Tables LV. to VI. are similar to the corresponding Tables of last year, and
are subject to the same qualifications with regard to the quantities of sewage
applied to the various crops and plots; that is to say, that the means available
for the measurement of the quantities of sewage and effluent water only
rendered possible the actual measurement of the total daily quantities, the
details professing to show approximately the quantities applied to the
individual crops and plots being merely calculated numbers obtained from
the daily totals by breaking these up in proportion to the areas irrigated each
day. The chief value of these figures is to show the desirability of obtaining
such details with precision. This, however, would require a numerous staff
of trained chemical and engineering assistants, and also the expenditure of a
considerable sum of money in apparatus, and in isolating, by means of sunken
barriers of concrete, the individual plots.
By comparing Tables V. and VI. of this year with Tables VY. and VI. of
last year, it will be found that the total produce taken off the farm during the
year ending March 24th, 1873, was 1704 tons against 2714 for the pre-
ceding year. This was due partly to the fact that the area in standing crop
on March 24th, 1873, was 87-62 acres against 40-49 acres on March 24th,
1872 (see Table VII.), and partly to the fact that there were 26-18 acres of
cereals in the year now recorded, against 0-9 of an acre in the previous year.
The nitrogen recovered in the crops taken off the land for the year under
review is estimated at 15,704 Ibs. as against 19,667 lbs. for the preceding
year. This smaller quantity recovered out of a larger quantity applied is
obviously due to the same causes which affected the weight of crops.
The nitrogen escaping in the effluent water is estimated at 11,973 lbs., as
against 5024 1bs. in the previous year. This increase is due to the additional
drainage of the farm giving a larger measured quantity of effluent water as
before explained, namely 470,552 tons as against 195,536 tons.
The amount of nitrogen unaccounted for (that is to say, accumulated in
the standing crops and top soil, washed into the subsoil, or lost) is the differ-
ence between that applied in the sewage (60,438 lbs.) and the sum of the
quantities recovered in the crops (15,704 lbs.) and escaping in the effluent
water (11,973 lbs.)—namely, 32,761 lbs., as against 22,404 lbs. unaccounted
for in the previous year.
These quantities, expressed in percentages, show that of every 100 parts of
nitrogen distributed over the farm in the sewage, 26 were recovered and
taken off the farm in crops, 20 escaped in the effluent water, and 54 remained
in the standing crops, in the soil, or in the subsoil, or were lost.
This nitrogen balance-sheet shows that the results of an experiment in
agricultural chemistry over so extended an area, and with so great a variety
of crops, can only give true averages if conducted over a lengthened series of
years ; for the produce of the farm was in many respects more satisfactory in
the year now recorded than in the preceding one, haying regard to the amount
of cereals grown and the crops left standing, and yet at first sight it appears
the reverse.
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 417
In the Report of the Committee presented at Liverpool it was stated, on
the authority of information furnished by the local authorities, that
(1) The population of Romford was “ about 8000 ;”
(2) That the refuse of about 7000 persons was discharged entirely into
the sewers ;
(3) That the whole population is within the area provided with under-
ground sewers.
As the Committee had some doubts as to the correctness of these statements,
it was thought advisable to have a census of the town, with particulars of
sewage connexions, &c. made, and the results will be found in Table VIII.
Samples of soil were very carefully taken on April 30th, 1873, in presence
of Messrs. Corfield, Gilbert, Grantham, Hope, and Williamson, at the same part
of the farm as on the previous occasion (July 15th, 1870), when no sewage had
been applied to that part of the farm. These samples were mixed, and an
average sample was analyzed by Dr. Russell with the following results :—
Examination of Soil from Breton’s Farm, Sample taken April 30th, 1873.
Soil, after drying by exposure to the air, consists of, in 100 parts :—
Stones too large to pass through holes of a sieve 3°88 millims. 35°77
Pencate driven off af 100° Co ce ease eee oo thd eis 9 3°40
Roeepasding Through Sl6Ve 25% rsa le ake he ee cals He vigielne 60:83
100-00
In 100 parts of the original soil there is :—
Insoluble in strong hydrochloric acid .......... 00 cere 55:02
Loss on ignition (includes water driven off at 100°C.) .. 6°65
mane etd Ce Ory Le eee Ee Oe PL SP OE 0:058
(LE Liga eens homens Aare id itea hg ete 9 Bed tee eS 0-002
PRISTINE Sad Wit adie aly Heatran on 2.4 «Sib 9-aoe tae hk BSR 0-016
meetoron aa NitratedGe: © ten eahd. S704 Vay. le oeiheN 0:00029
The second part of the above Table represents the percentage amounts (cal-
culated from the original soil) of the more important constituents of the 6423
parts of undried soil. Comparing these results with those given in the Com-
mittee’s Second Report, it will be seen that the phosphoric acid in the soil has
increased from 0-01 to 0-058 per cent., that the loss on ignition of the soil
is much greater (leaving water out of the question), that the amount of am-
monia has been increased from an inappreciable quantity to 0-016 per cent.,
and that the amount of nitrates has been also increased. The amount of total
nitrogen in the 64:23 parts of soil was estimated by the soda-lime process
with the following result :—
Total Nitrogen determined by the Soda-lime Process.
ab OXPOrImont'y Ph) Pe Pe neat ae . 0-191 per cent, Nitrogen.
Be OXPOREMONE Ting ea y.c svg kins <e 0-°187 ” ”
PAE oi cisth. « & + 4a tat take WE hg TO 0-189 per cent. Nitrogen
. in soil without stones ; therefore in original soil (stones included)
= 0-121 per cent. Nitrogen.
There is therefore no doubt that the quality of the soil has been conside-
rably improved by the sewaging, and that a good deal, both of the nitrogen
and phosphoric acid, is retained in it,
1873, QE
418 REPORT—1873.
Taste I1,—Breton’s
Statement of Weekly Quantities of Sewage received on the Farm, with the propor-
escaping from the Drains, with the proportions repumped, distributed by gravi-
[Continued from
ys RR el A a
Town sewage.
3
| a
A Bq
Le a |
F 4 nantit;
3 Date (inclusive). s ef ‘ aia , B Quantit Preeti doar ity
- a8 | 2 “Shain Ey pumped. by . returned
% 2 3 - g.: gravitation. | from land.
8 & | 3 58
= 2) #8
3 e | 3 53
z 4|\¢6 4
1872. es) sari. galls. |° F.| galls. galls. galls.
r10. | July 14 to July 20 [67 | 0°89} 1,690,100 |65°5| 1,383,700 | 306,400 | 2,198,200
111. | July 20 to July 27 |80 | 0°48} 1,653,800 |68°7] 1,653,800 | es. 1,856,900
112. | duly 28 to Aug. 3 |69 |0°76| 1,677,100 |67 | 1,677,100 | ews. 1,704,000
113. | Aug. 4 to Aug. 10 j65 | 1°64! 1,858,700 |65 | 1,060,100 798,600 | 1,852,100
114. | Aug. 11 to Aug. 17 |67 | ort) 1,582,000 |65 | 1,582,000 | esses 1,081,000
115. | Aug. 18to Aug. 24 |7o | o'00} 1,358,400 [66 | 1,358,400 Po 1,348,600
116, | Aug. 25 to Aug. 31 |67 | 0°89] 1,533,300 |64°5| 1,533,300 eeees 1,896,200
117. | Sept. 1 to Sept. 7 |73 | 0°47) 1,647,500 |66 | 1,647,560 sd 1,663,100
118. | Sept. 8 to Sept. 14 |69 | 0°03] 1,480,500 |66 | 1,480,500 | ss. 1,664,800
11g. | Sept. 15 to Sept. 21 |60 | 000] 1,321,000 [65 | 1,046,800 274,200 | 1,933,900
120. | Sept. 22 to Sept. 28 |54 | o80] 1,390,900 |62 759,700 631,200 | 1,092,000
121. | Sept. 29 to Oct.5 [58 | 0°96] 1,626,200 |63 | 1,406,000 220,200 | 1,809,200
122. | Oct. 6 to Oct. 12 |52 | 0°54) 1,347,100 |63 | 1,188,100 | 159,000 | 1,653,100
123. | Oct. 18 to Oct. 19 |49 | 0°28] 1,447,700 |61 1,297,700 150,000 | 1,647,500
124. | Oct. 20 to Oct. 26 |48 | 1°88) 1,892,300 |58 | 1,892,300 wasaee 2,803,800
125. | Oct. 27 to Nov. 2 |53 | 0°86] 1,625,700 |58 | 1,558,200 67,500 | 3,064,900
126. | Nov. 3 to Nov.9 |53 | 0°46) 1,673,200 |58 | 1,673,200 peneee 2,584,800
127. | Nov.10 to Noy.16 |40 | 0°99] 2,150,100 |55 2,150,100 bases 2,153,100
128. | Nov.17 to Nov. 23 |46 | 0°55) 2,199,400 |55 | 2,199,400 sae 2,468,100
129. | Nov. 23 to Nov. 30 \49°5 | 0°75] 2,104,800 |56 | 2,104,800 | serase 2,141,100
130. | Dec. 1 to Dec. 7 |42 | 1°27] 2,873,400 |53 2,123,400 750,000 | 2,609,800
131. | Dec, 8 to Dec. 15 |39 | 0°60) 2,524,100 |52 | 2,524,100 fuatlve 2,482,400
132. | Dec. 15 to Dec. 21 |\42 | 1°67} 3,161,200 |50 | 1,836,100 | 1,325,000 | 3,153,100
133. | Dec. 22 to Dec. 28 |48°5 | 0°25) 2,591,300 [52 | 2,271,300 320,000 | 2,488,500
1872. 1875.
134. | Dec. 29 to Jan. 4 [46-5] 0°71] 2,789,400 |52.5| 2,789,400 | essere 2,674,800
135. | Jan. 5 to Jan. 11 |49°5 | 0°66| 3,126,800 |52 | 2,941,900 184,400 | 2,695,100
136. | Jan. 12 to Jan.18 |49 | 0°18} 2,836,200 |53 | 2,836,200 ttt 2,659,400
137. | Jan. 19 to Jan. 25 |38 | 0°62) 2,535,300 |52 | 1,585,300 950,000 | 2,334,600
138. | Jan. 26 to Feb. 1 [34 | 0°00) 2,409,100 |51°5 | 2,325,300 83,800 | 2,519,800
139. | Feb. 2 to Feb. 8 |34 | 0°49) 2,424,100 |50 | 2,274,100 150,000 | 2,273,000
140, | Feb. 9 to Feb. 15 |38 | or1| 2,289,500 |50 | 2,289,500 seers 2,324,000
141. | Feb. 16 to Feb. 22 |35 | 0°00) 2,192,800 |35 | 2,192,800 axehne 2,071,600
142. | Feb. 23 to Mar. 1 |37°5 | 1:46) 3,165,500 [49 | 1,814,000 | 1,351,500 | 2,308,300
143. | Mar. 2to Mar. 8 |47°5| 0°38] 2,401,100 |49 | 2,348,600 52,500 | 2,313,000
144. | Mar. 9 to Mar. 15 |41°5 | 0°28) 2,510,400 |50°5 | 2,025,400 | 485,000 | 2,407,400
145. | Mar. 16 to Mar. 22 |42 | 0°39] 2,426,200 |50 | 1,341,600 | 1,084,600 | 2,024,800
146, | Mar, 28 to Mar. 29 |52°5 | 0°02] 2,141,100 |52 | 1,343,300 797,800 | 1,524,800
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
Sewage-Farm.
419
tions pumped or flowing by gravitation on to the Land, and of Effluent Water
tation, or discharged into the River, and of the Total Liquid applied to the Land.
last Report.]
distributed) Quantity
Effiuent water.
5
3 | Quantity Quantity
ey peaeoped by
3. to land. ae
Qe
w
4
“\°R galls. galls.
59 | 133,700 | 64,800
ae Ors7OO. || occ...
62 | 600,200 | ......
61 | 80,700 | 59,700
Gre h34,400 | ......
ne eS2 55400} veces
61 | 192,500 senna
61 | 15,100 scale
G25 74,300 | ......
61 | 841,400 | 97,500
58 | 169,900 | 127,100
57 | 231,100 4,800
55 |151,900 | 10,500
BaP) 159,400 | ......
BaP 280;300:| ....2.
53 | 34,600 | 13,500
| eS ree
PS ecs |! -scceas
oo WS eee
i )) 8 los an
49 coc df) pees
co We area Seed
4Bi| ove 135,0Cc0
AG |) vires 61,900
BEPMIET coiseo. |o steses
BEF) anne 18,000
48 53 Spice ga ieee 4
|| SSRs 271,500
| 3)e|) alggdggg akeeee
ae aaa
|| as aa
| ee an
BD |... 208,500
A Se00C
oo) ore 46,700
1 51,600
44 | 59,300 | 58,400
discharged
into river,
galls,
1,999,700
1,759,200
1,103,800
1,711,700
946,600
823,2C0
1,703,700
1,648,000
1,090,500
995,000
795,000
1,573,300
1,490,700
1,488,100
2,523,500
3,016,200
2,584,800
2,153,100
2,468,100
2,141,100
2,609,800
2,482,400
3,018,100
2,426,600
2,674,800
2,677,100
2,659,400
2,063,100
2,519,8co
2,273,000
2,324,000
2,071,6c0
2,099,800
2,313,000
2,360,700
1,973,200
1,407,100
Diluted
sewage
from tank,
galls.
1,353,500
1,724,300
2,204,700
1,230,300
1,673,000
1,843,600
1,752,200
1,682,600
1,977,900
1,986,400
1,001,800
1,563,600
1,398,4c0
1,368,000
2,010,300
1,789,500
1,685,000
1,944,400
2,371,500
2,090,900
2,151,100
2,460,200
1,731,800
2,326,300
2,750,800
2,799,800
2,958,800
1,842,600
2,159,1Cco
2,278,100
2,318,0c0
2,228,800
1,767,300
2,367,300
2,287,300
1,151,500
1,362,800
Total liquid applied.
thereof.
Average temperature .
Town
sewage
distributed
by
gravitation.
en eeee
274,200
631,200
220,200
159,c0o
150,cco
320,000
83,800
52,500
485,000
1,084,6co
"797,800
Effluent
water
distributed
by
gravita-
tion.
galls.
64,800
peewee
61,900
Total,
galls.
1,724,700
1,724,300
2,204,700
2,088,600
1,673,000
1,843,600
1,752,200
1,682,600
1,977,900
2,358,100
1,760,100
1,788,6co
1,567,900
1,518,0c0
2,510,300
1,870,500
1,685,000
1,944,400
2,371,500
2,090,900
2,901,100
2,460,200
3,191,900
2,708,200
25750,800
3,002,200
2,958,800
3,064,100
2,242,900
2,428,100
2,318,000
2,228,800
3,327,300
2,419,800
2,819,000 }.-
2,287,700
2,219,000
222
Proportion of effluent water to
sewage distributed.
275
1'077
‘773
887
646
732
1'082
“988
842
"820
‘620
l'ol2
T'054
1'085
1°395
1638
1°534
1°I107
I'O41
I°024,
*900
I"009
"988
“919
“972
898
"899
"762
1°I23
"936
1°003
‘929
691
"956
"854
885
687
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90.9
*SU0}
“BuO
000°00T
aad
wasoIy
org‘fzS
Eglié
£6S‘LzS
SLLégh
fLo‘Sb
19f'9S
gzgits
goz'gt
glsict
1¥9‘LE
79 6‘gt
Egz‘gt
oSgtt
$6997
EgL‘ov
*su0y
“Aqquend
ree eee
WIR S,UCJOIG Ye LOS)
+ naa Gh, Gee tapas 04
pur purl s,qoo0on ‘apy 0} paddy
$e Axenaqay 07 cg Lrenuee
Fz Avenuep 0} eg toqureoe(y
‘E181 ‘GLBT
vreee Fe aqulave(T 0} GZ 1oqulaAo yy
sort" £7 Taq MLOAO NT 0} GZ 1aqGC7}99
sis cic “"*E7 18qG0JO 04 GG aaqureydag
tee eneee
nietteses 2 Jaqurtoydag 0} Gz ysnony
Hirieereore aeniny 0} og Ame
A aes tseereeenee kp of eg ounp
Hieteeeemnee oop 0} og SEY
SRE EEC SOIR 2). 754 7 0} CZ [udy
SOU GIO OCU ants 33 Tudy 0} ca qorryy
“GL8T
*(@AISNOUT) 8948C
"GIST ‘FS YoIB]L 9} “SLET “Gs youryy Woz ported oy} roF ‘aror0y} poureyu0d UoSoI4IN] PUB posreypsIp
I0JCM JUONTPY JO puv ‘Uloloy} poulezuos WosorjIN] pur pojnqrajsip osvaag Jo satjyueNngy) ATAJUOPL, oy} SuLMoys yuewsze4g
"untng -abomag 8 wojtg—"T TT LTAV,
treseesreeee o> TOaRTT 0} Gg Auwnaqaiy
Plot.
Total A
II.
No. of beds
III.
Con-
(inclusive), | tents.
1 to 20
21 and 29
Toces
‘a1, 25, & 26
9 to 16
17a; 2p
7
pg :)
”
acres.
6°41
1'79
a7
1097
a°97
REPORT—1873.
Taste LY.—Breton’s
Statement showing Sewage applied and Crops grown
Description.
Onions
Carrots
Aen e ene eneneeeeee
eee ee eee e re ere
seenee
Cabbage......- RoREDOOnaGe
Italian rye-grass
Hardy green plants...
Se es
eee. reer
Hardy greens
Wheat
Henne eee eeeeenees
eee eeeeeees
We
Date when sown or
planted,
eal
ee
Peete en eeeee
Sept. 1870 and
March 1871.
April to June 1872...
AID G18 72 cesawa sienna
Aug. and Sept. 1872.
July and Aug.
Vins
Date when cut or
gathered,
een er eeeres
eee wees
sete eeeenee
fern areas
May to Aug. 1872...
April to Aug. 1872.
Sept. 1872.......... vee
Aug. and Sept. 1872.
Dec. 1872 and Jan.
1873.
Jan. to March 1873.
Depts 872 ieswerdenasecle) peeeenaee oes
Maren 1874.2. g-csl) iereeeeten steve
4 ess eset oy gente meen
Manreh 1872 ..0.-.0: Aug. 182m says ace: <2
Sept. oe ae Jan. and Feb, 1873.
March 173° hes.<| S isacceeepere:
The figures in columns marked thus (*) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 423
Sewage-Furm.
from March 25, 1872, to March 24, 1873.
Approximate estimate of
2 Produce.
sewage applied.
Mii} ViELI. 1b-<, xe p45 Xil. Remarks,
eee | | | Sewage
No. of applied
arate Total, | Per acre.) Total. | Per acre. per ton of
ings.
s' < a produce,
tons. tons. tons. tons. tons.
17 | 10,650 | 1,661 | 659 | 10°3 162 | 9°75 tons of this crop ploughed in.
5 2,250 | 1,259 | al3 i1'9 106 | 14:2 tons consumed by cattle on the
farm.
6 2,300 1,447 4:0 a5 575 | Including straw, 3°5 tons consumed by
cattle. 3
ZG | 14,000 | 1,430 | veeeee | serene | sevens This crop remained March 25,-1873.
29,200 2,982 91:2 93 320 The whole plot was under crop at the
end of the year.
This crop received 8577 tons of
‘ ; sewage previous to March 1872.
Bee |).23-55° meas, | tease ig 233 38-4 tons were consumed by cattle
on the farm or ploughed in.
22 | 13,800 3,566 85:0 22°0 162 | 1108 tons sewage applied in March
: 1871.
6 1,500 | 1,128 | 128 96 117 | One half of the plants were ploughed
in.
6,050 1,626 10:0 2:7 605 | Including straw, 8-4 tons consumed
by cattle.
8 3,600 1,946 7:0 3:3 514. | Ploughed in 1°4 ton.
10 7,700 | 2,271 | 29°6 8-7 260 | 5:9 tons ploughed in or consumed by
cattle.
11 74550 PROSE Ws cseuan bey be MAREE This crop remained March 25th, 1873.
ef coadeg ll Nene Oona ane RAR Te lot a Ena RRA SS :
DUE os cease | ssocedaus || casastet, (> sesame Crops remained March, 25th, 1873.
MD rSes |) 64: | owe. ict. ee,
82,200 6,782 | 298:0 24:6 276 The whole plot was under crop at the
end of the year.
ee | .
red ; Riis. 63 34 we. | 4°6 tonsstraw. 20,328 tons of sewage
applied to the fallow previous to
sowing the oats. —
30 8,850 | 4.492 67 3:4 | 1,321 | 373 tons ploughed in &c.
ve 8,850 | 4,492 | 135 63 656 | Plot all under crop at the end of the
* 7 Fe year.
SS ER PR AR SE EE ES I ES
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report.
424. REPORT—-1873.
Taste LY.
Description.
I. i. 4) eg IV. v. VI.
1 No. of beds, Con- Gaon Date when sown or | Date when cut or
Plot. (inclusive). | tents. I . planted. . gathered.
acres.
D All 6:03 || Wats! (ctesmeesacaeee ~s...| March 1872 ..../...: Alig S72. nsccteees
Ff . 6°93 | Italian rye-grass .,....] Aug. Phas soso Noy. 1872 to March
1873.
Total D Like ote Gos | Apes 685" ach + bv eemtibe se cmarceetes © pg Beneecnmeeeeerees
E 1 to 13 3°60 | Italian rye-grass ...... March 1872°......0.: June to Sept. 1872...
if 145; 22 2°17 | Strawberries ......... wail panseaslaneorestepeee so.e-| June to July ,, ...
x ByeeaS | 83°90. | CAB. 05-658 ses sceacans sacs MING TSF vnncectevact Sept. 1872),:ceres sae
*- i T toe 5°76 Cabbare's2..2.0i eset BeVOet.- bey ete spa |! By henmnteharthptenae Semncis
(yoy 1 | ee ree AOU. Uisacasbiinects ae onascestcesends) - Ries Bteameemametee =
BR 1 to 8 1370" (OARNOLS ons. .cevesseebses April 4 Ee NOV. 3872><5-c02s00ret
4 g and 10 Site WEIS PEEL cantinseasnbec: ime fee Soe Sept.) _ we scoezanece
5d 11 to16 | 1'27 | Potatoes ................ PAD IUL aaa ee ete ee ag ip Uiesscoanterse
ze 17 and 18 Dies WMA WNONIICS assseccepese WVIATCH 5, «a-c:cbcccccl | ueeeee Renee
3 12 to16 | 1°06 1” Sept. to Nov. Le siiceahenonstr
Atal eh| ame earcemes 3°82 Sivccepscecnmes, | 1x o(uhabecmeescapias, «ill uenaeeeeeenee 5B
G 13and 14} ‘47 | Hardygreens............ Oct. 187 Tasco May S872 %.cbcsccupes
&, ne pe SAT MAN POI © ss. nsaeavens PIU 7c snderac es Nov. 187 2inisbeencteee
f 3 Rog MIU OAETOUR 2, bass deao<sthees a iy ae ieecaaca ae Dec, Wties. bee ts
%, 4 to 9 EAN S| ONIONS tsb secnveccncse-eot MAUS, LOT). cckeswess May to July 1872...
ee TOs, ara: ‘70 | Cabbage....... eeriaess June 1872....... w..| Aug. 1872 ..
‘ 15, 05 "70 Brussels sprouts ...... cet Pa Pose cee Noy. 1872 to "March
1873.
16 sag “IMOMIONS Seserensetises. coe IMiny i072 “cess etts see Noy. and Dec. 1872
2 17 "2.3 \"S| ROLALOGS 0. 02c0c0.005+008 PATIL 5) Grceteerenene Sept. 1872 ....... bade:
- 1S to 22 “|iMerS + ONIONS o.5..0cccscecsar ccs + 5)‘ ae eeeeeeeeotee Atip. Setieace:- toed
4 23 | Kohl rabi ............... PAUID: © -,, > haaseeeeon se: “Deer ees Wke. = 3 osoccs
E 9 "23 | Cauliflowers .........0.| July ,, seeeese-see.| Aug. and Sept. 1872
” { per 2°82 | CADDARC..-.css-0eece saps] NEDb. ANG OC Wwo72)| | vacseadeseecees
Total G anieeee s rik) ae oe as. my
The figures in columns marked thus (x) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 425
(continued).
Approximate estimate of
: Produce.
sewage applied.
rove | xx. x XTi i Ree winch
eo, i | Sewage:
No. of applied
dress-| ;Total. | Per acre.) Total. | Per acre. per tonof,
ings. produce.
* * *
tons tons tons. tons tons
in 4 leis aaa lea 23°3 eek Wh ceapes 16:2 tons straw.
ard a £75750 2,561 | 34:7 5:0 511 | The crop remained March 1873.
17,750 | 2,561 | 58:0 84 306 | Plot all under crop at the end of the
year.
6 3,850 1,069 91 a5 423 Fallow received 6670 tons previous to
sowing grass.
2 I,I00 507 0-2 Ol 5500 :
10 6,500 1,969 8:0 24 812 | Straw 74 tons. Used on farm.
15 9,350 HOZSM | Tececdee |? teceeees || execs Crop remained March 1873.
20,800 | 3,611 17:3 3:0 1z02 | Plot all under crop at end of year,
SS SS | SS SS |
1 500" 294 | 30°2 17.8 17 | Tops used for fodder, 7°8 tons.
1 150 357 12 2°8 125 | Straw used as fodder, ‘94 ton.
| eS eee 8:9 7:0
1 200 AGh Oia pak aeresie gy ||| ECan cai allie uatealts These plants remain. No yield at
present.
PEE Esk abn ms snide aeazeeen pr aaawsger|iemensens rs is <
re 850 223 | 403 10°5 21 Beds 1 to 11 fallow all the winter.
SSAC NTs cgee 2°3 4:9 vss | Received 1109 tons of sewage previous
to March 1872.
16 2,850 6,064 | 13:4 285 213 | Tops &e. ploughed in 2 tons.
11 950 | 4,130 35 15:2 271 ‘66 ton tops used as fodder.
| This crop received 802 tons of sew-
age previous to March 1872, 12
tons of the onions were ploughed
| in, there being no sale for them.
5 1,000 1,429 14:5 20°7 69 | 1°5 ton ploughed in.
4 950 1,357 58 83 164 | 3:1 tons ploughed in or consumed by
cattle,
400 1,739 4:2 18°3 95
150 652 1:3 56 115
2,050 1,737 31:0 26'3 66
400 1,739 15 65 267
450 | .1,957 58 25°2 78 | 5:2 tons cut for cattle and ploughed in.
3750 1,329 vane ceeeee | ceeees Crop remained March 1873.
16,050 3,104 | 101-4 19°6 158 | Part of plot fallow all winter.
* * ; 5
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report.
426 REPORT—1875.
Taste LY,
ee
Description.
ip Il. Tne a1i\ Ye Wie VI.
No. of beds} Con- : Date when sown or | Date when cut or
at (inclusive). | tents. Crop. planted. . gathered,
acres. :
H 1 to 24 | 6:40 | Cabbage...... dae tnee cas Ti MOPt. LSPP eeesccnecess Apvril to July 1872...
55 1,17 | 4:25 | Hardy greens ..... weet) CULL y NOS seis sere eit Oct. to Dec. 1872...
4 18 ,, 24 | 2°15 | Cabbage......ceeree FIVEE CIs wer yea nostic anos Aug. 1872 to March
1873.
oD I 53 24 | 6:40 | ONIONS cscccccesrereeeeee Feb.and March 1873} —.... ss seeesseee 5
Total 1s IE Pee saooe GAM metbieseeeeciss--s0s, | |, cogeseveoneees-) | [agg Racusaveapences
ee D
1 to 3 and part | Cabbage and hard :
I { “a Bs 3 rte renania y \ Sept. and Oct. 1872} April to July 1872
” 4 to 9 2°27 | Potatoes...cccccscesseeees Heb. 18°72 <..cvesesers Ouly T3722... sarees
” Ty *9 TIX | Cabbage......ccececseeees DESY: ig) Me ete co paedas Aug. 1872 to March
1873.
4 439 2'27 | Cabbage-plants ........- RATELY! (25th locates sn a Sept. and Oct, 1872
* 10 ,, 15 | 2°32 | Hardy greens ......... ~ 3 Oct. and Nov. ,,
3 16 ,, 18 97 | Peas °......ssecsseereeaees SNE | 4) cece. -sesene Sept. 1872 ....cacseoe.
. AvaaS, less) \SHeGWe specesses-coo deed te GSetesccsoene) | lo Senpeeeeieneete
otal Dale: secauaree (FE oo) Cane RRC OR Seon Occ paiam sl (Dame ETI Oat tinea ric. OD0080 OC
K All 4°44] Barley .....---0..25-200 April 1872 ......00. | Aug. 1872....,2-..556
ap 99 4°44 | Italian rye-grass...... Bapt: Fs hum wesceesae Noy. 1872, | cutting
ih Roy TNE ease 4°44 Shee Seeaeeee peariccsawes ans ., ego aceaee
—
L All. 28s WAHBLIOW. sbxcwcesose>so- gee |” ccneseeccsencnt, ful 1) See ceeeeeeraet
- Part. $4Q.4) Mamoold %......0:..0-s0- JUNE 1872......0000.- NOY fap ea cceceexeces
x 3 2°37 | SAVOYS ..0...00 aes eae June and July 1872 | ,, » to Jan.
1873.
All. 2287) \) HAM OW vcnawenseaane ene Sidecsrcesesess Rc cealtes oases
Mota i ieeeccns > « OR ih OU RRRAS eee meee KS | ace Adiony nacean A cagaameeee as i
a
M All. g°17 | Cabbare |...s0c..casis Oct. 1871 ...e00...... | dune to Aug. 1872
x 3°17 | Italian rye-grass ...... Sept; aye nantecest meses nee
Total M]. .....2.55 dix Ae anes ceeresseeceeces ke hanna Nias
The figures in columns marked thus (x) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 427
pontinued).
Approximate estimate of
: Produce.
sewage applied.
oe ee ae a Hones
| Se a a ee Sewage
No. of applied
dress-| Total. | Per acre.| Total. | Per acre. per ton o
ings. produce.
* bd tx
tons, tons. tons. tons. tons.
32 | 19,950 | 3,117 | 1012 158 197 | 10°6 tons ploughed in. The crop re-
ceived 6387 tons of sewage previous
to March 1872.
20 6,800 1,600 | 65'5 154 104 | 6*4 tons ploughed in.
14 7750 3,605 45'3 all 171 | 4’7 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
40 | 33,600 Dees aisrrers aie cenrep ll css Crop remained March 1873. Sewage
all applied to fallow.
68,100 | 10,641 | 211-9 | 33-1 321 | Plot all under crop at end of year.
9 5,000 | 1,202 | 54:0 | 13°0 93 |10'5 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed
2 1,250 551 73 32 171 athe
21 8,250 | 7.432 | 232 20°9 356 | 1°5 ton consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
2 650 286 25'3 11°4 25
11 5,650 | 2,435 | 30°9 13°3 183 | 3 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
7 1,450 | 1,495 26 27 558 | Straw 2°3 tons,
24 | 19,250 | 3,462
41,500 | 6,222 |143°8 216 289 | Nearly all this plot was fallow through-
out the winter, and the whole clear
at the end of the year.
SEEN wweee, |) asses 15'3 34 5 Ee 10°4 tons straw.
19 10,750 2,421 67 15 1604. | This grass remains.
10,750 2,421} 22:0 49 489 | Plot all under crop at end of year.
ee SRO TSS SS
ars 24,800 8,641
4 1,300 2,600 4-1 8:2 317 | 1.25 consumed by cattle on farm.
11 3,830] 1,616] 49°7 | 21:0 77 | Only one sixth of this crop sold; re-
mainder destroyed by floods,
vi 6,600 2,300
——_ —_ | ——_-
“i 36,530
24 | 12,000 65°7 20°7 183 | 32°75 tons consumed by cattle or
ploughed in. The crop received
4394. tons of sewage previous to
March 1872. .
Pye) ot Pech st: oy hb apeests. Grass not cut till March 1873.
65'7 20°7 258 | Standing crop at end of year.
*
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report,
428 ; REPORT—1873.
Taste IV.
Description.
I. II. III. IV. We VI.
No. of beds | Con- E Date when sown’or | Date when cut or
eet (inclusive).| tents. Cup, planted. gathered.
acres
N 7 and 8 GHZ wMSEOCCON f..casennosacesr July 1871 we... ive | Atprilen872)5 ....e0e-
# All. 4°15 | Italian rye-grass ...... Mar.and May 1872| July ,, to Jan.
1873.
Total N | idarcacs BSTIE SUMING raccnsveey oh Lleetesabiesmese eed. Gail eMua ieee eee metic
O All. 5°92 | Wheat «....... spossosaag HeDWiLa72 ceccess= ees ANE 72 eee as serees
5 is 5292 = IOADbage ./sc-coce.casebs Sepbs aieiternre 3 PPS: 8s
Total O} ws... page| ROMS RRs. | ccsaceccestees) | 0 eaeneemetterre
P Part. 2°00 | Hardy greens and a June 1872 to
RAVOYR .tes-cencs =f spel A a mentee { Mar. 1873. }
# is 1°50 | Drumhead cabbage...| May ,,_— sss sae Oct. to Dec. 1872.
3 All. BGO AAV NP Abe sere stesscerensee Mirch 1'873....c.s001 waamocenteldeaers
Sosy Ie ar oee B25O! SP eesssaesccas | FG canedeescaracccs). SI | Se eeeeneae
——— OE | ee. ee eee
Q x to aor })ixro4/1|/Barley: <......0-50..--00. iMay 1872 ..+.....-:a0 | Sept. 1872............
55 PTMEO: 20) 0) EOF Wl WSAVOKS Sac. ccceseraectan July: yy) Wenvecent> soe | NOV, 45 10 Jan,
187 3.
21 and 22| ‘23 | Drumhead cabbage...| May ,, .........0 Nov. 1875. cacceec
+ 1toro | x04. | Cabbage ...ccssessa-se:
+ 11 to 22 | 1730 | Fallow
Motal Qi) ieassseses 2°34,
R All. 2°52
a Part. 2°40
” ” “12
TotaleBil i ssesesae 2°52
Ss All, $225 MONLONE si. snteaee nee se ess March 1872 ........ . | July and Aug. 1873.
as a ‘22 | Hardy greens ......... Aug. Sp. hates Dec. T8720... sce
Bs - ‘22 | Rhubarb ...........00. | Feb. ee Ee STE an Seo
Total § ee DOM BAe Miatetece iss ss sc.. os) dl cgaaomseneseitenscneuae ml tal aseee etki sess ii
The figures in columns marked thus (*) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 429
(continued).
i
Approximate estimate of
sewage applied. Produes,
VII. | VIII. Ix, X. XI. XII. Remark
<= e Sewage
No. of applied
dress- | Total. | Per acre.| Total. | Per acre.|per ton of
ings. produce.
* * a
tons. tons. tons tons. tons.
eaeree 138 265 see | This crop received 2194 tons of sewage
previous to March 1872. 11 tons
consumed by cattle or ploughed in.
75 | 37,959 | 9,145 | 1879 | 45:3 202 | Grass cut 6 times and still remains.
-- | 37,950 | 95154 | 2017 486 188 | Standing crop at end of year.
meshes 20-7 35 seeeee | 30 Qrs. Wheat=6°75 tons, tail wheat=
*45 tons, straw 13°5 tons.
31 | 21,100 BS OMee eerscecaeee |b oat all Neecbsere This crop remained March 1873.
oe, 21,100 3,564 20°7 3°5 1o1g | Standing crop at end of year.
52) | 16,300 8,150 22-7 113 718 rotons consumed by cattle or ploughed
55 | 18,450 | 12,300 | 45:1 30'1 4°9 | 30 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
PEP cic: | | Moshectt lbqsteas .{i- eences The crop remained March 1873.
341759 | 9:927 67°8 19°4 513 | Standing crop at end of year.
a
SEEN oeesase. |“ seccee 2°6 Ba i sscccs 2'12 tons straw.
3 1,150 | 1,075 | 23:6 | 22:1 487 | 15°7 tons consumed by cattle or
ploughed in.
1 159 652 3-2 13'9 47 | 2°1 tons consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
2 250 DAG) ceatccm It cccsses fh sates Crop remained March 1873.
2 55° 423
2,100 897 29°4 12'6 71
3 1,450 575 46'6 185 31 | 5 tons small mangolds ploughed in.
14.| 8,150 3396
13 680 eR Tae We cate ull serene’ ‘leu aa sate Crop remained March 1873.
Foy 10,280 4,079 46:6 18°5 221
2 400 1,818 ‘18 8-2 222,
2 150 682 a1 95 71 | *33 ton consumed by cattle or ploughed
in.
S| neers, ee cesatcct) |i. osacen, MM aeemgieliy veceuee Crop remained March 1873,
vee | 5 5° 25509 3:9 17'7 14a Standing crop at end of year.
Neen nn css seer se AR SR SESS |
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report,
4.30 REPORT—1873.
‘Taste IY.
Description.
tf, iE hey hy: We VI,
Date when sown or | Date when cut or
planted. gathered.
No. of beds | Con-
(inclusiye).| tents.
Plot.
acres.
U All. 2°53 | Sprouting broccoli ... | Oct. 1871 sees... April 872 .....000
4 2 2°53 | Dwarf and runner | May 1872........006. AEP Dey) feceseesrs
beans.
” ” 2759 o) Wiheati cess... tures: necte March 1873 ......+0 Geeghaics Ghias sts
UO BALRTE Marware ces. 253 BA See ee Be ie rrr) ae eel oa caer cue sc
Vv Part. *50 | White broccoli......... June 187% .2,.t.c5. Aprile 72) veces:
” ” BOO |) CAWDHE | \edcuivsc.sbs. Obt.: 5) WR May to Aug. 1872
+ 5 O38 al MBE TEN gee tevactasss eas Miaiy 18 72, ensewasnst Sept. 1879. steaseens
” ” 2°00 | Hardy greens ........ Sept. be ohtace March 1873 ...008...
"3 ' 208 Tt WOADDALO. lessee sea sech vs Obi. by tescdackinit Reeeeererenaes
Total V |... Rigg) a Bee kee~ p> Ue abe ee
WwW All. ROM Oabts |S .bcetecccgeccess | March 1872). .:¢s:t08] AUG: Deyo reuetesesens
5 Part. 2°75 | Hardy greens ......00 Sept. Stee sae ‘| Feb, and Mar. 1873
” ” 2°75 | Wheat \....cccssecoecens March 1873 ......... cal Bhedtesdvese
io seal ance See ie | ieee: ae Lae
Total W docsccese 2°37 Ravdraccstces et) 0” seams teeeieon S ere oeteeteeee .
x All. B86 | Hallow: seec keke... df Ohm sasSrtieescs CHA Brake AF Sie
“ Part. 3°36 | Mangold ...seccsseeee.s | May 1872 ...ccccseees Nove Bhp aired: .wecweve
i: a "50 | SAVOYS ....-.s0eseccecree aly | ,, Sie ie.t SE Noy. ,, to Mar.
1873,
D All. 9°86 | Wheat ssssccoccsscceseee | March 1873 serene saiaCanolesne whan
Motel Xi), Sesssevt Sk 3°86. || >... Wetesaitiaect oth pedeedentea Sgvaanies
a4 All 5iGO | May seccsesnaneescs ve. | Permanent grass ...| 2 cuttings, June
and Sept. 1872.
The figures in columns marked thus (+) are to be considered
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE,
Per acre.|per ton of
|
(continued.)
Approximate estimate of :
sewage applied. Produce,
VEE.) VEEL: 1D. xe XI.
No. of
_| dress-| Total. | Per acre.| Total.
ings.
Eo a
tons tons. tons.
200. eel lade 13°4 53
15 7;900 3,122 72 23
37 93550 S5775 | sccece. (|| ovveae
17,450 6,897 20'6 Sl
saeee 14:5 29°'0
3 25950 1,475 35:1 175
- Occ oe en Bees 72 25
i) 2,800 1,400 47 23
5 3,000 Tj O24 RIM 3005s ee, os ntea
8,750 1,775 61:5 12°5
fon, Hes an) eeeeeee 10°2 34
33 | 9,600 | 3,491 6:0 22
fe 9,600 31345 16:2 56
: zl 5,000 1,295
7 6,150 1,830 84:0 25:0
4 4 650 1,300 10°1 20°2
‘
14 | 14,800 Sea S4ie i, s<ca<tpallie cotter
26,600 6,891 94:1 24°4
Sees Gee ee | eo
7 | 5,150 920 24°6 4:4
* *
431
XII.
Sewage
applied
Remarks.
produce.
*K
This crop received 5797 tons of sewage
previous to March 1872. ‘The
greater portion of crop consumed by
cattle or ploughed in. ;
Three fourths of this crop was ploughed
in.
Crop remains; sewage all applied to
the fallow.
847 | Standing crop at end of year.
Four fifths of this crop ploughed in or
consumed by cattle. Received 2126
tons of sewage previous to March
1872.
Consumed by cattle and ploughed in
4 tons. Received 2053 tons of sew-
age previous to March 1872.
Straw, 5°8 tons.
Consumed by cattle or ploughed in
2°5 tons.
Crop remained March 1873.
34.
Standing crop on part of plot at end
of year.
Fallow received $345 tons sewage pre-
vious to March 1872, Straw 6'9
tons.
Consumed by cattle or ploughed in 3
tons.
Crop remained March 1873.
1600
Plot in seed at end of year; quarter
acre of plot taken for gravel-pit, &e.
Waste 8°4 tons.
Five sixths of this crop injured by
floods and consumed by pigs or
ploughed in.
All this sewage applied to the fallow.
Crop remained March 1873.
| Plot in seed at end of year.
The grass remains; 2400 tons of this
sewage applied since the second
cutting,
only as approximations, for reasons stated in the last Report
4.32
REPORT—1873.
TABLE V.—Breton’s
Summary for the year ending March 24, 1873, showing the Nitrogen applied
Plot.| Contents.
acres.
9-79
12°12
1:97
6:93
5°76
3°82
5:17
6:40
6°67
4:44
2°87
3°17
4:15
5:92
3°50
2°34
2-52
"22
2°53
4°93
2:87
3°86
Magid d @RPONOZERHAHH @ HH Yo wb |
560
| i
107°55_
Description.
Cr op.
Onions, carrots, and Peas .........seereene
f Cabbage, Italian rye-grass, eed pee am
4 plants, peas, and savoys... ....
Oats and hardy greens.......s+esessceeeeeeess
Oats and Italian rye-grass ........cseeeee ees
Italian rye-grass, strawberries, and peas...
Carrots, peas, and potatoes ...1.-.eeeeeeeeees
Hardy greens,mangold, carrots, onions,
cabbage, Brussels sprouts, potatoes,
kohl rabi, and cauliflowers.
Cabbage and hardy greens .........seeeeeeee
Cabbage, hardy greens, potatoes, and peas
Barley and Italian rye-grass ...........66-
Mangold and savoys ...cceceeseseseeee neces
(EDAD Gi cacne saw ccpersee sep ubenaccnsenae acs”
Broccoli and Italian rye-grass............++-
NV iMeatts Pee eneedsetnaneraete satin ss asiatiine'sieegan vos
Hardy greens, savoys, and cabbage.........
Barley, savoys, and cabbage .........+- ons
Mangold ...... Baebaecensheictieeeieina rise eeseman:
Onions and hardy greens..........+.0.s0s00
Dwarf and runnerbeans and sprouting
PYOCCOM Mans. re ecset stron suiversessosee
White broccoli, cabbage, hardy greens,
and barley ........ sagediga aavetoeeda os
Oats and hardy greens.....s...sseveeeeererees
Mangold and savoys..........sceeseserserseees
red (equal to four and a half times
this quantity when green) .........
Approximate estimate of
Produce. sewage applied.
Per
ton of
Total. | Per acre. | Total. Per acre. ro-
uce,
a * So
tons. tons tons. tons tons,
91:2 9°3 | 29,200 | 2,982 | 320
298:0 | 24°6 82,200 782 | 276
13°5 638 8,850 | 4,492 | 656
58:0 84 | 17,750| 2,561 | 306
17:3 3:0 20,800 | 3,61I /|1202
40:3 | 105 850 223 21
101'4 | 19°6 16,050 3,104 | 158
211:9 | 33°1 68,100 | 10,641 | 321
143'8 | 21°6 41,500 | 6,222 | 289
22°0 4:9 10,750 | 242% | 489
53°38 | 18:7 36,530 | 12,728 | 679
65°7 | 20°7 16,950 | 5,346 | 258
201'7 | 48°6 37,950 | 9,145 | 188
20°7 35 21,100 | 3,564 |1019
678 | 19°4 | 34,750 | 9,927 | 513
29°4| 12:6 2,100 897 71
46'°6 138°5 10,280 4,079 | 221
3-9 17°7 550 2,500 | 141
20°6 81 | 17,450 | 6897 | 847
61:5 12:5 8,750 1,775 | 142
16:2 56 9,600 | 3,345 | 593
94:1 | 244 26,600 6,891 | 283
24°6 44 5,150 g20
1704'0 | 15°85 |523,810; 4,870 307
The figures in columns marked thus (+) are to be considered only as approximatio
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE.
Sewage Farm.
433
to the Land during that period, and its relation to the Produce of the Farm.
c ‘ ‘ -_ | Not accounted for (in
: ; Diff 1, | Calculated to b count
Quantity applied. ace, Eat |e ena | Seadinmecsuneat, |) Ecaane
Quantity am.
escaping 2a
» =|
“9 ne ae ae Per | Fe Per Per ite Si: ob
Total. Bn no | are Total. | acre. th. Total. aure,| Total. | acre. pee crop. a ied
ce. duce. uce. duce 25 oa
A 14
* us * * * * * % iW ce | sea oe ih
Ibs. | lbs.| Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. x Ibs.| Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs.
31369 | 344 369 668 | 2,701 }276 |29°6| 725) 74) 7°9| 31,976 | 20221°7| 22 | 20
9,485 | 783] 31°8| 1,879 | 7,606 627 |25*5 | 2,927/242| 9°8| 4,679 | 386.15°7| 31 | 20
1,021 | 518] 75°6 202 819 | 416 |60:7] 198)/101\14°7) 621 | 31546:0] 19 | 20
2,048 | 295) 35°3| 406 | 1,642 |237 |28°3| 954/138|16-4) 688 | og 11°9| 46 | 20
2,400 | 416/138:7| 476 | 1,924 | 334 |11°2| 719/125|41°5| 1,205 | 209/69°7| 30 | 20
98 | 26) a4 19 79 | 21 | 1:9] 276) 72} GB]... fevesee|eseee 282 | 20
1,852 | 358| 183 367 | 1,485 |287 |r4°6| 533)103/ 53) 952 | 184) 94] 29 | 20
7,858 |1228| 37°1| 1,557 | 6,30 | 985 |29°7| 1,187)185| 5°6| 5,114 | 8002471] 15 | 20
4,789 | 718] 33°3| 949 | 3,840 | 576 |26-7| 989148) 6°9| 2,851 | 427:19°8| 21 | 20
1,240 | 279| 56-4] 246 | 994 (224 |45'2| 373) 84/17°0| 621 | 140280] 30 | 20
4215 |1473| 78°3| 835 | 3,380 |117 62:3) 301/105] 5°6 | 3,079 |107357°2| 7 | 2°
1,956 | 617| .29°8| 387 | 1,569 | 495 |23°9| 368/116) 5°6| 1,201 | 383 18-3) 19 | 20
4,379 |1055| 21°7| 867 | 3,512 |846 |17°4|2,350566/ 11-7) 1,162 | 280) 5:7| 54 | 20
2435 | 411/117°6| 482 | 1,953 | 330 |94°3| 472) 80) 22°8) 1,481 | 25071'5) 19 | 20
4,010 |1146| 59°1 794 | 3,216 |919 |47°4| 380109| 5°6| 2,836 | 81041°8| 9g | 20
242 | 103} 8:2 48 194| 83 | 66] 191) 82| 65 3 1} *1] 79 | 20
1,186 | 471] 25°5 235 951 |377 |20°4| 261/104} 56| 690 | 2731148} 21 | 20
63 | 286) 16:2 12 5 [232 |r371 21| 95) 54 30 | 137] 7°7| 33 | 20
2,013 | 796] 97°7] 399 | 1,614 |638 |78:3| 156] 62| 7°6| 1,458 | 57670°7| 8 | 20
1,009 | 205) 1674 200 809 | 164 |13'2| 419| 85) 68) 390 79| 64] 41 | 20
1,107 | 386) 68°3| 219 888 | 310 |54:8| 275) 96/17°0| 613 | 21437°8| 20 | 20
3,06 | 795) 32°6 608 | 2,461 |638 |262| 527/137) 5°6| 1,934 | 501/20°6| 19 | 20
594 | 106] 24°1 118 476 | 85 |19°3| 1,1O2|197 | 448) on... feseeeeleveees 186 | 20
60,438 | 562) 35°5| 11,973) 48,465
Approximate estim:
ate of nitrogen.
451 \28°5 15704
146| 9:2)/32,761 ance 26 | 20 | 54
(for reasons stated in the last Report), with the exception of the grand totals,
1873,
QF
434 REPORT—1878.
Taste VI.—Breton’s
Summary from Crops gathered during the period from March 25, 1872, to
Sewage applied
[N.B.—The Sewage here stated is only that applied during the above period. In
Produce of each crop. Seree as
Total
acreage of
Crop. each
ee Total. Per acre. Total.
2k
Ai ee el Ok tna Hl pote. tons.
Italian rye-grass ...... sseippsaiewess-| paerOO 323°4 | 141 84,100
Hay (meadow) .isssrccencceencgescess 5:60 246 4°4 5,150
Cabbage: iss ciass ss. cevasies. isthe. «| 27°78 5126 18°5 94,700
Hardy greens ...... Vaerecoeesienes wo} 17°16 138:0 8:0 38,950
BAVOYS. siiscasstedeccetitecessts tiebs ode 7:33 113'0 15°4 13,330
Brussels Sprouts ....s0.cscsccesseess- 70 5'8 83 950
Broccoli: «.i....00s oschesseeshewsdseehes 3°55 41-7 117 sshucssid
Cauliflowers ....00...0scss00e Beaeeseae "23 53 25:2 450
ROW Rab ssisesscsesess nooeldeat neces ase 23 15 65 400
Beans (dwarf and runner) ......... 2°53 72 28 7,900
TPOAB ys, seeks asesdsege issseedsecedeveses| 20°00 25'8 2°6 16,450
Carrotaisiisitahessctatihdestsddvevsceus 3°72 55°0 | 14°8 3,700
WGN Ot deecscatsiccssccostbesicasdes 2 6°85 148°1 21°6 11,750
Onions ....... “SO oe ee qeebanecauvdsys 9°45 121:0 12°38 | = 16,600
Potatoes vicssecsccoecesses bddetee. dite 3:77 175 46 1,406
NMG 00s RR Sede? leo | 1] ey |) aa bee
Uris 4 eee einen eeeniele gee. || oe ee || ae dees
Whedbee nue shy ary: 592 | {ow ise | 2a} i
Strawberries .....,....000essseees ae oe 2:17 0-2 Ol 1,100
aes predas aeeavare gh G28 lS ee
TY a ae dere ee | bce von | a05
Total”. scsssissssevseaaes tase “241-65 — 1704-0 523,810
The figures in columns marked thus (+) are to be considered as approximations
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 435
Sewage-Farm.
March 24, 1873, showing the quantity of each kind of:Produce and the
thereto.
some cases, therefore, it does not represent the total quantity applied to the-Crops.}--—
ila Nitrogen
crops. Sewage : gen.
- applied - :
per ton Quantit Not accounted
Quantity secarine Quantity estimated in crops.
of p amtTh for (in stand-
Per acre. duce, applied in | in effluent
ing crops,
* * ek Nghe’ . . Per acre. Total. | soil, fe):
tons. i biacky - oe ae jis. thats Ibs.
3658 26 9,702 1,923 0:54 3,912 3,867
920 209 594. 118 2°00 T,1O2 | eseeeeeeseee
341 185 10,924 2,164 0:25 2,871 5889
2269 282 4,493 890 0°25 773 2,830
* 1819 118 1,538 305 6°25 633 600
1357 164, 110 22 0-25 32, 56
a Been Bae Bs 0-25 rey ee ee a
1957 78 52 10 0°25 32 10
1739 , 1267 46 9 0°375 13 24
3123 1097 gli 181 0:50 81 | \649
1645 638 1,898 376 3:40 1,965 be
995): 67 426 84 0:20 246 96
1715 79 1,356 269 0:25 829 258
1756 137 1,915 379 0-22 596 1940
371 80 162 32 0:25 98 42
dl GE) ae eee fee SO} |, ome)
AEE ae Che” rer ets yee fied of} |) SMR i.
CM iceBar alts. ease || ANE hem
507 5500 127 25 ORT? eet 102
3458 278 2,456 “486 0-25 430 | 17540
PAI |. casas 23,728 4,700 or EG EL CCC COLNE wee] 19,028
win | 807 |°60438 | 911,973 | wi... [15,704] 32,761 |
Po ace pad eon ++. 100 a do [88h Or 26 54.
(for reasons stated in the last Report), with the exception of the grand totals.
2F2
436 REPORT—187 3.
Taste VII.—Breton’s Sewage-Harm.
Comparative Statement of Crops on Land and Land lying fallow on March 24,
1872, and March 24, 1873 respectively.
March 24, 1872. | March 24, 1873.
Plot.
Acreage. | “Crop. | fallow.
ae sia acres 7 acres,
A 9°79 9°79 | serene
B 12°12 12°12 oaesee
Cc 1'97 TDi |) Meee
D 6°93 6°93 ss
E 5°76 5°66. - oe eaeees
F 3°82 1°48 2°34
G 517 2°82 2°35
H 64 6°5 +
I 6567 a | oe eee 6°67
K 4°44 4°44 ap eore
New plot
L DP i ees| | welese 2°87
M 3°17 4°07 lad. op costae
N 4°15 Ars -3 i) <b veoceae
O 5°92 5°92 x ||) fvaeaee
P 3°50 3°50 seseee
Q 2°34 1°04, I'o
R 2°52 "12 2°40
8 0°22 22 ,
T Plot converted into a pig-run,
U 2°53 2°55 -5) | Renee
Ly 4°93 2°93 2°00
WwW 2°87 2°87
x 3°86 BrO6 <+1245 of coo tes
bg 5°60 GEO willl | cssece
103'88 40°49 63°39 107°55 87°62 19°93
437
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE,
906 | +tgf | gffg | zzz} 16g | brf | 962) 6E | zbz Ze a OT EM. \ietserr es se oviane site * [wJOT, [exsuex)
“Ud0T4) if se aeeetennee paral UMOT, any
Ysny pue ‘oury styyeg 1f Soe oh Lat 1f De gf oe L S38 I of 4 Jo syaTysjno eq} UO purys
‘queq oypeysaeypl smog. ( 48q3 ‘uorxeuuos Aue ynoyyT AA
6h1 | vb | 068 161 | °° Stee |p Ss 6 See zr | zgr | strrst*tuorxoumoo Aue yuOTIT A
"S}UB]IQByUL “ai ae ae ue Poser K d
gce uotug on} ae $é S Lol gz gs tz ob payouts «Tuo sdojg
‘sJOSOPPGT 8 L ar a Sx Sx or eae MG vee | Sy OM |lceeeee sesseeeseeerenaygouu0n Ap}ICT
oy} dooxe poyoouuoo ITV
£g9 | gzt | gthb “5 og it "a" ggh | ce | fe 6S 1S6 | crereeereeeeresee* nagoauuos AT[N AT
“uvduro0a
‘pardnoog9
“SyTvUulegy
poyoau00
JON
*poyouuoy
*payoauu0o
JON
payoauu0g
peyoouu0
JON
paqoauu0g
“£yddns-aoq0 AA ‘sdorg “sJ980]O JOTI | *SJOSOTO JOJEAA} —“‘SOSNOFT
“WIR S$ WOJIG 0} Surmuns 190s
UIVUL OY} [PIA WOTXOULOD JNOYITIA PUL YRLA “pAOFUIOY JO PIAA UAOT, oY} Ul uoryepndod 04} SuLMOYS JUITIO}LIG V
“THTA @1avL,
438 we vy eyo, BBBORT—1878,-0-. : 10
An Abstract of. the Four Reports already presented to the Association by the
Committee. Prepared for the Committee by Professor CorFrExp.
In the following Abstract of the four Reports already presented to the
Association by the Committee, I have thought it best to bring together the
results of the Committee’s investigations under a few heads; so that each
division of the subject may appear in the Abstract complete in itself, and not
split up into portions, as would haye been the case had each Report been
abstracted separately.
I. Conservancy Plans.
A series of Reports “from foreign countries respecting the practices pre-
vailing abroad for disposing of the refuse of towns, villages, public institutions,
factories, dwellings, &c., and having reference to the sanitary condition of the
districts in which they are situated, the state of rivers, or the support and
increase of the produce of the soil,” was obtained by. the Committee from Her
Majesty’s Secretary of State for the Home Department; and from these it
appeared ‘that in most cases (both in town and country places) the use of
privies is very general, water-closets being rare even in large towns, and
that the usual method of dealing with human exereta is to allow them to
collect in pits (Abtrittsgruben, fosses), which are sometimes drained either
naturally by the permeable character of the soil, or artificially, so that most
or all of the liquid portion of the contents of the pits flows away or infiltrates
the surrounding soil.” (Report I. 1869, pp. 318-821.) -
Information was also obtained from 107 places in the United Kingdom,
having an aggregate population of more than four millions. It was found
that in 42 of these the privy and ash-pit system was general, and in 25
partial ; while in 71 places out of the 107 the liquid refuse of the town was
discharged into the adjoining stream or river, and in two instances into pools
of water. (Report I. p. 325.) -
In the Second Report the returns from 200 towns, “ recording the existing
arrangements of water-supply, sewerage, scavengering, and disposal of
refuse,” are tabulated—the result ‘being that there were 70 of these towns
where “ privies very greatly exceed water-closets in number,” and 75 in which
“‘ privies are still much used.” (Report II. 1870, p. 53.)
Privies, both in England and abroad, were found to be frequently built
over rivers (Report I. pp. 318-821, and Report II. p. 59) ; and in some towns
many houses are without any provision whatever for the remoyal of the
excremental matters.
It was found that in only two instances in England, and one in Scotland,
was any profit derived “from the sale of ashes and excretal and other
solid refuse,” the losses of some towns being considerable (Report II.
p- 55). The Committee specially investigated the ash-pit system as carried
out at the town of Bury in Lancashire, for two reasons—* because it is a
town where it may be said there are no water-closets,” and because “the
almost total absence of water-closets” would enable the Committee, by exa-
mining the liquid escape into, and discharge from, the sewers, to judge whether
any of the proposed methods of intercepting fecal matter from the sewers
(such, for instance, as the earth-closet) would in themselves be either a solu-
tion of the great sewage question, or even one considerable step towards it.
It was found that the privy accommodation of the lower classes of houses
was very insufficient—that the removal of the mixed night-soil was found to
be difficult and expensive, so that the quantity obtained from the whole
town only realized £100 per annum—and that, in spite of the fact that so
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 439
nuch refuse matter was kept out of the sewers, the sewage during the greater
part of the day was, as shown by chemical analysis, only a little weaker
than that of a water-closeted town usually is, while during the forenoon it
was invariably “‘ very thick, black, and greasy,” and “smelt very bad ;” and
the Subcommittee appointed to consider the matter reported, “that although
the sewage from a town managed on the Bury system is weaker, and there-
fore less valuable, and proportionately more difficult to deal with than the
sewage from a water-closeted town, yet that its purification is just as im-
peratively necessary.” The Subcommittee considered that “the figures
obtained in Bury, of the ash-pit system as carried out there, prove that
financially it is, so far as Bury is concerned, a total and complete failure, as
the gross return is only a little over one halfpenny per head of the popula-
tion annually.”
In many towns, especially abroad, portable or fixed reservoirs (fosses) for
the collection of excretal matters, unmixed with other substances, are in
general use. Sometimes they are drained into sewers, and sometimes so
constructed as to collect both liquid and solid refuse, contrivances to
separate the solid from the liquid excreta being sometimes employed. These
reservoirs are “frequently ventilated by means of shafts rising above the
house-tops.” The fixed reservoirs are emptied periodically, their contents
either being “simply dipped out,” or “removed either by pumping into
closed tank-carts with lift-pumps, or by means of a vacuum previously pro-
duced in the tank-cart.” The portable reservoirs are removed bodily with
their contents, and replaced by empty ones. At some towns a profit is realized,
while at others a loss is entailed; but the communications received from
foreign countries afforded “ abundant evidence that, wherever the subject has
been considered, there is a strong though vague sense of the injury to
health resulting from the accumulation of excretal materials in pits &c.
within populous districts, by the impregnation of the soil, by the pollution of
rivers and well-water with drainage from such accumulations, or from the
discharge of excretal materials into watercourses directly or indirectly.”
(Report I, pp. 321 & 322.)
Dry Earth System.
Tn the 200 scheduled towns before referred to, only 446 earth-closets were
reported to exist. The Committee inquired into the results of this system
at several places, but only obtained a return from Lancaster, ‘the only
place where an attempt has been made to carry out the system on a large
scale,” where it appeared that the system was not thoroughly carried out,
some of the essential conditions to its success being entirely neglected. Thus,
instead of the dried earth being used in detail, * a quantity of soil is thrown
once a day on the matters collected ; and the result is that the product is
removed in a very offensive condition.” When it is stated that about 23 lbs.
of soil were used per head per day, and that the manure was afterwards
mixed with other town refuse, it is not surprising that it only fetched 5s. a
ton, and that its analysis showed “that it did not contain more nitrogen
than good garden-mould,” and that, on being applied to grass land at the
rate of about six tons per acre, ‘the produce of hay was by no means large.”
Dr. Gilbert conducted, on behalf of the Committee, some experiments with
Moule’s earth system. The result showed that earth which had been used even.
three times in the closet could only be considered to be a rich garden-mould ;
and the Committee remarked “that such a manure, even if disposed of free
of charge, would bear cartiage toa very short distance only.”
4.40 REPORT—1873.
The following Table shows the results of these analyses, as far as the
nitrogen is concerned :—
Before | After using | After using] After using
used. once. twice. three times.
Percentage of nitrogen “07 ; : ;
in soil/dried at 100° C. OURS 020 ol eee oe
While the Committee considered that any such system was impracticable
for large populations, on account of the amount of earth that would be
required to be carted in and out daily, they added, “It may readily be ad-
mitted that it would be a great advantage, in a sanitary point of view, in the
cases of sick rooms, detached houses, or even villages, and that it might be
even economical where the earth for preparation and absorption and the
land for utilization are in close proximity.” (Report III. pp. 187 & 188,
and Report IV. p. 143.)
Il. Water-Carriage System.
This is only carried out in a few foreign towns (Report I. pp. 321-323),
Of the 107 places reported on by the Committee in their First Report, there
were only 11 without any system of sewerage at all; 48 were completely
sewered, and 48 partially so. In 42 places water-closets were found to be
general, and in 25 adopted partially. In the 200 towns scheduled in the Second
Report, there were 44 in which water-closets were found to be general, and
75 in which they existed in considerable number; but there were only 11 of
these 200 towns also which were totally unprovided with sewers, and in
which the liquid refuse of various sorts found its way into surface-streams
or was absorbed by the subsoil—a sufficient proof that Conservancy plans do
not get rid of the necessity of having sewerage arrangements in towns.
As to water-supply, the sources appear to be exceedingly various. ‘In
the 200 scheduled towns there are 90 wholly dependent on a public or general
supply, 22 on private sources only, and 88 partly on private sources in
addition to a public supply.” The quantity supplied varied from 10 to 60
gallons per head per day, a large number of towns having a supply varying
from 20 to 30 gallons per head. Storm and surface-waters are, as a rule,
received into the sewers; but sometimes, ‘‘ where new systems of sewerage
have been adopted, the old sewers are entirely devoted to the discharge of
surface-waters ; in one instance special sewers are appropriated to the same
purpose, while in 11 other instances the old surface-channels are used.”
It was found that in about 100 out of the 200 towns the sewers drained
the subsoil. The 200 towns were arranged in three classes as follows :—
Towns. Population.
I, Towns having a complete system of underground
sewerage, a general water-supply, and a general
adoption of water-closets discharging into the
SCWEIS \) EEO eon te ee ee 44 1,154,600
*TII. Towns having a system of underground sewer-
age with water-supply, and only a partial
adoption of water-closets...............0.- 145 5,785,840
III. Towns with no system of underground sewerage 11 218,800
Lotal yea eae 200 7,159,240
* In this class there are some towns with as few as six water-closets only,
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 44.1
Only vague information was obtained about the ventilation of the sewers,
“owing to the fact that very few instances exist in which any thing has been
systematically done.” The Committee in their First Report stated that this
was a most important matter for consideration, and “ that it would be in the
highest degree desirable to institute an inquiry into the nature of the
gaseous emanations from the sewers in various places” (Report I. p. 330).
They consequently instituted some experiments, both chemical and microsco-
pical, on air collected from some sewers in Paddington. Dr. Russell’s analyses
showed that the carbonic acid varied from 0-12 to 0-51 per cent., and the
oxygen from 20-7 to 20-91 per cent.; while no combustible gases were detected,
and only a trace of ammonia could be discovered in water through which a
large quantity of sewer air had been passed. The remark is made that
“these experiments must be looked upon as simply tentative, but certainly
indicate a purer air in these sewers than might have been anticipated.” The
microscopical examination conducted by Mr. Cooke showed that the suspended
substances which were collected by passing air through tubes containing
plugs of cotton-wool were very various, and consisted of inorganic matters,
a few starch-granules, and spores of various sizes, together with fragments of
cellular tissue, woody fibre, fibrils of feathers, &e. The general results, how-
ever, indicated “comparative freedom from organic bodies.’ (Report II.
pp- 72-75.)
The Committee made a special investigation into the sewerage arrange-
ments of the town of Cambridge, where water-closets are general, though
not universal. The outlets of all the sewers were found to be under the
level of the surface-water in the Cam, so that “the sewage is backed up in
the sewers for a considerable distance ; and the subsoil is constantly saturated
with both water and sewage in the lowest parts of the town.” As many of
the sewers are old and of irregular shape, much escape into the subsoil takes
place. “Inquiries were made into the state of some of the wells belonging
to private houses, and it was found that they were all contaminated by
sewage, owing to their proximity to the sewers in the streets and to the
drains on the premises, so much so, that the water cannot be used for drink-
ing but only for washing.” The remarks made on the subject by the Sub-
committee, consisting of Messrs. Grantham (Chairman), Corfield, Hope, and
Williamson, finish as follows :—
“The chief general importance of the inquiry into the conditions of Cam-
bridge is the proof thus obtained of the pollution of wells, and therefore of
subsoil, by the agency of previous street- or house-sewers constructed in their
vicinity ; and the Subcommittee desires to give expression to the conviction
forced upon it in the course of its inquiries, that all sewers, properly so
called (that is to say, drains into which refuse from human habitations is
admitted), ought to be constructed of materials which are altogether imper-
vious, and that a separate system of pervious drains, similar to agricultural
drains, should be constructed where necessary to dry the subsoil. The Sub-
committee is of opinion that the further construction of pervious sewers
should be prohibited by Parliamentary enactment.” (Report II. p. 61.)
The amount of sewage discharged varied in the 200 towns scheduled, partly
with the amount of the water-supply, and partly with the amount of surface
or subsoil waters admitted into the sewers—the largest quantity being in the
case of the town of Hertford, where the discharge per head per diem
amounted to 257 gallons, the water-supply being only 614 gallons; and the
smallest, amounting to only six gallons per head per diem, being recorded in
one or two instances,
442 REPORT—1875.
Treatment of Sewage.
“Of the 189 towns and districts having systems of sewerage, 143 discharge
their sewage without any treatment whatever; in 17 instances the sewage
is simply filtered before discharge, in 7 instances it is chemically treated,
and in 17 cases recourse is had to irrigation, whilst in 5 instances the
system of disposal includes more than one of these methods.” By “simple
filtration ” is generally meant mere straining, a method obviously insufficient
for the purification of sewage.
Certain processes for precipitating the valuable materials contained in
sewage were investigated by the Committee with the following results :—
I. The Phosphate Process of Messrs, Forbes and Price, which consists in the
addition to the sewage of (a) a mixture of native phosphate of alumina and
sulphuric acid, and (4) sufticient milk of lime to neutralize the sewage. The
result was that during its passage through a large tank ‘‘the suspended
matters were very completely deposited, and the supernatant water ran over
the sloping edge of the tank at its extreme end bright and clear and almost
odourless.” It was found that the water did not putrefy, even after the lapse
of four months, that it contained only the merest trace of phosphoric acid,
no sulphuretted hydrogen, nor any nitrates nor nitrites, but that it contained
“as much actual ammonia as ordinary dilute London sewage, and also a certain
“amount of albumenoid ammonia.” ‘The precipitate had no offensive smell.
The valuable constituents of sewage, with the exception of the suspended
matters and the phosphoric acid, are not precipitated by this process, and
cannot be utilized unless the effluent water be afterwards used for irrigation,
in which case the milk of lime would not be added, and the clarified sewage
would still contain a quantity of phosphoric acid.
“The advantage of this use of it, if it were found to answer from an
economical point of view, would be the deodorization of the deposit in the
tanks and of the sewage itself, which is certainly at present a great deside-
ratum, especially as regards the tanks.” (Report III. pp. 185-187.)
II. Whitthread’s Patent—Experiment was made on 100 gallons of Rom-
ford sewage with one pound of the mixture used in this process—a mixture
which was stated to consist of dicalcie and monocalcie phosphate, two equi-
valents of the former to one of the latter, a little milk of lime being after-
wards added. The result was a very rapid precipitation, the supernatant
water remaining nearly clear and quite inoffensive. The precipitate, dried
at 100° C., contained as much as 3 per cent. of ammonia and a considerable
quantity of phosphate of lime. The supernatant water contained rather
more actual ammonia than the original sewage, but scarcely any organic
nitrogen, showing that the organic matters in solution, as well as those in
suspension, had been almost entirely removed by the process. This water con-
tained, however, a considerable quantity of phosphoric acid, which would be
valuable if the water were afterwards used to irrigate land; ‘but, unless
means are devised for separating it, it would constitute a serious loss if the
water were thrown away.” It must be added that this was regarded merely
as a preliminary experiment.
IIL. General Scott’s Process.—This was investigated at Ealing. It con-
sists in the addition to the sewage, while in the sewers, of a mixture of lime
and clay, in the proportion of about 10 ewt. of the former and 5 ewt. of
the latter to 400,000 gallons of sewage. The result was a very complete
precipitation of the suspended matters, which were collected in tanks, the
supernatant water being passed upwards through filter-beds, and discharged
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, 443
into the river. The sludge from the tanks is drawn off from timo to time,
partially dried by an hydraulic press, and then burnt in a kiln, no additional
fuel being necessary after the fire is once started, as the dried sludge con-
tains sufficient organic matter to burn the deposit. The result is the pro-
duction of cement. It was found that the sewage was rendered inodorous
while in the sewers, and that the whole process was inoffensive.
The Committee considered that “on the whole this process, when per-
fected, promises well as a means of treating one of the difficulties of the
sewage question—the disposal of the sludge precipitated from sewage. It
‘appears not only possible to destroy the solid matters by fire, but also to
secure some return from their use in the manufacture of cement.”
They found, however, that the effluent water contained organic matters in
solution as well as ammonia ; so that this process cannot be considered as sufti-
cient of itself for the purification of sewage, nor for its utilization, but only as
one for satisfactorily getting rid of the offensive sludge which otherwise accu-
mulates in the tanks,
Filtration.
Upward Filtration.—The process of upward filtration through gravel was
examined at Ealing when General Scott’s process was in abeyance, It was
found that this process, whether accompanied or not by the addition of a
deodorizing mixture to the sewage in the sewers in the town, “ effected only
a very slight purification of the sewage, which left the filter still a sewage of
average strength. It was not even clarified.” This observation thus con-
firmed the results of experiments previously carried out by the Rivers’ Pol-
lution Commissioners.
Weare’s Process.—This process, which is employed at the Workhouse at
Stoke-upon-Trent, where the water-supply is very scanty and the sewage
consequently remarkably strong, consists in the filtration of the sewage
through coarse ashes and charcoal contained in the tanks through which it
passes successively. It appeared to be considerably purified; but still the
effluent water after passing through the deodorizing tanks is described by
Dr. Russell as having a strong smell of sewage. It is also to be observed
that no nitrates were found in this water, thus showing that no oxidation
had taken place. From the fact that the flow of effluent water was only
about 2000 gallons as against 5000 gallons of sewage in the 24 hours, and
that the chlorine was reduced to nearly half its original amount, the reduc-
tion taking place almost entirely in the first or so-called fecal tank, it would
appear that a considerable dilution must in some way have taken place,
‘accompanied by a very considerable and unexplained escape, which amounted,
even supposing there were no dilution, to three fifths of the total amount.
Intermittent downward Filtration.
_ This process was examined at Troedyrhyw, near Merthyr Tidfyl, where an
area of about 20 acres has been converted into a filter-bed for the purifica-
tion of the sewage of the town of Merthyr Tidfyl. The soil consists chiefly
of gravel and sand, having a vegetable-mould on the surface. It is extremely
porous. The land is drained at a depth of less than 7 feet, the drains being
brought together at the lowest corner, where the effluent water is discharged
into an open drain leading to the river Taff. ‘“ The area is laid out in square
beds, intersected with roads and paths, along which are constructed the main
carriers which receiye the sewage from the outfall-sewer, and distribute it
over the beds.” w
44.4, REPORT—1873.
The sewage, after being screened through a bed of “slag,” in which the
larger suspended matters are arrested, is turned on to one of the four plots
into which the area is divided, and allowed to run on this plot for six hours,
when it is turned on to another one. ‘Thus each of these four plots has
18 hours for rest and aération of the soil. The surface of the area is laid
up in ridges, and cabbages and other vegetables planted along them, the
sewage running in furrows between.
The main results of the examinations which took place in JanuaryandinJuly,
extending over seven and eight days respectively, were :—that the effluent
water discharged was very largely diluted with subsoil-water which had per-
colated through from the river-bed (this was proved both by the gaugings
and by the analyses, and had been already observed by the Rivers’ Pollution
Commissioners) ; that the effluent water was very satisfactorily purified, the
nitrogen in solution appearing in the form of nitrates and nitrites—a suffi-
cient proof that a considerable amount of oxidation goes on in the filter-beds.
Upon a comparison of the total nitrogen in solution in the sewage, in the
effluent water, and in the subsoil-water (which was also analysed), it was
found that the amount in the effluent water was almost exactly the amount
that would be present in the sewage if diluted with the amount of subsoil-
water (rather more than its own volume) with which the analyses and the
gaugings showed it to have been diluted; that is to say, that a quantity
of nitrogen equal to the amount in solution in the sewage escaped in the
effluent water, and was lost (escaping, however, almost entirely in the
oxidized and innocuous form of nitrates, &c.), the amount retained in the soil
and by the plants being, therefore, equal to the amount in the suspended
matters of the sewage. The effluent water was not quite so pure in the
summer as in the winter: in the former case four fifths, and in the latter
twelve thirteenths of the nitrogen contained in it was in the form of nitrates
and nitrites.
The sewage was cooled by its percolation through the soil; in the winter
from 48° F. to 46° F. (the temperature of the subsoil-water being 42° F.),
and in the summer from 60° F. to 55° F.
The crops grown on the surface of the filter-beds were successful, and
realized very good prices.
Irrigation.
In the First Report of the Committee a list of fifteen places where irriga-
tion was practised was given, and a list of twelve more where it was con-
templated; and it was stated that the areas used for irrigation varied from
0:4 of an acre to ten or twelve acres per thousand of the population, the
distance of the land from the lowest outfall sewer of the town varying from
100 yards to upwards of a mile.
The general result was reported to be as follows :—‘“ At most places the
application of the sewage to land has been found to exercise a most beneficial
influence on the condition of the streams and rivers receiving the drainage of
the district.”
«“ Generally speaking no objections appear to have been made to the applica-
tion of sewage for irrigation; and where such objections have been urged on the
ground that the application was offensive and injurious, they do not appear to
have been supported by medical authority, and in several instances they have
ceased. As regards the sanitary condition of these districts, it appears that
in most cases the application of sewage for irrigation has not been attended
with any apparent change ; but there is said to be a marked improvement at
Braintree.”
ON THE TREATMENT AND UPLILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 445
**It is probable that . . . the application of liquid sewage to land would
become a source of revenue to towns only under specially favourable circum-
stances, and that, in opposition to the opinions which have been somewhat
hastily formed in certain cases, it will more frequently entail some amount
of expenditure on the towns themselves. At the same time the benefit to
land, and the improvement in the condition of rivers, to be realized by the
mode of dealing with liquid sewage, can scarcely be matter of doubt or uncer-
tainty any longer.”
Of the 200 towns tabulated in the Second Report, 19 had recourse to irriga-
tion either wholly or partially or in connexion with some precipitation pro-
cess ; and in one case, that of Leamington, irrigation was intended, and has
since been carried out.
Owing to the fact that one of its members is the lessee of Breton’s Farm,
near Romford, in Essex, the Committee has had the advantage of making
continuous investigations of the results of irrigation with this particular farm
for the past three years, results which are detailed in the Annual Reports.
Special investigations have also been made with the following results :—At
the farms at Tunbridge Wells, where the sewage is applied to the surface of
the land on the Catch-water System, and where under-drainage has not been
systematically carried out (the drains which already exist having, in fact,
been brought up to the surface to empty into the carriers), the purification of
the sewage cannot be said to be satisfactory ; for although a considerable
dilution with subsoil-water takes place, the water which has passed over the
land is still impure, and, moreover, contains scarcely any nitrates, thus
showing that very little oxidizing action takes place.
The same result was found at the Reigate Farm at Earlswood, where the
state of the effluent water was still more unsatisfactory ; in fact, in one
instance, it was found that sewage which had passed over the fields was
actually stronger, except as regards actual ammonia (7. ¢. it contained more
of the total solids in solution with more nitrogenous organic matters), than it
was after passing over only the first of these fields—thus showing that the
ground was so saturated with sewage, that any additional sewage passed on
to it could “ only concentrate itself by evaporation or by solution of matters
in the upper layer of the soil.” (Report III. pp. 181 to 185.)
These farms were again inspected in the following year. It was found
that the effluent water was running clear and free from smell. No analyses
were, however, made at this time. The crops included oats, beans, and wheat,
as well as meadow-grass and Italian rye-grass, and seemed to be in asatisfac-
tory condition; but no general system of subsoil-drainage had been com-
menced. A comparison was made in January 1871, during severe frost, of
the results obtained in the purification of sewage at the three following
farms :—Breton’s Farm, near Romford, Beddington Farm, Croydon, and
Norwood Farm. It was found that in the latter two cases, where the sewage
was passed over the land on the Catch-water System, it was not satisfactorily
purified, the nitrogen escaping in the effluent water being only partially in
the state of nitrates and nitrites ; while in Breton’s Farm, where the sewage
passes through the soil, the farm being in effect a large filter-bed, “ (1) oxi-
dation goes on in winter as well as in summer, and almost all nitrogen lost is
lost in an oxidized and inoffensive form, and (2) this loss is very slightly
greater in winter with a very strong sewage than in summer with a weaker
one ; so that sewaging in the winter would appear to entail no extra loss of
manure.”
It was also observed that while in summer sewage is cooled by percola-
446 REPORT—18783.
tion through the soil, and almost always heated (sometimes considerably so)
by surface-flow, as was observed both at Tunbridge Wells and at Earlswood (the
temperature of the effluent water in the latter case being actually 5° F. higher
than that of the sewage), in winter, on the other hand, the cooling which takes
place is less with percolation through the soil than with surface-flow in
both instances ; so that “ these results are favourable to percolation through
the soil, as opposed to mere surface-flow, both in summer and winter. Per-
colation causes a considerable cooling in the summer, while in winter it does
not cool the effluent water so much as surface-flow does.”
These results induced the Committee to make the following distinct state-
ment in their Third Report, p. 185 :—“ It may seem almost superfluous for
the Committee, after so many years of gencral experience throughout the
country, to argue in favour of the subsoil drainage of naturally heavy or
naturally wet land with impervious subsoil for purposes of ordinary agricul-
ture ; but some persons have strongly and repeatedly called in question the
necessity of draining land when irrigated with sewage ; and the two farms at
Tunbridge Wells, to a great extent, and more especially the Reigate Farm at
Earlswood, have been actually laid out for sewage-irrigation on what may be
called the ‘ saturation principle ;’ so that it appears to the Committee desi-
rable to call attention to the fact, that if drainage is necessary where no
water is artificially supplied to the soil, it cannot be less necessary after an
addition to the rainfall of 100 or 200 per cent. But a comparison of the
analyses of different samples of effluent waters which have been taken by the
Committee from open ditches into which effluent water was overflowing off
saturated land, and from subsoil-drains into which effluent water was intermit-
tently percolating through several feet of soil, suggests graye doubts whether
effluent water ought ever to be permitted to escape before it has percolated
through the soil.”
At Breton’s Farm, where the sewage of the town of Romford, with a popu-
lation of 6338 (a little more than two thirds of which only discharge their
refuse into the sewers, the previous estimates having been all too high), is
utilized upon 121 acres of land, there are special advantages for accurate in-
vestigation. The soil, which was very poor, consisting in many parts almost
entirely of gravel (as will be seen by the analysis already quoted from the
Committee’s Second Report), was laid out in rectangular beds on the Ridge-
and-Furrow System, the “ beds” or “lands,” each 30 feet in width, running at
right angles to the main carriers which distribute the sewage. The sewage,
when it arrives on the farm, is received in one of two tanks, where a deposit
takes place and a scum forms on the surface. The liquidisrun out between
these into the pumping-well, and is raised by a pump “ to a height of about
25 feet into iron troughs supported on wooden tressels, which convey the
sewage to all parts of the farm, by discharging it either directly into the gut-
ters or grips formed on the ridges of the ‘lands,’ and out of which the
sewage is distributed right and left down the slightly inclined slopes of the
lands, or, in the first instance, {into concrete carriers, raised by earth banks
to a height intermediate between the height of the iron troughs and the
level of the ground.” (Report II. p. 62.) ‘About 85 acres of the farm,
which are above the level of the tank, have been underdrained by pipe-drains
50 yards apart, and from 5 to 6 feet in depth, in such a manner that the water
from the drains can be discharged into the sewage-tank if required in dry
weather, or at pleasure into the river Rom.”
This arrangement, afforded excellent opportunities for the gauging of the
effluent water, ;
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 44.7
In the Second Report will be found a detailed account of the crops grown
and the prices obtained. |
Some of the earliest experiments made by the Committee related to “the
capacity of earth laid out in beds of 30 feet wide for the absorption of liquid.”
Three different kinds of gauges were used, and a time was chosen “ when the
land was in what may be considered an average state of moisture.” From
these experiments “it resulted that land in the state of moisture which
existed on the 19th March [1870] and laid out in beds of 30 feet wide
would only absorb, when consolidated, on the surface about 40 tons of
liquid per acre, and when stirred to a depth of 9 inches on the previous day,
about 90 to 110 tons per acre. By the word ‘absorb’ is meant that no
more than the above quantities could be applied without the formation of
puddles at the sides of the beds.” (Report IT. p. 69.) It was considered
that 400 tons per acre was probably the largest quantity that had ever
been applied in any one dressing, and that the assumption that the first
dressing all over the farm was at the rate of 400 tons per acre, the second at
that of 200, and the subsequent ones at that of 100 was probably not far from
the truth,
In the Third Report, p. 175, will be found a summary of the results of the
gaugings of the sewage and effluent water from June 12th, 1870, to July 15,
1871 (a period of 399 days). It appears that the average quantity of sewage
received from the town per day was 1029 tons, to which something must be
added for night-sewage which was allowed to run on to the meadows between
the farm and the town. After the 15th of April, when the new tanks were
completed and all the sewage received on the farm, the total amount was
found to be 12623 tons in the 24 hours, 621} tons of which came during the
working day of ten hours, and the remaining 6413 during the night of 14
hours. These quantities, when computed for a day and night of 12 hours
each, give day-sewage 729 tons, night-sewage 5332.
The sewage as pumped contains a certain amount of effluent water that
has been brought back into the tanks. The average amount of this diluted
sewage pumped was 1182 tons per day. The effluent water discharged, as
far as could be estimated, was about 5134 tons perday. The rainfall during
the 399 days was 22:64 inches, equal to 2287 tons per acre.
The experiments on the temperature of the sewage and effluent water are
very important. The temperature of these liquids is very uniform when
compared with that of the air, “ being lower during extreme heat, and higher
during extreme cold.” “The ranges and variation over the total period have
been :—
fe)
«* Atmosphere ........ 28:5 to 76 = 47-5 F
Town-sewage ...... 45 ,, 66 = 23
Sewage pumped .... 48 ,, 67 = 24
Effluent water ...... #1” |, 64 =. 23”
In one week during a severe frost, ‘‘ when the mean noonday temperature
was 28°°5 F., that of the sewage pumped and effluent water was 48° F.”
(Report ITT. p. 176.)
The Fourth Report gave the results of the observations carried on from
March 25, 1871, to March 24, 1872, both days inclusive; and gave a more
special account of the analyses of the sewage and effluent water during that
period. The analyses were made of average samples—that is to say, of
samples taken in proportion to the rate of flow of the sewage at the times as
indicated by the gaugings.
448 REPORT—1873.
The general results were :—
Sewage from the town.........eseeeee 416,787 tons.
Effluent water returned to the tanks .... 52,466 ,,
Therefore Diluted sewage.........00eceeeseeece 469,253 ,,
Of which, Amount utilized. £0.00 ee a 385,291 ,,
Amount merely filtered .............. 83,962 ,,
As to the composition of the sewage and effluent water, the average amount
of nitrogen for 100,000 tons in the diluted sewage pumped was 5529 tons ;
that in the effluent water 1-147.
As the total amount of diluted sewage was... 380,277 tons,
And the total effluent water.............00. 195,536 _,,
it follows that “the proportion of nitrogen escaping in the effluent water to
the total quantity applied is therefore :1067, or about one tenth.”
An estimate was also made of the amount of nitrogen recovered in the
crops; the general result of the whole being that of 100 parts of nitrogen in
the sewage pumped, 42 were recovered in the crops, 11 lost in the effluent
water, and 47 not accounted for—that is to say, remaining in the soil or esca-
ping into deeper subsoil-waters. (See accompanying Report.)
Some experiments were also made with the view of inquiring into the pos-
sibility of the distribution of entozoic disease by means of sewage-irrigation.
Some “ slime and mud” from the bottom and sides of carriers at Karlswood
Farm was examined by Mr. M. C. Cooke, who found that it contained life of
various kinds, especially Annelida, but did not detect any entozoic larve.
The existence of this slime at the bottom of the carriers here was attributed
by the Committee “ to the fact that the subsoil is kept in a saturated condition
by the want of underdraining ;” and they were of opinion “ that when land is
thus saturated with sewage, certain atmospheric conditions exist which may be
attended by malaria more or less injurious to health.” (Report III. p. 182.)
Dr. Cobbold was requested by the Committee to examine, in conjunction
with Professor Marshall and the writer, the carcass of an ox fed for two years
on sewage-grown grass. It was found to be, ashe reports, free from internal
parasites of any kind. All the viscera, together with portions of numerous
muscles, “‘ with their associated areolar and aponeurotic coverings,” were
carefully examined. He observed that the conditions were favourable to this
result, inasmuch as (1) the grass &c. was cut and carried, and the animal was
not grazed on the farm ; (2) the soil is very porous ; (3) mollusca, so often the
intermediary bearers of entozoal larvae, were scarce; (4) the only mollusks
found (a species of Limnea) contained no cercarian larve ; (5) the “flaky
vegetable tufts ” collected from the sides of the furrows contained ‘‘ numerous
active free Nematodes, but no ova of any true entozoon ; (6),the sewage pro-
bably contained sufficient alcohol to destroy the larve. The Committee agreed
with all these observations except the last.
The absence of mollusca is most remarkable, and with it must be associ-
ated the observations recorded by the Committee of the destruction of wire-
worms &c. by the sewage. Thus a crop of American oats was seriously
damaged and in danger of being destroyed by the ravages of the Oscinis vas-
tator, one of the smallest but most destructive of those grubs and wireworms
which at times cause such injury to cereal crops in thiscountry. Two heavy
dressings of sewage were applied to this bed during two successive days, the
result being that the grubs were entirely destroyed and the greater part of
the crop saved. (Report IJ. p. 65.)
ON THE TREATMENT AND UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE. 449
Again, at Tonbridge Wells “it was stated that a large field of turnips,
being infested with the fly, was flooded with sewage, which drowned the fly
and saved the crop, which is expected to turn out well but rather late.”
So far, then, as actual facts at present show, “there is no evidence that
entozoal forms of life are to be found on the farm at all in any stage of their
existence, or in the flesh of an animal fed exclusively for 22 months on sewaged
produce grown on the farm.” (Report III. p. 189.) As far as the sani-
tary influence of sewage-farming is concerned, the Committee have returns
from eight places where it is at work. In no instance has any disease what-
ever been traced, either among the labourers on the farm or among the inha-
bitants in the vicinity, or among the cattle, to the sewage-farm. In two
instances it is reported that the health of the neighbourhood has improved,
and in several that the land has very much improved in value, and the pro-
duction of crops is much more certain. The note from Aldershot is, ‘* Sani-
tary state of Camp and Barracks vastly improved. The land produces fair
crops under sewage, which before produced nothing whatever.”
CoNCLUSIONS ARRIVED AT BY THE CoMMITTER.
I, All conservancy plans, including midden-heap and cesspool systems,
dry ash- and dry earth-closets, pail-closets, &c., are quite incompetent as so-
lutions of the general question of the removal of the refuse matters of a
population.
Such plans deal with only a small part of the liquid manure; towns which
resort to one of them require, therefore, to be sewered, and the sewage re-
quires to be purified.
The manure produced is in all cases (except in that of simple pails or tubs
where no extraneous materials are added) poor, and will only bear the cost
of carriage to a short distance, taking into consideration the cost of collection.
That produced by the dry earth system is, even after the earth has been used
four times over, but little better than a good garden-mould. Such plans,
moreover, all violate one of the most important of sanitary laws, which is
that all refuse matters which are liable to become injurious to health
should be removed instantly and be dealt with afterwards, With all
these plans it is an obvious advantage on the score of economy to keep
the refuse about the premises as long as possible; and the use of deodorants
of various sorts, or even of disinfectants, proves that this is the case, and that
these systems all depend upon a fallacious principle. They should therefore
be discouraged as much as possible, and only resorted to as temporary expe-
dients, or with small populations under exceptional circumstances,
II. The water-carriage system, on the other hand, is based upon a sound
principle, that of removing all the refuse matters at once, and in the cheapest
possible manner, by gravitation, and ought to be resorted to in all but the
most exceptional cases.
The opinion of the Committee, that all sewers should be made of impervious
materials, and that separate drains to dry the subsoil should be constructed
where necessary, has already been most emphatically expressed.
The freest possible ventilation of sewers, house-drains, and soil-pipes, in
order to prevent accumulations of foul air, is also essential.
With regard to the utilization of sewage, the Committee has come to the
Pics that the precipitation-processes that it has examined are all in-
1873. 26
450 REPORT—1873.
competent, and necessarily so, to effect more than a separation of a small part
of the valuable ingredients of sewage, and that only a partial purification is
effected by them. Some of them may, however, be useful as methods of
effecting a more rapid and complete separation of the sewage-sludge.
The upward-filtration process only effects a clarification of the sewage, and
is therefore no solution of the question.
Weare’s charcoal-filtration process, as carried on at Stoke-upon-Trent
Workhouse, did not give satisfactory results, the effluent water being in effect
weak sewage ; an opportunity will, however, soon be given for an examina-
tion of this process in a modified form on a much larger scale at Bradford,
and under more favourable conditions.
Intermittent downward filtration through soil has been shown at Merthyr
Tydfil to afford a means of purifying the sewage under favourable conditions ;
but it cannot be said to be a method of utilization except to a very partial
extent, as the investigations made by the Committee showed that the effluent
water contained as much nitrogen as was originally in solution in the sewage,
but mainly as nitric acid instead of as ammonia and organic nitrogen. There
can be no doubt that the process would prove useful as an adjunct to irrigation,
or where a sufficient amount of land for irrigation cannot conveniently be got.
By properly conducted sewage-irrigation a solution is afforded to the ques-
tion of sewage utilization; it has already been stated that a precipitation-
process, or some clarifying process, may be found useful. If such process,
however, removes the phosphates from the sewage, it will, if employed for
irrigation, require to be supplemented either by the use of the precipitate
produced in the settling-tanks, or by that of some other manure supplying
phosphoric acid.
Tn all instances it is essential that the land should be well underdrained,
and that the sewage should all pass through the soil and not merely over it;
otherwise, as has been shown, it will only occasionally be satisfactorily
purified.
The catchwater, or, as the Committee has termed it, the supersaturation
principle, is not defensible either on agricultural, chemical, or sanitary
principles.
An irrigation-farm should therefore carry out intermittent downward fil-
tration on a large scale, so that the sewage may be always thoroughly puri-
fied, while at the same time the maximum of utilization is obtained.
Tt is certain that all kinds of crops may be grown with sewage, so that the
farmer can grow such as he can best sell; nevertheless, the staple crops must
be cattle-food, such as grass, roots &c., with occasional crops of kitchen vege-
tables and of corn.
And it is also certain, from the analysis of the soil, that it becomes very
much richer under sewage-irrigation, and that some of the manurial consti-
tuents of the sewage accumulate in it.
Cattle should be fed on the farm. The result would be a vast increase in
the production of meat and milk, the great desiderata of the populations pro-
ducing the sewage.
Thus the system of farming must be specialized and capital concentrated,
the absence of which conditions has proved a great barrier to the satisfactory
practical solution of the sewage question.
The Committee has not been able to trace any ill effects to the health of
the persons living around sewage-farms, even when badly conducted; nor is
there any proof whatever that vegetables grown thereon are in any way in-
ferior to those grown with other manure. On the contrary, there is plenty
ON THE BRADFORD WATERWORKS. 451
of evidence that such vegetables are perfectly suited for the food of man and
beast, and that the milk given by cows fed on sewaged grass is perfectly
wholesome. To give a recent example, Mr. Dyke, Medical Officer of Health
of Merthyr Tydfil, states that since the abundant supply of milk from the
cows fed on irrigated grass the children’s mortality has decreased from 48,
50, and 52 per cent. of the total deaths to only 39 per cent., and that, so far
from diarrhoea having been made more prevalent by the use of sewaged cab-
bages, ‘‘last year the Registrar-General called attention to the fact that
diarrhcea was less prevalent in Merthyr than in any place in England and
Wales ;” and he expressed his belief in “ the perfect salubrity of the vegetable
food so grown.”
With regard to the assumption which has been made that entozoic diseases
would be propagated by irrigation, all the evidence that the Committee has
been able to collect, and more especially the positive facts obtained by expe-
riments, are against such an idea; and the Committee is of opinion that such
diseases will certainly not be more readily propagated by sewage-irrigation
than by the use of human refuse as manure in any other way, and probably
less if the precaution be taken of not allowing the animals to graze, but always
having the grass cut and carried to them.
Report of the Committee for superintending the Monthly Reports of the
Progress of Chemistry, consisting of Professor A. W. WituiaMson,
F.R.S., Professor Franxuanp, F.R.S., and Professor Roscor,
E.R.S.
Tae Committee have much pleasure in reporting that, during this third
year of their publication, the monthly reports of the progress of chemistry
have given satisfactory evidence of increasing usefulness. Not only has
their circulation in this country and abroad increased, but there is every
reason to believe that they supply an important want to the progress of
chemistry in this country, and will conduce to the advancement of the
science.
The thanks of the Association and of science generally are due to the
gentlemen upon whom devolves the labour of making these abstracts, and of
thus bringing to a focus the rays of light which emanate from the various
places where chemistry is cultivated.
On the Bradford Waterworks. By Cuaruus Gort, M.Inst.C.E.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed zz extenso.]
In 1854 the “ Bradford Corporation Waterworks Act” was passed. Under
the power of this Act the Corporation purchased all the existing works, and
were charged with the duty of providing the supply of water for the borough
and surrounding districts.
At this time the old works supplied about half a million gallons of waterper
diem, a quantity altogether inadequate for the necessities of the inhabitants.
242
452 REPORT—1878.
After obtaining their powers the Corporation put them into operation at
once, and commenced the construction of the large system of works from
which the town is now supplied.
Some of the reservoirs, conduits, and other works which are to form parts
of the same system are not yet completed.
All the Bradford waterworks are gravitation works ; there are no pumping-
engines or other means employed for raising water from streams or wells.
The water is collected at such levels that it can be conveyed directly into the
reservoirs for storage and supply. The sources of supply which are available
are therefore more limited in extent than would be the case if the water was
lifted from some lower level; but, on the other hand, the water is more free
from pollution and is softer and of better quality.
No filtering of any kind is required; the water is supplied directly from
the reservoirs into the distributing mains. The reservoirs act as subsiding
reservoirs, and are found to be quite sufficient to render the water clean and
bright.
The district of supply of the Bradford Waterworks is not confined to the
borough, but includes thirty-four of the surrounding towns and places, viz. :—
Addingham. Heaton.
Adwalton. Hundsworth.
Allerton. Idle.
Apperley. Liversedge.
Bingley. Morton.
Birstal. North Bierley.
Burnsal. Pudsey.
Calverley. Queensbury.
Clayton. Saltaire.
Cleckheaton. Shelf.
Denholme. Shipley.
Draughton. Silsden.
Driglinton. Thornton.
Ececleshill. Tong.
Farsley. Wike.
Gildersome. Wilsden.
Gomersal. Windhill.
With an aggregate population at the present time of not less than 280,000.
The levels of the district of supply vary greatly, viz. from 200 feet
above the sea at Apperley to 1200 feet above the sea at Queensbury, making
a difference of 1000 feet of elevation to be covered by the distribution of the
water. The supply is given in two separate services, called the high-level
service and the low-level service, the high-level service being again divided
and served by separate mains. All the places at a lower elevation than 500
feet above the sea are included in the low-level, and all the places above that
height are included in the high-level service. The pressure of water in some
of the distributing mains rises to upwards of 200 lbs. on the square inch.
The sources of supply for the low-level service lie to the north of Bradford
in the valleys of the rivers Aire and Wharfe ; various streams and tributaries
of these rivers are taken into the reservoirs and conduits. The principal
streams taken are the Sand-bed beck, Halton-gill beck, Joy beck, Berry-
ground beck, Gill beck, Howgill beck, Barden beck, Hethness Gill, and the
Marchup beck in the valley of the river Wharfe, and the Fish beck, Holden
ON THE BRADFORD WATERWORKS. 453
beck, Swartha beck, Clough beck, Spinner beck, and the Judith-Cliffe beck
in the valley of the river Aire. These streams receive the water from a
drainage area of 9770 acres, 7550 acres being in the Wharfe valley, and
2220 acres in the Aire valley.
The average rainfall on these gathering-grounds is about 36 inches per
annum.
There is no storage reservoir in the valley of the river Aire, so that that
part of the gathering-ground cannot at present be fully utilized; the daily
flow of the streams only can be taken, and none of the winter flow can be
collected for summer use.
In the valley of the Wharfe there are two storage reservoirs, viz. the Barden
reservoir and the Chelker reservoir.
The sources of supply for the high-level service lie to the west of Bradford
in the valleys of the Denholme beck and the river Worth, both tributaries of
the river Aire.
The principal streams taken are the Stubden beck and the Foreside beck
in the Denholme valley, and the Bond Clough, Rag-Clough beck, Greenholes
Clough, Hardnese Clough, Deep Dyke, Paul Clough, Sun-Hill Clough,
Nan Scar beck, Holden Clough, Harden Clough, Stoney-Hill Clough, and
Foster Dyke in the valley of the river Worth. None of the works in the
Worth valley have been completed yet ; up to the present time the high-level
supply has been drawn entirely from the Stubden and Foreside becks. The
drainage-area of these streams is 2700 acres, viz. 900 acres in the Denholme
valley, and 1800 acres in the Worth valley.
The average rainfall is about 42 inches per annum, and the lowest level at
which water is taken for supply is 1030 feet above the sea.
Nearly the whole of the gathering-grounds from which the water for supply
is drawn are high moor lands, above the reach of any pollution from populated
districts ; they range in elevation from 600 feet to 1475 feet above the level
of the sea.
The total acreage of the drainage-area exclusively appropriated for the
supply of the town is 13,900 acres, viz. :—
Low Level.
WHarte valley? 2502s. 7050
rer valtere 8) Fe PTS ae 2220 9,770
High Level.
Denholme valley ............ 900
Wott VHHEy sect aes sca 1800 2,700
Old Works.
Mam y WORSE BORO 5 okey hele em ks ans ee OOM 530
ofall ACrEREO mae et sete = 8 cdehus geeks | sis.5)¢ 13,000
The water collected from these sources is conveyed to the town by means
of covered stone conduits and large iron pipes. The length of the conduit
from the Heaton-service reservoir at Bradford to the Barden reservoir is
18 miles, and from the Barden reservoir to the Sand-bed beck at Burnsal.,
the most distant stream taken to the north, 4 miles. The length of the iron
main from the Horton-Bank reservoir to the Stubden reservoir at Denholme
454 REPORT—1873.
is 5 miles, and of the conduit from the Stubden reservoir to the Bond Clough
at Haworth, the most distant stream taken to the west, 4 miles.
The whole of the works so far mentioned are exclusively for collecting and
supplying water for the use of the towns.
Other reservoirs with separate drainage-areas have been made for collecting
and supplying compensation water to the various mills and streams which are
affected by the taking of the town supply—viz. the Gumwith reservoir at
Hartlington for giving compensation water for that which is taken from the
streams in the valley of the river Wharfe, the Silsden reservoir at Silsden for
the low-level works in the valley of the river Aire, the Hewenden reservoir at
Hewenden for the old supply of the Many Wells spring, the Doe-Park reservoir
at Denholme for the high-level works in the Denholme valley, and the Leeming
and Leeshaw reservoirs at Oxenhope (now in course of construction) for the
streams to be taken in the valley of the river Worth.
The extent, capacity, &c. of the several reservoirs are as follows, viz. :—
Supply Reservoirs.
Depth | Length |Greatest| Area of Tavet
Meana Manat ofwater| of |heightof| water | Drain-| 1.
. Dachy: above |embank-embank-| when |age-area. pac cent
outlets.| ment. | ment. full. i
ae pels. ans feet. yards. | feet. acres. | acres. | feet.
Low Levert. |
Barden reservoir ....| 440,000,000 | 60 750 | 96 66 | 2610}. 700
Chelker reservoir ....| 250,000,000 | 36 333 | 45 56 | 1290 | 722
= x (West) Per" 2 ene aei8 346
Heaton reservoir
(Bervite) Poe... 31,000,000 | 33 366 | 39 oF a a 523
Hien Leven.
Stubden reservoir ....| 85,000,000 | 55 190 | 82 bt 900 | 1028
Brayshaw reservoir ..| 57,000,000 | 19 | 1090 | 38 iS a fives Sh 975
Oxtp Works.
: Many
Chellow-Dean reservoir) | 59 99,000 | 44 | 120| 55 | 84| Wells |\601
(UPPER) | Seee oe ot oy :
spring.
Do. (lower); 28,000,000 | 37 90 | 46 53 530 | 640
Whetley-Hill reservoir
(Service) ee. 2,650,000 12 ee 18 Tie 518
Compensation REsEr-
VOIRS.
Gumwith reservoir....| 634,000,000 | 66 233 | 83 94 | 7000 | 877
Silsden reservoir ..../ 230,000,000 | 78 187 | 94 25 | 2000 | 580
Doe-Park reserveir ..|} 110,000,000 | 52 170 | 60 20 | 1000 | 850
Hewenden reservoir ..| 70,000,000 | 35 230 | 48 14 | 1000 | 687
ee
‘he total quantity of water, exclusive of compensation water, which the
‘e scheme will yield when the reservoirs and conduits now being made
ON THE BRADFORD WATERWORKS. 455
are completed, is ten millions of gallons per day, a quantity equal to 36 gallons
per head for the population of the district of supply.
- The sources of supply of these works would, however, if fully developed,
yield more water than the quantity named; 70 acres of gathering-ground,
on which there is a rainfall of 44 inches per annum, will yield one million
gallons of water per day if a reservoir is made to contain 180 days’ supply.
With a rainfall of 36 inches per annum, the drainage-area would require to
be about 900 acres to give the same quantity of water per day. The quantity
of water to be impounded, 180 days’ supply, 180,000,000 gallons, is equal
to 11-4 inches in depth on 700 acres, and to 8°805 inches in depth on 900
acres, about one fourth of the total rainfall in each case. These quantities
may vary, however, to some extent with the character of the gathering-
ground; sometimes it happens that there are large springs within the drainage-
area, whilst in other cases the ground may be so absorbent that part of the
water may pass down to springs below the level of the works.
The supply is also dependent upon the distribution of rain throughout the
year ; if the rain falls in heavy floods with a long period of drought, so much
of the fall cannot be utilized as during years when the rain is more equally
distributed.
In determining the value of any given area of gathering-ground after the
average rainfall is ascertained, one fourth is to be taken off to arrive at the
quantity for dry and exceptional years, one third of the remaining quantity
is then to be deducted for loss by evaporation, absorption, discoloured and
turbid water, and unmanageable floods. These quantities show that only one
half of the total average rainfall can be collected and used. These quantities
and particulars, however, apply only to gravitation works in districts similar
to those in which the Bradford works are situated.
The Bradford reservoirs are formed in the manner usually adopted for large
works—. ¢. by embankments made across the valleys, such sites being almost
the only practicable ones where reservoirs could be made of sufficient size
for the large quantities of water to be collected.
The mode of construction adopted for such reservoirs is to make the em-
bankments of earthwork, the earth being excavated from the site of the
reservoir itself. In the middle of the embankment a vertical core or wall of
puddle is made, to render it impervious. This puddle-core must be continued
to such a depth that the water cannot pass under it; and it must also be
continued so far into the sides of the hills which form the valley, that the
water cannot pass round the ends.
The strata underlying the site of the reservoir are not always regular; in
‘some cases the bottoms of the valleys have been raised by drift many feet in
thickness. It is necessary to find some stratum or some number of strata
which together will make an impervious bottom, and which underlie nearly
the whole of the site, and to continue the puddle-work of the embankment
(by means of open-cut trenches) into them, so as to form a complete basin or
inclosure within which the water is to be contained.
It is necessary in some cases to continue the puddle-trenches from the ends
of the embankment up the sides of the valley to some point where the dip of
the measures brings the impervious stratum to the height required for the
surface of the water when the reservoir is full: advantage is also to be taken
of faults.and dislocations in the natural strata; in this district these faults
are nearly always impervious, and they are sometimes of great service in
reservoir works,
In making the deep trenches for the puddle-work, it frequently happens
456 REPORT—18738.
that springs of water are met with, and great difficulties are sometimes
experienced in dealing with them. If the springs run in from the sides of
the trench at a level above the stratum on which the puddle is to rest, they
do not constitute any permanent difficulty; the water may be pumped out of
the trench whilst the work is in progress, and may be gradually turned back
with the puddle, which is put into the trench as the work proceeds. If,
however, a spring rises from the bottom of the trench, it cannot be disposed
of in that way. It must be built round in some safe manner by concrete or
stonework and collected, so that it can be brought up in an iron pipe in the
work, or conveyed to one end of the puddle-trench and discharged at the
surface of the ground clear of the embankment. Springs in the ground which
is to form the bottom of the reservoir do not indicate that the site is not a
good one, but generally the contrary; and they sometimes show where the
embankment can be placed with the greatest advantage.
The existence of the springs may show that there is some impervious
material lying across the valley somewhere below the line along which they
issue ; and on this impervious material, and below the springs, it is probable
the embankment may be most easily formed: at any rate, the springs show
the line immediately above which it would not be desirable to place the
embankment.
The works for admitting streams into reservoirs are of several kinds. In
cases where the whole stream is taken, a pool or lodge is made by a dam
placed across the stream at the head of the reservoir. This dam arrests the
flow of the stream, and gives time for any solid matter carried on by the
water to fall, and to a great extent saves the reservoir from being silted up;
the solid deposit is caught in the lodge, from which it can be easily removed.
The size of the lodge can be regulated to suit the character and requirements
of each case.
In cases where turbid or coloured water is not to be taken, side channels
for carrying floods past the reservoirs must be made; and the usual mode of
admitting the streams is by what are called leaping-weirs. This contrivance
consists of a weir built across the stream, to stop the water and cause the
water to flow over the conduit which is intended to receive it and carry it to
the reservoir. The conduit intended to receive the water is built across the
stream inside the weir, and a long narrow opening is made through the crest
of the weir along the top of the conduit. The weir on one side of this
opening is made a step lower than it is on the other side, and the stream in
passing has to fall down this step. When the quantity of the stream is small,
it will run close over the edge of the step and fall through the narrow opening
into the conduit below ; but when the stream is swollen and large, it willrun
with greater velocity, and will leap from the top of the step over the opening
and pass away down its original course.
The size of the opening can be adjusted so as to take any given quantity of
water required from the stream. It is self-acting, so far as regards the
passing of dangerous floods ; but it is not altogether so, so far as the rejection
of turbid water is concerned. It does, however, make a selection of water to
some extent, as it usually happens that when the water is most turbid and
during sudden storms, the streams would be so much increased that they
would overleap the opening through the weir, and so pass off without entering
the works.
Another mode of taking in streams and obtaining only clean water from
them, is to construct a filtering-conduit under the bed of the stream to receive
the water before it is admitted into the reservoir. These filtering-conduits
tod be
ON THE BRADFORD WATERWORKS. 457
are formed by making an ordinary brick or stone channel a few feet below
the level at which the stream is to be received. The channel is in section of
the shape of a letter U; over the top open grating or stonework is placed, in
such a manner as to allow water to flow freely through it. The ground at
the sides of the channel is made solid and impervious up to the level of the
side walls. Over the channel, and for any convenient breadth on both sides
of it, broken stone, gravel, or other filtering media are placed, through which
the water has to run before it can find its way into the conduit. In this way
any solid matter can be caught and separated from the water, and the water
can be obtained in the reservoir fit for immediate use. The water in the
reservoir is not liable to be discoloured by any sudden flow of turbid water
during heavy rains or thunder-storms, as the excess of water beyond the
quantity which can pass through the filter will flow off down the side and
waste channels made for the purpose.
This mode of admitting water to conduits and reservoirs is entirely self-
acting, does not require attention during storms, and the dirt on the filters
will be carried away by floods or can be easily removed.
The works for drawing water out of reservoirs are not without difficulties
of their peculiar kind. The mode usually adopted is to make a tunnel or
culvert through the embankment at the lowest level at which the water is
required to be drawn; and at the middle of this culvert, but a little within
the puddle-core, to erect a strong shaft or well in which to place the valves
for drawing off the water. The rods and apparatus for opening and shutting
these valves are taken up the shaft to the top of the embankment. This mode
of construction is attended with many difficulties, and often leads to breakage
of the work, and to consequent leakage of water from the reservoir. This
breakage arises from unequal settlement; for if the foundations of the shaft
are made rigid and secure, the shaft itself stands, whilst the tunnel or culvert
on both sides of it cannot be kept so rigidly in position, and fractures conse-
quently take place, generally on both sides of the vertical shaft. The settle-
ment under the embankment is also necessarily unequal, the middle and
highest part being much heavier than the inner and outer parts. The
settlement of the embankment is often both vertical and lateral, on account
of the spreading of the foundation work of the embankment, which some-
times tears the masonry asunder, and so increases the injury caused by
the unequal settlement round the vertical valve-shaft. To avoid these
difficulties, the tunnel or culvert is now frequently made in the solid ground
at the side of the valley, some distance from the middle of the embankment,
and where the disturbance caused by the unequal settlement is not likely
to reach.
When the water is drawn through these valves in the midst of the embank-
ment, great vibration is caused by the force of the water passing out. This
vibration is liable to increase the settlement of the heavier parts of the em-
bankment for some considerable distance round the outlet works, especially
when the substrata are of a compressible character, and may cause settlement
of the work which would not otherwise occur.
These difficulties have been provided against in some of the later Bradford
waterworks by placing the outlet valves at the outside of the embankment,
and conveying the water through the outer half of the culvert in an iron
pipe. The vertical valve-shaft for the rods and apparatus for opening the
valves are by this means rendered unnecessary, and the unequal settlement
and injury caused by vibration are altogether avoided. This mode of con-
struction has so far been found to work with advantage; the valve and outlet
45& REPORT—1873.
works are easily accessible for examination and repair, and are less costly
than the mode previously described.
Overflow and waste channels also require special attention in their con-
struction, on account of the difficulty which is sometimes experienced of
passing flood-water from sudden and unusual storms.
The great height from which the water has to be conveyed renders it diffi-
cult to deal with. The water has to be received above the reservoir, and
conveyed down to the stream in the valley below, a height in some cases
exceeding 100 feet. During this fall it attains considerable velocity, and
passes with great force.
The mode of construction which has been adopted in some cases is to form
the waste channel in such a way that the water shall be let down by aseries
of short vertical falls, the bottom of the channel being so made as to give no_
increase of velocity to the water as it flows along. These falls are formed by
walls built across the bottom of the channel, circular or otherwise, on plan, the
tops of the walls being in every case higher than the bottom of the channel—the
effect of these walls being that the velocity acquired by the water in passing
one fall is not continued and increased at the next, the water held back by
the wall forming a pool, which simply overflows at the fall next below.
These pools have the further effect of protecting the stonework of the bottom
of the channel from the force of the water falling upon it, and the water is
made to receive its own force when passing along the work.
The importance and value to Bradford of a supply of soft water is very
great, a large proportion of the water being used far trade purposes, for
washing wool, and for dyeing, &c., for which hard water would be of much
less value.
The town has had the benefit of a constant service at high pressure for
some years past, and has become rather exacting and particular.
The intermittent supply of many large towns would be altogether unsatis-
factory here, after the constant supply under high pressure to which the
inhabitants have become accustomed.
A new use of water is gradually being introduced. The water is being
taken direct from the street mains, and employed for working water-pressure
engines. These engines are becoming numerous, and are likely to be exten-
sively used for working warehouse cranes, and for many other purposes where
only light work is required. They appear to have many advantages as com-
pared with steam, where one or two horse-power at most is wanted: they
are always ready for work, they require no special buildings or furnaces,
they can be readily applied in any premises without structural alterations
and without increasing the danger from fire, and are very simple and easy
to work.
The prices at which water is sold for trade are very low. It is sold by
measure ; and the prices range from 1s. down to 2d. per 1000 gallons.
The value of the waterworks to the town has been very great. The trade
of the district could not have been developed to the same extent without
them, and the whole of the property of the town is increased in value
by them.
ON INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY. 459
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the possibility of Improv-
ing thé Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry, the
Commitiee consisting of Professor Sytvester, Professor Cay ey,
Professor Hirst, Rev. Professor BartHoLtomew Price, Professor
H. J. S. Smrru, Dr. Srorriswoopzt, Mr. R. B. Haywarp, Dr.
Satmon, Rev. R. Townsenp, Professor Futter, Professor KELLAnpD,
Mr. J. M. Witson, and Professor Currrorp (Secretary).
Untrt recently the instruction in elementary geometry given in this country
was exclusively based upon Simson’s modification of the text of Euclid. Of
late years, however, attempts have been made to introduce other text-books,
agreeing with the ancient elements in general plan, but differing from it in
some important details of treatment. And, in particular, the Association for
the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching having considered the whole
question with great labour and deliberation, is engaged in the construction of
a syllabus, part of which is already completed. The Committee had thus to
consider, first, the question of the plurality of text-books; secondly, certain
general principles on which deviation from the ancient standard has been
recommended; and, thirdly, the Syllabus of the Geometrical Association.
1. On the Plurality of Texwt-Books.
It has already been found that the practical difficulty of examination stands
in the way of allowing to the geometrical teacher complete freedom in the
methods of demonstration and in the order of the’propositions. The difficulty
of demonstrating a proposition depends upon the number of assumptions which
it is allowable to start from; and this depends upon the order in which the
subject has been presented. When different text-books have been used, it
thus becomes virtually impossible to set the same papers to all the candidates ;
and in this country at present teaching is guided so largely by the require-
ments of examinations, that this circumstance opposes a serious barrier to in-
dividual attempts at improvement. On the other hand, the Committee think
that no single text-book which has yet been produced is fit to succeed Euclid
in the position of authority ; and it does not seem probable that a good book
could be written by the joint action of selected individuals. It therefore
seems advisable that the requisite uniformity and no more should be obtained
by the publication of an authorized Syllabus, indicating the order of the pro-
positions, and in some cases the general character of the demonstrations, but
leaving the choice of the text-book perfectly free to the teacher; and the
Committee believe that the authorization of such a syllabus might properly
come from the British Association.
2. On some Principles of Improvement.
The Committee recommend that the teaching of Practical Geometry should
precede that of Theoretical Geometry, in order that the mind of the learner
may first be familiarized with the facts of the science, and afterwards led to
see their connexion. With this end the construction in practical geometry
should be directed as much to the verification of theorems as to the solution
of problems.
It has been proposed to introduce what are called redundant axioms—that
is to say, assumptions whose truth is apparently obvious, but which are uot
4.60 REPORT—1873.
independent of one another. For example, if the two assumptions were made
that two straight lines cannot enclose a space, and that a straight line is the
shortest distance between any two of its points. It appears to the Committee
that it is not advisable to introduce redundant axioms, but that all the as-
sumptions made should be necessary for demonstration of the propositions
and independent of one another.
It appears that the Principle of Superposition might advantageously be em-
ployed with greater frequency in the demonstrations, and that an explicit
recognition of it as an axiom or fundamental assumption should be made at
the commencement.
The Committee think also that it would be advisable to introduce explicitly
certain definitions and principles of general logic, in order that the processes
of simple conversion may not be confounded with geometrical methods.
3. The Syllabus of the Geometrical Association.
The Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching has issued
(privately) a syllabus covering the ground of the first three books of Euclid
and the doctrine of proportionals. The Committee are of opinion that this
Syllabus is decidedly good so far as it goes, but they do not wish to make a
detailed report upon it in its present incomplete state. When it is finished,
however, they will be prepared to report fully upon the merit of its several
parts, to make such suggestions for revision as may appear necessary, and to
discuss the advisability of giving to it the authority of the British Association.
For this purpose the Committee request that they may be reappointed.
Interim Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of making
Experiments on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships, &c.
Your Committee have to report that, owing to the various engagements of
the members, it has been possible to hold only one meeting during the past
twelve months.
At this meeting it was resolved to request the loan of instruments of
each of the pressure and other logs to be experimented with, and also to
endeavour to obtain the use of a vessel whereon to carry out the expe-
riments.
Your Committee have much pleasure in stating that three instruments
have now been kindly placed at their disposal, as well as a steam-launch
for conducting the experiments.
Your Committee, if reappointed, trust that some actual results may be
anticipated during the next twelve months.
No expense has been incurred, and no part of the grant of £50 has
been drawn.
DETERMINATION OF HIGH TEMPERATURES BY REFRACTED RAYS. 461
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Crum Brown, Mr. J.
Dewar, Dr. Guapstoneg, Prof. A. W. Wi.urAmson, Sir W. Tuom-
son, and Prof. Tarr, appointed for the purpose of Determinating
High Temperatures by means of the Refrangibility of the Light
evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances. Drawn up by Jamus Dr-
war, Reporter.
Ir is well known that as the temperature of a solid is gradually increased,
the refrangibility of the emitted light increases likewise ; and as the result
we find red light emitted first, and gradually the other coloured rays appear
until we reach the ultra-violet rays. This correlation between refrangibility
and temperature was first experimentally proved by Draper*; and it would
be a result of great importance to determine accurately the law of growth
of refrangibility with temperature. If this could be achieved, a very
easily applied and accurate pyrometer could be made of the ordinary spec-
troscope.
There are various difficulties, however, that beset this investigation at the
outset. First of all, the rapid growth of the new rays confines the observa-
tions within narrow limits of temperature; secondly, the want of equal
sensibility of the eye for rays of all wave-lengths; and, thirdly, the inter-
ference of diffused light preventing exact definition. It thus appears to be
futile to attempt or even expect accurate observations in these circumstances
through registration by the human eye, although, on first considering the
subject, it appears to be avery easy matter. Finding no means of overcoming
these difficulties, unless by the use of complicated apparatus, involving the
use of rock-crystal prisms and lenses or fine gratings and the employment of
photographic registration, requiring time and thought previous to execution,
a series of observations have been made in the mean time on the increase of
radiation with temperature, an inquiry of vital importance with regard to
this subject.
Becquerel, in his treatise on Light called ‘ La Lumiére,’ has detailed a great
number of observations on the growth of luminous intensity with increasing
temperature. From these experiments he infers that “ the differences between
the logarithms of the luminous intensities are proportional to the differences
of temperature,” proving that an exponential function of the form
I=a(e?-9)—1),
where I is the luminous intensity, T the temperature of the body, 6 the tem-
perature at which the special ray begins to be evolved, a and 6 constants, and
é the base of the logarithms adopted. The values of a and b, as deduced from
the experiment, for the red ray are respectively 0:00743 and 0-005014. The
above formula gives equally the growth of total luminous intensity if we take
@ as 500° C., that point at which the light-rays begin to be evolved, and a and
b as now having the respective values of 0:12053 and 0:00764. From the
last formula Becquerel gives the following values of the total luminous in-
tensity of a solid substance at different temperatures, stating it is probable
the above law does not hold above 1200° C, :—
* Phil. Mag. 1847,
462 REPORT—1873.
Temperature. Total luminous intensity.
916 (fusion of Ag) 1
1000 4:37
1037 (fusion of Au) 8°38
1100 25°41
1157 (fusion of Cu) 69°26
1200 146-92
1500 28900
2000 191,000,000
From the similarity of these formule with Dulong and Petit’s law of heat-
radiation, Becquerel regards them as being confirmed by analogy. The de-
- terminations of the temperatures in his experiments were all deduced from the
intensity of the thermoelectric current of a platinum-palladium junction,
and the luminous intensities were determined by means of a photometer based
on double refraction.
The observations made in connexion with this Report on the increase of total
luminous intensity have been conducted similarly to those detailed by Draper in
the Philosophical Magazine for 1847. The apparatus has been modified so as
to be more conveniently employed, and the experiments made were found on
being tabulated to be very well expressed by the following empirical formula :—
990+n 46=n’ I,
where I is the luminous intensity, and 990+746° is equal to the total tem-
perature—that is to say, above the temperature of 1036°C., by which time
all the luminous rays may be considered present ; the intensity is a parabolic
function of the temperature. The curve of increase is therefore a very acute
parabola. The diagram, p. 463, contains the curves of Becquerel, both for
homogeneous rays and for white light, and also the curve given by the above
formula. It is evident the rate of growth of the total luminous intensity is
very much slower than that obtained by Becquerel. The curve resembles the
rate of growth obtained from the homogeneous rays in his observations, although
all his curves begin more slowly and finish with far greater rapidity. This
doubtless depends on the thermometric degrees diminishing rapidly with
higher temperatures, according to his plan of measurement; but the great
variation in the curves when taken, even for the same kind of ray, shows that
little reliance can be placed on the results.
As the observations on increase of luminosity above 1000°C. can only be
carried on for a range of 500°C, with the expansion of platinum, it was very
essential that some comparison between the results of the empirical law given
above and actual observation should be made at higher temperatures. For
this purpose, a series of observations were made as to the relative light-inten-
sity of lime heated to a temperature of 2000°C. in the oxyhydrogen flame,
and the same substance at the boiling-point of zinc, temperature 1040°C.
The following plan was adopted in making observations :—A square pencil of
lime, four or five millimetres on the side, and of a length of 50 millims., was
supported horizontally, and the inner cone of a powerful oxyhydrogen flame
was made to play on a smooth cross section of the pencil. The light emitted
from this perpendicular surface had to pass through a small circular aperture
into an adjoining dark chamber for the purpose of comparison with the light
emitted from an equal surface of lime, the temperature of which was near the
boiling-point of zinc. In order to get a temperature maintained near 1000°C.,
I have adopted the following method :—A piece of platinum of an equal surface
DETERMINATION OF HIGH TEMPERATURES BY REFRACTED RAYS. 463
Curves of Luminous Intensity.
jf +} if
900 1000
1100 as ane 1300 Temperatures.
A. Becquerel’s curve. Total luminous intensity,
B. Author's curve. Total luminous intensity.
Thin and broken curyes. Becquerel’s homogeneous rays.
with that of the radiating lime, and of a thickness of 2 or 3 millims., was sup-
ported by means of a platinum wire in the flame of a good Bunsen burner,
the position in the flame having been found by experiment to maintain the
464 REPORT—1873.
mass at near the temperature required. This latter fact was ascertained by
finding the amount of heat the platinum emitted when thrown into a calori-
meter containing a known quantity of water. As the amount of heat emitted
was very small, special precautions had to be taken in guarding the calorimeter
and in getting the mass of platinum transferred. The calorimeter, containing
about 100 grammes of water, was floated in a cistern (having been pre-
viously placed in the middle of a tin cylinder, leaving an annular space
between), and so loaded that the water in the calorimeter was sunk to the
level of the water in the cistern. The Bunsen burner was placed in a tin
vessel loaded with shot, so as to give a flame the upper half of which was
above the level of the water in the cistern. By this means constancy of
temperature was maintained, and the results agreed closely together. It is
easy to be convinced that a mass of platinum like that employed, radiating
freely, is rarely heated above a temperature of 1100° or 1200°C. Compa-
risons were made between platinum in the Bunsen burner and lime in the
oxyhydrogen flame, and also between lime in both.
The photometer employed for comparing the lights was on the principle of
that recommended by Bunsen. A wooden box, about 8 inches long, 4 inches
broad, and 3 inches deep, containing several diaphragms with circular aper-
tures, thoroughly blackened in the interior, and haying the aperture of the middle
diaphragm coyered with a piece of Swedish filter-paper, marked with one or
two circular spots of paraffin, was employed to exclude extraneous light and
to obtain good definition. By this means it is possible to obliterate com-
pletely the spot of paraffin, and thus gain greater confidence in the results.
From the mean of a great number of experiments made in this way, the
luminous intensity at about 2000° C. is from 500 to 550 times that at 1040° C.
The calculated amount given by the above formula for the exact temperature
of 2000° C. is 484 times that at the lower temperature. According to the
formula of Becquerel, it would be about 24,000,000 times that at the lower
temperature. This empirical law, therefore, gives with considerable approxi-
mation the luminous intensity up to a temperature of 2000° C.
Total Radiation.—If the law of Dulong and Petit for the velocity of cooling
was true for temperatures above the range of the actual observations made in
support of the law, the amount of heat radiated per unit of time would be
found by multiplying the velocity of cooling at the temperature considered
into the specific heat at that temperature and into the weight of the substance.
From this may also be calculated the amount radiated per unit of surface.
In fact, for the same substance the relative quantities of heat evolved at two
different temperatures would be to each other as the velocities of cooling if
the specific heat and the emissive power remained constant. This would give
an extraordinarily rapid rate to the growth of total radiation. For instance,
taking the temperatures of 2000° C. and 700° C., we find, according to Dulong
and Petit’s law,
Q. 2009
Ae aaa R00 eS =
poo? = 21,545,
&
where a is the constant 1:0077.
Thus a substance radiates at a temperature of 2000° C. 21,000 times as
much heat per unit of time as it does at a temperature of 700°C.
In order to compare the total radiation as given from the law of Dulong
and Petit with that of actual experiment, a series of observations were made,
and the total heat evolved registered by the use of Pouillet’s pyrheliometer.
For this purpose, a spherical ball of lime, 8 millims. in diameter, was formed
DETERMINATION OF HIGH TEMPERATURES BY REFRACTED RAYS. 465
by careful filing and polishing on the end of a narrow pencil of the same
substance. This little knob of lime was then gradually heated, carefully
turning it round, up to incipient fusion in the oxyhydrogen flame, so as to
allow contraction to take place. With care in this way, it is possible to get
avery uniform sphere having a surface of about one square centimetre. The
pyrheliometer was filled with bisulphide of carbon, for the purpose of
registering minute alterations of temperature. The experiments were made
at two distinct temperatures, viz. at a low visible red heat and at the
maximum temperature of the oxyhydrogen flame. The mean of these
experiments has given, for radiation per square centimetre per minute
at about 700° C., from 20 to 25 gramme-units per minute, and at 2000° C.
maximum temperature from 2000 to 2500 gramme-units—the ratio of the
amounts being as 1 to 100, very different from the calculated result. The
law of Dulong and Petit, therefore, gives a far too rapid increase for the total
radiation ; and if we assume the law to be true in order to define temperature,
the results arrived at are always too low.
If the total amount of radiation at different temperatures is tabulated,
using a thermoelectric pile and an apparatus similar to the one employed for
light-intensities, it is found that the curve of increase may be very accurately
represented by a parabolic curve. The empirical-formula of this curve is
580° + n3 x 46°= nv’ R,
where R is the total radiation at 668° C., and 580°C.+73 x 46° C, is equal
to the temperature of the substance. If we calculate the total radiation from
the above formula at 2000° C. as compared with that at 668° C., it is in the
ratio of 1 to 112. Regarding these comparisons, they appear fairly within
the limits of experimental errors. We would anticipate that a similar law
would hold alike for heat-rays and light-rays,
Assuming these laws to be approximately correct, it is interesting to find
what hypothetical temperature in the case of a solid or fluid substance would
correspond with the luminosity and total radiation from the sun.
From the experiments of Fizeau and Foucault*, the luminous intensity of
the sun is found to be 146 times that of the lime-light. A temperature of
13,000° C., according to the formula given above, would give 144 times the
luminous intensity at 2000° C,
From the observations of Pouillet, the total radiation from 1 square centi-
metre of the sun’s surface in 1 minute was 85,000 units, and cannot well
exceed 100,000 units. At a temperature of 11,000° C., according to the
above formula for total radiation, the amount would be 50 times that at
2000° C. Now we have found above that a square centimetre of lime at
2000° C. emits 2000 gramme-units per minute, so that a temperature of
11,000° ©, would be sufficient to evolve 100,000 gramme-units, as much
heat as is produced by the sun. The recent observations of Soret (‘ Biblio-
théque Universelle,’ 1872) prove that the total radiation of the sun is between
50 and 60 times that of lime heated to 2000° C. in the oxyhydrogen flame,
The estimate of 100,000 gramme-units per minute from the sun is therefore
not too great, seeing that it is just 50 times the amount actually emitted by
observation at 2000° C.
Experiments with Electric Are.—The experiments formerly detailed to the
Association on the specific heat of carbon up to a temperature of 2000° C,
naturally suggested the attempt to define by observation the temperature of
* Ann, de Chim. et de Phys, 1844,
1873, 24
466 REPORT—1873,
the electric are, by determining the amount of heat evolved when pieces of
carbon, heated between the poles, are thrown into a calorimeter. When a
fifty-cell Bunsen’s battery is employed, it is found that 1 gramme of carbon
evolves as a maximum 850 units of heat when cooled from the temperature
it acquires between the poles of the battery. This quantity of heat only
corresponds to a mean temperature of 2000° C. in the heated carbon when
the great increase in the specific heat of carbon is taken into account. In
the experiments made with the battery, no precaution was taken to prevent
the cooling of the piece of carbon between the poles from radiation, and
consequently the substance never attained a uniform temperature. This fact
is easily proved on examining the appearance of the carbon after use, when
the substance is only changed into graphite in a few points. That tempera-
ture at which carbon changes into graphite may, in experiments of this kind,
be used as a fixed point.
The luminous intensity of the electric are, according to Fizeau and Foucault,
is from 34 to 56 times that of the lime-light when 46 cells are employed, of
small or large surface. According to the empirical formula previously given,
this would correspond to a temperature of from 7000° C. to 8500° C,
In the course of the experiments with the battery, several determinations
of the total radiation were made by the pyrheliometer, The mean of the
observations, which were remarkably constant, corresponds to a radiation of
7100 gramme-units per minute, being equivalent to a solution of 4°5 grammes
of zine per minute. A concave parabolic mirror 1 yard in diameter, exposed
perpendicularly to the sun’s rays in this country, concentrates as much radiant
energy as a 50-cell Grove’s battery of large surface,
On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun-
spot Periodicity. By Cuartes Mretprum,
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso.]
Ar the Brighton Meeting (1872) it was stated that the cyclones of the Indian
Ocean, between the Equator and lat. 25°8., were much more frequent in the
maxima than in the minima sun-spot years.
Since that time the subject has been more fully examined, and I now beg
to present a Catalogue of all the cyclones known to have occurred in that
part of the world during the last twenty-six years. The Tables given last
year contained only cyclones of sufficient violence to dismast or otherwise
disable vessels at sea, whereas the accompanying Catalogue gives all the
cyclones of force 9 to 12—that is, ‘strong gale” to “hurricane.”
The observations for the years 1847 to 1850 are probably not so complete
as those for the subsequent years, during which the Meteorological Society of
Mauritius made it a special duty to collect storm statistics. Still it is evident
that not only the years 1860 and 1872, but also the year 1848, were remark-
able both for the number and violence of cyclones, while the years 1856 and
1867 were quite the reverse.
By taking the number of cyclones in each maximum and minimum sun-spot
year and in each year on either side of it, so as to form maxima and minima
periods of three years each, we obtain the results given in the last column
of the following Table, showing that during the maxima periods 1848 to
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-SPoTs. 467
1850 and 1859 to 1861 the number of cyclones was 65, whereas in the
minima periods 1855 to 1857 and 1866 to 1868 it was only 34, or little
more than one half. In 1856 there was only one hurricane of small extent,
and in 1867 no hurricane at all. Indeed it is doubtful whether several of
the cyclones in the latter year, classed under “ storms,” should not have been
classed under “ whole gales” and “strong gales.”
The Number of Cyclones in each year, from 1847 to 1873.
umber
0
Number of/Number of} Total cyclones
‘i i)
‘alanis of ecells whole strong lnumber of| in maxi-
‘ ; cyclones, | ma and
minima
periods.
Years.
gales. gales,
|
| cruuwsonesnbwonmenos-soswos|
—
oo
ee
| 1848.
Mes. | 1849.
ee
to
for)
1855.
| Min, | 1856. 13
—
Max, 39
COP POR MOTIAOMO
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e
—
pa
oo
_ 1866.
Min. 4) 1867. 21
Max. { 1872.
| | *1873.
36
——
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WE WOWN DDK ReNPNNOWRFNOOOWrRWwWoOo
LOCO St OATH CONT Or
(eS eS)
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tet
—
* To 3lst May.
As during the last twenty-two years information respecting the cyclones
of the Indian Ocean has been carefully and systematically collected and tabu-
lated, I believe that the results now given are substantially correct ; and it
seems to me that they point to a close connexion between sun-spots, or
solar cyclones, and terrestrial cyclones, or what might be called earth-spots
by an observer on another planet.
_ Most of the severest cyclones have been already traced, and the others will
also be traced. When this shall have been done, an attempt will be made to
express numerically the amount of cyclonic area and cyclonic force for each
year. The Catalogue gives little more than the number of cyclones; but, from
what is already known, there is little doubt that their extent and force were
also far greater in the maxima than in the minima ycars.
Being desirous of extending the investigation as far back as possible, I have
2H 2
468 , REPORT—1873.
been examining lists of former hurricanes; and it is interesting to find that
the evidence from this source strongly corroborates the conclusions deduced
from the observations of the last twenty-six years. From a “Chronological
Table” published in the Mauritius Almanac of 1869, we obtain the following
list of Mauritius hurricanes :—
No. of No of.
Years. hurricanes. Years. hurricanes.
UBT e ccs ee eens = 1 Bt LOL WAG: ccetrre silos 12
Lister cee 1 SUS at eteeataecs chats 1
GOS ccc Ghee ess 1 TBO Sah bea Choe 2
MUG! », feet «fk eats 1 iS) Oe: eee Seater eee OS 2
LA ep pty Sa e 1 TSEB RI iia. wre ster 1
Miia ticaic ccs bee es 1 NSQO te oceo ce siebee 1
Oe aR caine tods,.cuaceanah 1 BBA. cucechiedebencecectees 1
7 SOr sc eathe ape «ttre 1 1836 Go Vioakior. odes 1
USOC che svens sae o 1 TS A4A ee eeroun teks 1
USOT lve tee cor spe 2 SAB ice hs. epee hes 1
MBO sos cree « Gef> © 1 1850s... hc teats aioe 1
12 Total. 2). 24
Probably the above list gives only the hurricanes that were remarkable
from their destructive effects in the island; and much stress should not be
laid on observations taken at a single station. Nevertheless it is rather
suggestive that out of the twenty-four hurricanes mentioned, seventeen fall
within, or very nearly within, maxima sun-spot periods, and only seven within
minima periods. Thus :—
Maxima No, of Maxima No. of Minima No. of
years. _ hurricanes. years. hurricanes. years. hurricanes,
a7CU 2h Sab Bt. forward.. 9 hye: 3 ES See
ua (gt ies Be eee | 1O88. a tee ee 75s. 0.
FD ee a Sey oi ck DBI bisa 5 pee IL Tia fo aie: ae
ol ae te | 1326. ie... fl 1824.16. 2
NBG p. § 4L0 TS ZO ry eel ISSA eh. ak
aB06hae to IBSB i, ee 1844, .... 1
tSOTin 3: VRS 1848 whys ok —
L815. 00-0 1 1850.2 Total; ann
9 Total... ..17
The same * Chronological Table ” contains the following entries :—~
“1760, December 1, Meteorological Phenomena.”
«1815, February 5, Meteorological Phenomena.”
T have not been able to ascertain what these phenomena were ; but it is not
improbable that they were auroral displays. The aurora of the 4th Feb-
ruary, 1872, was described in some of the local newspapers as “un phé-
nomene météorologique ;” and we know that 1760 and 1816 were years of
maximum auroral frequency. Tf, then, it be ascertained that the “‘ meteoro-
logical phenomena” observed at Mauritius in 1760 and 1815 were aurore,
we shall have further evidence in favour of the theory of increased activity of
the magnetical and meteorological elements in the maxima sun-spot years.
CONNEXION OF CYCLONES AND RAINFALL WITH SUN-spots, 469
Baron Grant, in his ‘History of Mauritius’ (p. 194), regrets the destruction
of the woods near Port Louis, because, he says, the town was thereby “ ex-
posed to the violence of the winds, as well as to the heat of the sun ;” and
in a footnote it is remarked, “these inconveniences, however, are fully
counterbalanced, if it be true-that the cessation of hurricanes since 1789 has
been caused by the great diminution of the woods.”
As the ‘History’ was published in or soon after 1801, it would appear
that during the twelve years (1789 to 1801) no hurricane occurred in the
island.
Now since, according to the Tables of sun-spot frequency, the years 1788
‘and 1804 were maxima years, and the intervening minimum occurred in
1798, the theory would lead us to expect a comparative cessation of hur-
ricanes during the period mentioned.
' If time permitted I would adduce similar evidence respecting the hurri-
canes of Bourbon (Réunion) and other parts of the world.
The hurricanes of the Indian Ocean are well known to be attended with
- torrential rains.. So much is this the case, that the popular belief at Mau-
: rifius is that cyclones are the cause of our rains. Heavy rains over exten-
* sive areas are certainly concomitant with cyclones in the Indian Ocean. It
was therefore determined to examine whether there was also a rainfall perio-
' dicity. As far as the Mauritius observations went, the case was clear;
but it was desirable to extend the investigation to other localities. The
Queensland and South-Australian observations gave similar results; and as
Adelaide is far beyond the limits of tropical cyclones, it was surmised that
_ there might be a rainfall periodicity generally. The Cape of Good Hope
observations were afterwards found to support this view. The rainfalls of
England and the Continent of Europe were next examined, and also found
to be in accordance with the hypothesis,
It would occupy much more time than I can at present spare to enter
fully into this question of rainfall periodicity. With the help of researches
on the same subject by Mr. Lockyer, Mr. Symons, and Dr. Jelinek, of Vienna,
I have now examined ninety-three tables of the rainfall for various parts
of the world; and I find that, with few exceptions, more rain has fallen
in the maxima than in the minima sun-spot years. I beg to append a Table
showing the general results for the different quarters of the globe. It will be
seen that, as far as the investigation has gone, Europe, Africa, America, and
Australia give very favourable results, Asia is represented by only three
stations, one of which is Jerusalem, where the excess of rain in one minimum
period exceeds the excess in the maxima periods for two stations in India.
- France is the only European country (the rainfall of which has been examined)
that gives an unfavourable return; but it must be remarked that we have
as yet got only five stations in that country, most of which are inland, and
that they may not fairly represent the whole country.
By taking the longest possible series of observations for several stations
spread over the globe, a periodicity comes out; and there is, I think, very
strong evidence that rainfall is subject to a secular variation, corresponding
with the sun-spot variation.
Having given the facts, as far as I have been enabled to do so, I abstain
’ from making any theoretical remarks, beyond saying that if cyclone and rain-
fall periodicities be fully established, a similar (direct) temperature periodi-
city should also exist, and that sudden variations of solar heat and radiation
may, by disturbing terrestrial magnetism, be the cause of an increase of
aurore and magnetic storms when sun-spots are most numerous,
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REPORT—1873.
478
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SULINP 9GOTD ot} 19A0 [[eJUIEYT OY} SULMOYS OTqe],
ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS-LIMESTONE CORALS. 479
Fifth Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Structure of
Carboniferous-Limestone Corals. Drawn up by James Tomson,
Secretary. The Committee consists of Professor Harkness, F.R.S.,
James Tuomson, F.G.S., Dr. Duncan, F.R.S., and Tomas
Davinson, F.R.S.
Dvnrine the past year the Committee have continued their investigations with
increased interest. Indeed the longer they continue their investigations in
this branch of paleontology, the more they are impressed with its importance ;
and now that they can reproduce in facsimile the internal structures of fossil
corals, they hope that the British Association will be convinced of the pro-
priety of continuing these researches.
Within the period embraced by the Report upwards of 200 specimens have -
been sliced; these are from a locality in Fifeshire, which had escaped our
notice. Many of these specimens, in addition to confirming the discovery of
new forms (noticed in a previous Report), exhibit structural characteristics
that warrant us in determining two (if not three) new genera.
There are others figured this year in Plates*, upon which we at present
hesitate to decide, They require careful comparison before we can feel con-
fident of the group in which they must be classed.
In the Report of last year it was stated that the gradations of varieties are
in some cases so constant, and the species pass so imperceptibly into each
other, that we are induced to infer that there has been an inherent tendency
in the polyp to yary independent of, but modified by, the conditions of its
surroundings. It was also stated that it was our intention to figure these
variations, so as to enable us to see what are the essential characteristics that
distinguish the species. We have accordingly prepared six Plates and figured
284 forms, showing in each case the internal structure. The external aspect
is also represented when necessary.
We have deferred to another occasion our treatment of such forms as
Beaumontia, Alveolites, Favosites, &c. Some paleontologists have doubts as to
whether several genera should be retained among the Rugose Corals, so that
we are the more induced to delay dealing with several forms belonging to
this group ; and we feel convinced that our future researches will bring to
light specimens simpler in organization, but presenting new facts which may
cause considerable alteration in the classification of this group. It is better,
therefore, to wait until these distinctive characteristics are clearly brought
out. We have, however, given in (what we provisionally call) Plate I, some
forms which are closely allied to the above,
Plate I. contains twenty-three figures of the genus Amplexus. Ten of these
forms have not been recorded before, whilst others are now for the first time
recorded as occurring in British strata. These figures represent the develop-
ment of coralline life, passing from the simplest forms to the more complex
structures of the genus, which passes by imperceptible gradations into the
genus Zaphrentis. Prof. De Koninck finds a similar transition in the Moun-
tain-Limestone Corals of Belgium belonging to this genus (Recherches sur les
Animaux Fossiles Belgique, prem. part. p. 81).
Figs. 22, 23, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, and 32 have not been represented before,
and their structural characteristics are distinctly different from any of the
forms that have hitherto been described.
Plate II. contains sixty-six figures; twenty-one of these are varieties of
* The Plates referred to in this Report will be published by Mr, Thomson,
480 . REPORT—1878.
the genus Zaphrentis, Figs. 8 and 27 represent a new genus; they are from
Fifeshire. Fig. 8 may possibly be determined as a distinct species. Fig. 7
belongs to the same group, and will form another species. These forms are
readily distinguished from all other corals belonging to this period by the
granular costie.
Fig. 26 is closely allied to the genus Lophophyllum; but it differs in structural
characteristics from the species described by Prof. M‘Coy in the ‘ Ann. of Nat.
Hist.,’ 2nd series, vol. vii. p. 167, and in ‘ Brit. Paleont. Fossils,’ p. 90, 1851.
_ Figs. 23, 40, 42, and 43 are very much alike in external aspects; and it is
only from transverse sections that they can be determined as belonging to
distinct species. The other forms figured in this Plate require careful com-
parison before we can determine to what species or even genera they belong.
Plate III. contains thirty-three figures, representing twelve varieties of the
genus Zaphrentis.
Fig. 1 is Zaphrentis Enniskillent ; and figs. 2, 3, 3 A, 3 B, and 3 C repre-
sent the same coral cut into five different sections, to show the structural
characteristics in the different stages of development.
Fig. 5 is Zaphrentis Edwardsiana of De Koninck, Fig. 14 is Zaphrentis
Guerangeri, E. & H.
The internal structures of the other forms upon this Plate have not been
figured before, and therefore we deem it prudent to say nothing about them
until they have been more carefully and closely examined. At some other
time we may return to them,
Plate IV. represents forty-three species. Figs. 1 to 6 represent varieties
of Amplexus and Zaphrentis. Figs. 3 and 4 have a striking resemblance
externally, but in internal structure they represent two distinct genera, viz.
Amplexus and Zaphrentis; and this fact confirms the statement made last
year, that we cannot rely upon external aspects for purposes of specific
identification.
Figs. 14, 15, and 26 belong to the genus Lophophyllum. These three forms
have characteristics sufficient to warrant us in classifying them as distinct
varicties,
Fig. 28 belongs to the same genus, but differs from the others in having
two of the primary septa passing into nearly the centre of the calicular
cavity, and terminating subreniformly at the inner extremity.
Fig. 21C is Heterophyllia Lyellit, nat. size. Vig. 21 is the same, magni-
fied ; 21 A is a transverse, and 21 B a longitudinal section of the same,
Fig. 36 is Heterophyllia grandis. This is the first time that this form has
been recorded from Scotch strata. Fig. 36 A is a longitudinal section of the
same, showing the internal structure. Figs. 36 B, 36 C, and 36D are trans-
verse sections, exhibiting structural characteristics at different stages of
development.
Fig. 37 is a new species of the same genus.
Fig, 38 is Heterophyllia angulata, while figs. 38 A and 38B represent
the structures in longitudinal and transverse sections.
Figs. 39, 39 A, and 39B have well-marked specific distinctions. They
must represent forms which differ from the other species of this genus, The
septal arrangement is quite distinctive. It is certainly a new species. We
propose to name it Heterophyllia Phillipsii.
Fig. 40 represents the external aspects of Heterophyllia mirabilis, nat.
size. This is the typical specimen that Dr. Duncan described in the ‘ Trans-
actions of the Royal Society’ (1867, p.643). Fig. 40 B is the same, magni-
fied. This species is distinguished from the other species by a series of
ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBONIFEROUS-LIMESTONE CORALS, 481
curved spines which are attached to the crown of the coste. They are
round, and attached to the coste by a broad, expanded base. The “ ball-
and-socket” process alluded to by Dr. Duncan we have failed to discover.
Fig. 40C is a transverse section of the same, nat. size.
Figs. 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, and
35 exhibit structural characteristics hitherto unnoticed. Several of these
forms may be seen in many of our museums and private collections named
as Cyathropsis and Zaphrentis; but in structure they have no characteristics
common to either of these genera.
Figs. 21, 38, 40, 41, 42, and 43 are typical specimens of Heterophyilia,
described by Dr. Duncan in the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society’ for
1867.
Plate V. contains six varieties of genus Clisiophyllum.
Fig. 1 represents the external aspect of Clistophyllum Keyserlingi. This
species is distinguished by the lamelle curving round, and ascending to
the crown of the large conical boss that fills up the centre of the calicular
cavity. Fig. 1A is a transverse section of the same. Fig. 1 B exhibits a
longitudinal section, with the columellarian line passing down the centre
of the coral.
Figs. 3, 3 A, 3B, and 3C belong to the same species, and represent the
structures from the earliest to the mature state of development in any
normal specimen.
Fig. 6 is a transverse section of the largest specimen of the same that has
come under our observation.
Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are closely allied species, if not varieties.
Figs. 9, 11, 12, and 13 are distinct species, and illustrate a previous
observation, viz. that specific identification cannot rest on the mere num-
ber of the lamell filling up the columellarian space in the centre of the
ealice.
Fig. 12 A is 15 lines in diameter, and has twenty-seven lamella.
' Fig. 11 is only 6 lines in diameter, and has thirty-seven lamelle filling up
and forming the conical boss in the centre of the calice.
Figs. 7, 8, and 10 are distinct genera. These forms, before being cut,
were classified as genus Clisiophyllum; but the transverse sections present
no characteristics in common with that genus. They belong to a genus
quite distinct, and as yet unnamed.
- Plate VI. contains representations of three species of Lonsdallia.
- Fig. 1 represents a longitudinal section of Lonsdallia rugosa. Figs. 1B
and 1 C exhibit the young corallites in their different stages of development.
- Fig, 2 is a transverse section of the same species. In this section we have
delineated the growth from the ovular germ through the different stages of
development to the mature coral. In one stage the embryo coral is seen
passing from the interseptal locula; in another it is seen semicircular in
outline, and just outside the epitheca. In some it is circular in outline,
whilst others exhibit the full development of the septa. Fig. 2A is the
same species, enlarged six diameters.
Fig. 3 represents Lonsdallia duplicata.
Fig. 4 A is one of the corallites enlarged, with a young corallite attached
to the epitheca, exhibiting the development of the primary septa, which, in
the maturer forms, is seen to fill up the columellarian space.
Tt will thus be seen that we wish to avail ourselves of every fact, and to
delineate the most delicate structures. To accomplish the latter, our peculiar
process is well suited. We may thus assist the student and beginner in
1873, 21
482 : REPORT—1873.
identifying specimens; but we may also check the superficial and hasty
generalization and classification of the more advanced.
In regard to the stratigraphical distribution and duration in time of these
forms, we must meantime remain silent; but by-and-by these will be duly
recorded,
Report of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Lanz Fox, Dr. Beppon,
Mr. Franks, Mr. Francis Gatton, Mr. FE. W. Brasroox, Sir J.
Lussock, Bari., Sir Water Exxiot, Mr. Ciements R. MARKHAM,
and Mr. EB. B. Tytor, appointed for the purpose of preparing and -
publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers, Ethnologists, and
other Anthropological Observers. Drawn up by Colonel A. H, Lane
Fox.
Snorrry after the last Meeting of the Association I received an intimation
from the Geographical Society that two expeditions were about to start in
search of Dr. Livingstone—the one under Lieut. W. J. Grandy, R.N., by the
Congo river, and the other, under Lieut. Cameron, from the East Coast—and
requesting that anthropological instructions might be furnished to those
officers for their guidance. As not more than a week’s notice was given me
of the departure of these expeditions, and it appeared desirable that each
party should be provided with printed instructions, I wrote at once to several
members of the Committee, requesting them to send me a series of questions
for the use of the travellers ; and the following gentlemen having responded
to my appeal without delay, I caused their contributions to be printed in a ©
small volume having blank leaves for memorandums and answers to the
questions, each of which was numbered; and a sufficient number were fur-
nished to the officers commanding each expedition, who were requested to
distribute them on the coast to Her Majesty’s Consuls, officers of the
Royal Navy, and others who might be in a position to use them, or to place
them in the hands of other travellers who might set out on expeditions
towards the interior from time to time. ‘
The following Members of the Committee were contributors to this volume,
viz. A. W. Franks, Esq., on General Anthropology ; Prof. Rolleston, F.R.S.,
on Physical Anthropology ; Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S., on Physical Anthropology ;
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., on. Religions, Mythology, and Customs; Colonel A, H.
Lane Fox on the Use of Iron in Africa, and on Prehistoric Archxology.
I enclose a copy of these instructions for the information of the General
Committee.
Although these instructions have been the means of carrying out to a
great extent the wishes of the Council of the Association in appointing the
Committee, and it was important that the opportunity afforded by the start-
ing of these expeditions should not be lost, yet as the instructions were
drawn up solely with a view to African exploration, and a certain amount of
repetition was apparent in the volume, owing to the hurried manner in
which it was drawn up and printed, so as to be in time for the travellers
before starting, it did not appear to me to meet as fully as could be desired
the intentions of the General Committee in placing a grant of £25 at our
disposal, such grant haying been intended for the information of travellers
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS, ETHNOLOGISTS, ETC. 483
in general rather than for the use of travellers in any one quarter of the
globe, Ihave therefore defrayed the cost of printing at my own expense,
and the amount has been made up to me by copies purchased by the Geo—
graphical Society, the Anthropological Institute, and by Mr. Franks. This
volume, therefore, although issued under the auspices and with the approval
of the Committee, will not be charged to the Association.
The Committee for drawing up “ General Instructions for Travellers” met
on the 21st of Noyember, 1872, when the following resolutions were passed :—
1. That the work to be published by the Committee shall consist ot
numbered sections, each section being prefaced by a few lines of explanatory
notes and followed by questions,
2, That the notes and questions shall be expressed as briefly as possible,
3. That the Secretary be requested to draw up the headings of about 100
sections, and submit them to the Committee at their next meeting,
4, That the Secretary be requested to draw up a specimen section or
sections upon half margin, and circulate them amongst the Members of the
Committee for their remarks previously to the next meeting of the Com-
mittee,
5, That the title of the work shall be ‘‘ Notes and Queries on Anthropology
for the use of Travellers and Residents in uncivilized lands.”
6, That M. Broca’s chromatic tables be adopted; and that Dr. Beddoe be
requested to communicate with him for the purpose of ascertaining in what
manner they can be most economically reproduced in this country,
Acting upon these resolutions I drew up a list of 100 sections, which,
having been circulated amongst the members for their remarks, have -been
printed in their approved form and are herewith annexed, together with the
names of some of the authors to whom the sections have been submitted for -
detailed questions. Two specimen sections have also been circulated, and
have been approved by the Committee.
Owing to the large number of contributors there has ie some delay in
collecting the contributions of the several authors. The sections have,
however, now been completed continuously up to No, XLII., and some of.
the later ones have also been received ; these sections are now in manuscript
ready for printing. The sections have been divided into three parts,—
Part I. relating to the Constitution of Man, Part II. to Culture, and Part
III, to Miscellaneous Questions relating to Anthropology. The List of Sec-
tions will form an index to the volume 3 and for convenience of reference
the sections have been numbered in Roman figures, the questions in italics, .
Each section has been submitted to some writer who is known to haye
devoted his special attention to the subject referred to him, and, as far as
possible, the best known authorities have been selected.
The cost of printing the part already in type amounts to £3; that of
the MS. already in hand has been estimated at £10,
The probable cost of the whole work, including illustrations and the chro-
matic tables, will be about £50.
Viewing the importance of the contributions already received and the scien-
tifie status of the contributors, and considering that the work is exhaustive,
of its subject and calculated to suffice for the use of travellers for some time,
to come, I would suggest, on behalf of the Committee, that the grant of
£25 voted at the last Meeting be renewed, and £25 added to complete the.
work, The yolume may then be published without delay.
It may be estimated that the sale of copies will cover a portion of the
expenses,
Dine
484 REPORT—1873.
List of Szctions into which the Notes and Queries on Anthropology are divided,
with a Summary of the Subjects included in each Section.
Part I.—Consrrrurion or Man.
I. Measuring Instruments.—A description of the instruments of
precision required for the measurements of the body or in testing its func-
tions, Dr. Beppor.
II. Form and Size.—Instructions for measuring and deseribing the
form of the body in living subjects, as also skeletons and skulls. Instructions
for estimating the relative size of the parts of the body in individuals of dif-
ferent races as well as of the same race living in different climates or under
different conditions, and the best order of making a table of results and of
determining averages. Dr. Beppor.
iI. Anatomy and Physiology.— Questions relating to the soft parts
of the body, organs, muscles, circulation, respiration, temperature, nerves,
tissues, &e. Dr. BEppor.
IV. Development and Decay.—Relating to the periods of growth
and development of the body, length of life, child-bearing, puberty, menstrua-
tion, dentition, decay, growing grey, death-rate, birth-rate. Dr. Beppor.
V. Hair.—Relating to the texture and qualities of the hair. Dr. Beppox.
VI. Colour.—Questions as to the colour of the skin, hair, and eyes, with
directions for the use of M. Broca’s tables, which will be included in this
section. Dr. Brppor.
VII. Odour.—Relating to the peculiar smell of the body of different
races, whether natural and constitutional, or merely the result of filth.
Dr. BEppor,
VIII. Motions.—Muscular peculiarities, such as the power of moving
the ears, scalp, use of toes in holding objects, agility, climbing. Dr. Brppox.
IX. Physiognomy.— Questions as to the expression of the countenance,
natural gestures, blushing, &c., with instructions for taking the form of fea-
tures. See also No. XCVIII. Casrs. C. Darwin.
x. Pathology.— Diseases, as well as alterations of the powers produced
by mode of life, use, disuse, climate, &c.; recuperative powers, healing of
wounds, Dr. Breppor.
XI. Abnormalities.—Natural deformities, such as steatopyga, albinism,
erythrism, &ec., not including Drrormarions, which come under the second
part—Cvrrvre. Dr. Brppor.
XII. Physical Powers.— Instructions for testing strength, speed, en-
durance. Dr. Bepvor,
XIII. Senses.—Instructions for testing the powers of the senses—sight,
hearing, sense of smell, touch, &e. Dr. Brppor.
- HIV. Heredity.—Inheritance of qualities, both physical and mental.
F. Gatton and Dr. Beppor.
XV. Crosses.—Fertility and character of half-breeds, shades of colour
and other peculiarities produced by crossing, continuance of fertility in de-
scendants. Dr. Brppor.
_ XVI. Reproduction.—Numbers of family, numbers at birth, propor-
tion of sexes, &c. ' Dr. Beppor.
XVII. Psychology.—Quickness of perception, power of reasoning,
eamming, generalizing, memory, perseverance. Dr. Beppor.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS, ETHNOLOGISTS, ETC. 485
Part II.—Cutrvnre.
XVIII. History.—Known facts regarding the history of races, name
by which they call themselves, their migrations, their traditions concerning .
themselves, and mode of recording past events. E. B. Trzor.
XIX, Archzology.—Inquiries into the monuments and other relics of
a past age, with the ideas of the people concerning them. Cor. Lane Fox.
XX. Etymology.—Information obtainable from the derivation of words,
names of places, rivers, &c. I. B. Tytor.
XXI. Astronomy.—Knowledge of the people concerning it. Division
of time. Names of the stars, with their meanings. Astrology. F. Gaxron.
XXII. Arithmetic.—Extent and knowledge of numbers. Method of
notation by fives, tens, twenties, &c. Analysis of compound numerals. Names
of numbers. KE. B. Tyzor.
XXII. Medicine.—Knowledge of simples and medical remedies.
Superstitions connected with the healing art. Charms and ceremonies used
in sickness. Sanatory measures. Treatment of sick. Dr. Barnarp Davis.
XXIV. Food.— Articles used as food; mode of cooking. Manufacture
of wine, beer, &c. Quantity eaten. Comparison of native dietary with law
of diet. A. W. FRANKS.
XXV. Cannibalism.—Its causes, frequency, motives for, and circum-
stances under which it either is or has been practised. A, W. Frayxs,
XXXVI. Narcotics.—Use of tobacco, snuff, hemp, Siberian mushroom,
betel, coca, &c.; forms of pipes and snuff-cases, ceremonies and practices
connected therewith ; effects, purposes for which used, &c. A. W. Franks.
XXVIII. Crimes.— Acts regarded as criminal, whether against person,
property, or religion, stranger, slave, or chief, &c., and the reasons why they
are so regarded. EK. W. Braproox.
XXVIII. Morals.—Acts recognized as right and wrong in family and
public life; chastity, honesty, sobriety, truthfulness, &c. E. B. Trror.
XXIX. Fetishes.—Description and history; whether worshipped as
emblems or otherwise; mode of carrying; superstitions and ceremonies con-
nected with. K. B. Tyzor.
XXX. Religions.—Nature of deities, whether ancestral, elemental, or
typical. Beliefs concerning souls and spirits, their forms and actions; de-
scription and meaning of religious ceremonies—sacrifice, purification, &c. ;
position of women in relation to religion. E. B. Tytor.
XXXII. Superstitions.—All superstitions not included under any
Special section. E. B. Tyzor.
XXXII. Witchcraft.—Evil eye, possession by devils, spells, &c., with
the ordeals and punishments connected with them. E. B. Tytor.
REXKITII. Mythology.— Including folk-lore. KE. B. Tyrtor.
XXIV. Government.— Appointment and government of chiefs, and
offices of subordinate rank, whether hereditary or otherwise.
E. W. Brasroor,
XXXV. Laws.—Including game-laws; laws relating to land, inheri-
tance, administration of justice, punishments, fines, &c. E. W. Brasroox.
XXXVI. Customs.—It may be difficult in some cases to distinguish
between laws and customs, but they should be defined when practicable.
KE. B. Tytor.
XXXVI. Taboo.—Its origin, history, customs, and superstitions con-
nected with it. E. B. Tyzor.
XXXVI. Property.—To what extent private property is recognized ;
4.86 ‘ REPORT —1873.
personal and landed property. Tenures of land, customs concerning, &c. ;
individual, family, and common property. Heirship, succession to.’
SMXMMIX. Trade.—Mode of barter and exchange in all its phases;
conveyance of articles from a distance by means of barter. §Hypr Crarxe.
XL. Money.—Including all objects recognized as mediums of exchange,
‘and gradual development of the idea of a standard currency ; relative value of.
Hyper CrLarke.
LI. Weights and Measures.—<Accurate descriptions of, referred
to Kuropean standards; effects of the absence of. Hypr Crarke.
SLIT. War.—Tactics; causes of; description and names of weapons ;
mode of conducting, effects, &e. Cot, Lanz Fox.
XLII. Hunting.—Including fishing; trapping, mode of; customs con-
nected with ; weapons and instruments employed. Cot. Lanz Fox.
XLIV. Nomadic Life.—lIts causes and effects; mode of conducting
the migrations.
XLV. Pastoral Life.—Questions especially relating thereto.
XLVI. Agriculture.—Causes which have led to; mode of tillage; in-
struments; cultivated plants; effect of, &c.
XLVI. Training Animals.—Skill in; mode of; animals trained ;
fondness for pets, &e.
XLVI. Slavery.—Causes and effects of; degree of bondage ; treat-
ment; rights of slaves; position in family; price of slaves; whether war
captives or others; whether increasing or diminishing.
ALIX. Social Relations.—Including family life; treatment of women,
children, &e.
L. Sexual Relations.—Marriage, polygamy, polyandry, exogamy,
endogamy. Sir J, Luszocx,
LI. Relationships.—Mode of estimating, as treated by Sir J. Lubbock ;
genealogy ; number of generations of which correct record is maintained.
Srr J. Lupsocr,
LIi. Treatment of Widows.—Customs relating thereto.
Srr J. Luspocx,
LIM. Infanticide.—Causes and effects of practices relating thereto.
Sm J. Lussocx.
LIV. Causes that limit Population.—Description of. F,Gauron,
LV. Education.—Mode of training children; aptitude for; effects of ;
absence of, &e. F, Garton,
LVI. Initiatory Ceremonies.—<Account of; causes of. F. Garton,
LVit. Games.—Amusements of all kinds; aptitude for; whether indi-
genous or derived. F, Garron.
LVIII. Communications.—Roads, paths, how made; absence of;
transport animals employed; mode of carrying burdens; bridges, ferries, &c.
F. Garton.
LIX. Tattooing.—Drawings and descriptions of all tattooing and
painting of the body and cicatrices; periods when performed, &c.
A. W. Frayxs,
LX. Clothing.—Description of; construction; mode of wearing; di-
stinctions of ; penis-cases, &c. A. W. Franks.
LXI. Personal Ornaments.—Necklaces, bracelets, anklets, feathers,
nose-rings, ear-rings, cap-ornaments, how made and worn. A. W. Franks,
LX. Burials.—Including customs at death; objects deposited with
the dead; reasons assigned for; food deposited with; ceremonies at. See
also No XXX, Rerrerons, W. GreEenwELt,
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS, ETHNOLOGISTS, ETC. 487
LXIII. Deformations.— Artificial deformations of the body; reasons
for ; mode of treatment, &e. Pror. Busx.
LXIV. Tribal Marks.—Including all party badges, whether worn
on the person or otherwise ; origin of heraldry, &c. A. W. Franxs.
LXV. Circumcision.—Mode of practising; reasons for; ceremonies
connected with, &c.
LXVI. Totems.— Description of. J. F. M’Lennay.
LXV. Dyeing.—-Including the manufacture and use of all paints and
dyes. J. Evans.
LXVIII. Music.—Description of musical instruments; characteristics
of music, &e. Pror. Cart EneEt.
LXIX. Language.—lIncluding phonetic sounds which can and cannot
be pronounced ; use of the “ Outline Dictionary” of Professor Max Miiller.
KE. B. Trzor.
LX. Poetry.—Characteristics of; use of words in exact; nature of
metre; nonsense choruses; notions of drama. KE. B. Tyzor.
LXXI. Writing.—Including also curves, marks, and tallies; scoring ;
picture writing ; hieroglyphics in every stage of development. EH. B. Tyxor,
LXXII. Drawing.— Including sculpture, modelling, and representative
art of all kinds, with illustrations. Cou. Lanz Fox.
LXXIII. Ornamentation.—Inquiries into the history and develop-
ment of all the various forms of ornamentation. Cot. Lanz Fox.
LXXIV. Machinery.— Any traces of the economy of labour by means
of ; querns, hand-mills, water-mills, &c. J. Evans.
LXXV. Navigation.—Inquiries into the use and history of the forms
of boats, paddles, mode of rowing; method of ascertaining courses employed
by sea-faring people; use of nautical instruments—whence derived, how
and where constructed ; sails; seamanship.
LXAXVI. Habitations.—Description of houses, huts, tents, and their
congregation in towns and villages; also cave-dwellings, buildings on piles,
weams, and household furniture. ~ Sie W. Exxior.
LXXVIl. Fire.—Mode of making and preserving fire, and any cus-
toms or superstitions connected with fire. K. B. Tyror.
LXXVIIL. String.—Mode of fabricating string and rope, and the sub-
stitutes for it. J. Evans.
xX. Weaving.—Descriptions of all looms and woven articles ;
sewing; bark cloth. J. Evans,
LXXX. Pottery.—Mode of manufacture ; materials used; forms; uses;
hand-made; wheel-turned; history; glazing pottery. A. W. Franks,
LXXXI. Leather-work.—Mode of dressing skins; uses of.
J. Evans.
LXXXIT, Basket-work.—Mode of fabricating; forms, uses, &c.
J. EVANS.
LXXXIII. Stone Implements.—Fabrication and use of, at the pre-
sent time; history of. Cor. Lane Fox.
LXXXIV, Metallurgy.—Smelting ; forging; ores, how found; origin
of; uses; blacksmiths, &e.
LEXXXV, Miscellaneous Arts and Manufactures,—All arts
and manufactures not included under any special heading.
LXXXVI, Memorial Structures,—Erection and object of, at the
present time. : Sir J. Luszocx.
LXXXVII, Engineering,—Dams, canals, palisades, bridges.
J. Evans,
488 REPORT—1873.
LXXXVIII, Topography,—Notions of geography; map-drawing ;
knowledge of locality, of foreign countries.
LXXXIX, Swimming,—Mode of; powers of; uses; diving.
XC, Natural Forms,—Questions relating to the use of natural forms
in the arts, such as the use of stones as hammers, horns as spears, shells as
vessels, animals’ hides and scales as armour, &c. Cot. Lanz Fox,
XCI. Conservatism,—Fondness for tradition; questions relating to
the preservation of old customs and forms of art which throw light on the
length of time they may have continued in use. E. B. Tyzor.
XCII, Variation,—Changes of fashion; observations of minute va-
rieties in customs and forms of the arts, by means of which gradual progress
may have been effected. K, B. Tyror.
XCIII, Invention,—Notices of independent inventions, E, B, Tyzor.,
Part ITI.—MiscELLANEOUSs,
XCIV, Population,—Instructions for estimating the population of a
district. F, Garton.
XCV. Contact with Civilized Races.—Influence of civilization on
aborigines. Causes of decay when in contact with the whites; whether
racial or social. Sir T. Gorr Browne.
XCVI, Preserving Specimens,—lInstructions for preserving human
and other remains. Dr. Barnarp Davis.
XCVII. Anthropological Collections,—Instructions for obtain-
ing, preserving, and disposing of. A. W. Franks,
XCVIII. Casts, &c.—Instructions for taking casts of objects, rub-
bings, inscriptions, and antiquities, &c.; masks of faces, &c. A. W. Franxs,
XCIX, Photography,—lInstructions for the use and transport of pho-
tographic apparatus.
Cc. Statistics,—Instructions as to the mode of obtaining them.
F. Garton.
Preliminary Note from the Committee, consisting of Professor Bau-
rour, Convener, Dr. C1ecuorn, Mr. Ropert Hurcuison, Mr. ALEx-
ANDER Bucuan, and Mr. Joun Sapien, on the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall,
Arrrr some inquiry and correspondence the Committee heard of two
localities, viz. Carnwath, Lanarkshire, and Abernethy, Speyside, Moray-
shire, which seemed likely to be suitable stations for carrying on the
inquiry entrusted to them, owing to wood likely to be cut down soon, and
assistance expected from the proprietors. The station in the Speyside
district the Committee have not yet been able to yisit ; but a Subcommittee,
consisting of Dr. Cleghorn and Mr. Buchan, visited Carnwath on the
11th of July, 1873.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON THE RAINFALL, 489
Carnwath has been one of the stations of the Scottish Meteorological
Society since the beginning of 1869, and, through the liberality of Hector F.
M‘Lean, Esq., Carnwath House, is supplied with a full equipment of
instruments, all of which have been compared. ‘The observer is Mr. William
Currie, Clerk to Mr. M‘Lean. He was formerly observer at Eallabus, Islay,
and is, in the opinion of Mr. Buchan, in every way one of the best observers
of the Scottish Meteorological Society.
Three stations were placed at the disposal of the Committee, and
Mr. M‘Lean offered most handsomely to cut down the trees at the station
which should be selected, at the time and in the quantity which would, in
the opinion of the Committee, best suit the objects of the inquiry.
The three localities were visited by the Subcommittee, who had no
difficulty in fixing on one of these as the best. Its situation is shown on
a plan, traced from the Trigonometric Survey. [This plan was exhibited at
the Meeting. |
At the point marked I. is placed the anemometer of the station, on the top
of a grassy knoll, free to the winds all round. At a distance of 320 yards to
the §$.8.W., at point marked II., in centre of patch coloured red, is a wooded
knoll precisely similar and nearly of the same height. Immediately on west
of top of this knoll is a circular patch 50 feet in diameter, quite clear of
trees, covered with a fine, close, grassy sward, containing well-grown
specimens of Veronica officinalis, V. chamedrys, Galium saxatile, Potentilla,
Tormentilla, Ranunculus acris, and a few roots of Lastrea Filix-mas.
Trees (mixed, but chiefly pines) from 30 to 40 feet high surround this
patch on all sides. The extent of woodland in which it is proposed to place
the station is 623 acres; but there is a much greater extent of woodland in
the neighbourhood.
The Committee propose to erect two sets of instruments—one beside
the anemometer at I., the other in the centre of the open space of the
wooded knoll at II., each set to be in every respect alike, and to consist of
the following :—
1 Maximum Thermometer.
1 Minimum Thermometer.
1 Dry- and Wet-bulb Hygrometer.
1 Stevenson’s Louvre-boarded Box, for holding the thermometers.
The instruments to be read twice daily, viz. at 9 a.w. and 9 p.m., in con-
nexion with those at the station of the Scottish Meteorological Society at the
point marked III., and always in the same order.
It is proposed, for one year at least, to compare the observations on the
wooded and naked knolls, and to cut down none of the trees; and it is also
proposed to delay the planting of rain-gauges at I. and II. until a sufficient
space has been cleared around II. by cutting, the Committee being of opinion
that observations from a gauge planted in the small patch of II. surrounded
with trees 30 to 40 feet high, and at no greater distance than 25 feet, would
give results worse than useless.
the Committee hope, in the course of a few months, to be able to
make-arrangements for the establishment of the second station at Speyside,
where the forests are pure Scotch fir of magnificent growth, for which
instruments similar to those procured for Carnwath will be required. To
meet this outlay and the payment of observers, the Committee will require
a renewal of the grant of £20 from the British Association for 1873-74.
490 nREPORtT—1873.
Appendix added by the Committee, 2nd March, 1874.
The Committee are of opinion that the problem of the Influence of Forests
on the Rainfall cannot be directly attacked, but must be preceded by a pre-
liminary inquiry into the temperature and humidity of the air of the forest
itself, as compared with the temperature and humidity of the air outside
the forest. The observations referred to above will supply these data. The
Committee also contemplate the placing of underground thermometers and
evaporometers at Stations Nos. I. and II., and the examination of the tem-
perature of the trees by means of thermometers permanently fixed in them,
in the manner adopted at the forest-stations of Bavaria,
Report of Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee, appointed at the
Brighton Meeting, 1872, consisting of Hunry Wiuiert, R. A.
Gopwin-Austen, F.R.S., W. Tortey, F.G.S., T. Davinson, .R.S.,
J. Prestwicn, F.R.S., W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., and Henry
Woopwarn, F.R.S. Drawn up by Henry Witterr and W.
Torey.
Tue proposal to commemorate the visit of the Association to Brighton by
some practical effort to extend the bounds of scientific knowledge was
received with unexpected favour, and the support given to the Sub- Wealden
Exploration has justified its selection as the most eligible unsolved scientific.
problem in the south-east of England. This Report may be considered’a
summary of the transactions more fully detailed in the four quarterly reports
of the Honorary Secretary.
The original project was for a bore of 61 inches; but this was overruled
by the Committee in London, and the adoption of a diameter of 9 inches was
decided on. The opinion of French engineers of eminence was adduced by
Joseph Prestwich, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., in favour of this increase, and pro-
bable success to the ultimate depth required was considered more important
than the increased cost. The bore-hole has reached (at the full diameter of
9 inches) a depth of 300 feet, and the engineer has contracted to increase
it to the depth of 418 feet at the cost only of £1 per foot. The diameter of
9 inches may be considered merely the foundation of the work, and, like
all foundations, it makes but a small show for the money expended.
The shedding, machinery, tools, and rods for a depth of nearly 1000 feet
have been purchased, but much time and money must be expended before
2000 feet or paleeozoic strata are reached.
300 feet of strata have already been examined: 70 feet are supposed to
represent the known Rounden-Wood beds; 230 feet are new to science, of
which 50 feet consist of valuable beds of gypsum.
Professor Ramsay states “ no such beds of gypsum have hitherto been
found in Europe;” and Mr. Etheridge considers “that it is the most
important geological discovery made in England for the last twenty years.”
The cores exhibited prove, by their horizontal bedding, that hitherto the
crest of the anticlinal axis has been undisturbed, fully justifying the
selection of the site. Mr. Topley explains more fully (in his accompanying
Report) the general geological features.
ON SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 491
It being found impossible to bore (and that the drilling by the T chisel in
ordinary use so crushed up the débris as to baffle examination), the Honorary
Secretary designed a novel form of drill possessing the following advantages :—
1st. It cuts only the circumference,
2nd. It makes better progress.
3rd. The central core is left intact.
4th, The tool not unfrequently extracts the core itself.
The gypsum shown was thus extracted. No such cores have, it is believed,
in this country been brought to the surface from similar depths.
A plan of an ingenious form of electromagnet for the extraction of broken
pieces of steel from the bottom of the bore-hole was exhibited. It was suggested
by J. R. Capron, Esq., of Guildford, and designed by Professor John Tyndall,
F.R.S., assisted by Messrs. Tisley and Spiller.
The question of cost is a serious one. The only definite contract for con-
tinuing the work from a depth of 218 feet to 1500 feet (including the use
of the tools, machinery, engine, &c. belonging to the Committee) was over
£5000. When an application for a grant was made in 1872 a large sum
was not asked for, and it was deemed more consistent to await the first
year’s report; not only has the £25 voted been expended, but over £2000
has been subscribed by other parties, all of which will have been expended
before the expiration of the current year; large additional subscriptions will
therefore be required.
A reference to the names forming the Central Committee will convince
that the best method for ultimate success will be adopted.
It is therefore hoped that the Association will consider it advisable to
reappoint the Committee, and to vote an increased grant for the prosecution
of the work.
In addition to the actual cost of the work of the boring, the expense
incurred has much exceeded the estimate. This excess is attributed to the
following causes, many of which will not again occur :—
I. The increased diameter of the bore.
II. The distance travelled by the engineer.
III. The cost of shelter in so exposed a situation, it being impossible to
get men to work without it,
IY. The cost of carriage, from the inaccessible nature of the roads &e.
Y. The large increased cost of fuel.
VI. The necessity of providing forge, tools, &c. in anticipation of future
demands,
VII. The original expenses of survey and commencement,
VIII. Printing and postage in soliciting subscribers.
Geological Report, drawn up by W. Topley, F.GS., of the Geological Survey
of England and Wales.
_ Hitherto almost all borings have been made for the purpose of solving some
‘probable anticipation, or for the discovery of something definitely required,
as coal or water. In such cases, if the object sought for be found, the boring
is said to be successful; if not, it is said to have failed. With the Sub-
Wealden boring, however, failure can only arise by a premature arrest of the
492 REPORT—1873.
work, either by an accident to the bore-hole or from want of funds. Should
the boring be continued, the result, whatever it may be, will be a success. It
is important that this should be once more distinctly stated, for the Sub-
Wealden boring is too often spoken of as a ‘‘ search for coal ;” so that, should
coal not be found, we shall certainly be told that our project has failed, and that
so much money has been thrown away by ignorant theoretical speculators.
Now, while the originators of this undertaking, as well as the members of
this Committee, are fully alive to the immense national benefit which would
result from the discovery of coal in the south-east of England, they do not
put this forward as the primary object, nor has any money been solicited with
any such intention. ‘The sole object of the exploration is to discover what
beds underlie the Wealden, and especially to reach the Paleozoic rocks.
This we have every reason to hope will be done; and whatever those rocks
may prove to be, if we can only reach them, the Sub-Wealden exploration
will then have been a success.
Should the Association think fit to renew the grant and to reappoint the
Committee, we may confidently hope that future Reports will contain impor-
tant additions to our knowledge of the geology of the south-east of England.
The present Report must be regarded merely as a preliminary one; and it
may be well at this stage to refer to some general questions, and to clear
the way for future Reports.
Dr. Mantell was the first geologist who carefully studied the interior of the
Weald. He divided the Hastings beds (or Hastings sands, as they were then
called) into four divisions :—
Horsted Sand. Worth Sands.
Tilgate beds. Ashburnham beds,
When the geological survey of the Weald was first commenced, Dr. Mantell’s
terms and divisions were adopted ; but it was soon found that they were in-
applicable in some parts. The classification adopted by the Survey is that
proposed by Mr. Drew, whose account of it was laid before the Geological
Society in 1861.
Unfortunately the Survey retained Dr. Mantell’s term (Ashburnham beds)
for the lowest strata, and followed him in considering the limestone beds of
Poundsford to be the same as the mottled clays, which are the lowest strata
seen on the coast. Not only are the limestone beds of Poundsford below the
clays of Fairlight, but neither of these are the equivalents of the strata at
Ashburnham itself, which lie near the bottom of the Wadhurst Clay. Near
the base of this clay, and lying in or near to the nodules of clay ironstone,
which were formerly extensively worked, there is a bed of ferruginous lime-
stone crowded with Cyrene. Dr. Mantell thought this to be identical with
the shelly limestone found near Poundsford; and wherever he met with it
he noted the occurrence of Ashburnham beds. Many of the localities men-
tioned are certainly in Wadhurst Clay.
In Dr. Fitton’s opinion, the strata of Poundsford, Archer’s Wood, &c. were
lower than any others in the Weald; and he adds:—“ From the general
structure of the tract surrounding Brightling, the ravines at the base of the
prominence on which the Observatory stands ought evidently to afford the
lowest strata of the country”*.
A detailed survey of the entire district has proved that he was correct, and
that it is just at this spot (in Rounden Wood) that the lowest strata are
brought to the surface. More recent examination of the district has deter-
* Geology of Hastings, p. 54 (1853).
ON SUB-WEALDEN EXPLORATION. 493
mined the Director of the Survey to separate these beds. The clays of the
coast are now called “ Fairlight Clays” (Mr. Gould’s term), while the lowest
limestone series of the inland district are coloured as. Purbecks.
The difference in the strata rendered such a change in the classification
desirable, and it has been confirmed by the discovery of thick beds of gypsum
in the Sub-Wealden boring. Although found in detached blocks in the
Purbeck beds of Dorsetshire, gypsum was unknown before in the Weald. It
should also be noticed that the Ashdown Sand, which comes between the
Fairlight Clays and the Wadhurst Clay, is only about 150 feet thick at
Hastings ; but the Ashdown Sand of the Brightling district (including under
that term all the strata intervening between the Wadhurst Clay and the
Purbecks) is 300 or 400 feet thick. We may then fairly assume that the
lower part of these sands (which is much more clayey than the upper part)
represents the Fairlight Clays of the coast.
In classing these beds with the Purbecks we are only repeating the
opinion of Mr. Conybeare (the earliest geological writer on the district).
Subsequently they have been referred to the Purbecks by Sir H. De la Beche,
Prof. Edward Forbes, Dr. Fitton, Mr, Godwin-Austen, and others; in some
eases even by Dr. Mantell himself.
The Purbeck beds of Sussex consist chiefly of clays and shales. The lime-
stones are chiefly found upon two horizons—an upper one, called ‘the
greys ” or ‘‘the vein-greys,” and a lower one, called ‘“ the blues.” These are
separated by about 100 or 140 feet of shales, interspersed with only a few
thin beds of limestone and a little sandstone. Below the “blues” are impure
limestones (bastard blues). The lowest strata known previous to the boring
were the “dunk shaws,” thin flaggy limestones found in Rounden Wood,
crowded with Cypridea valdensis.
The total thickness hitherto known may be estimated at a little over
300 feet.
The boring at Netherfield began at a point about 250 feet down in the
Purbecks, just below the ‘‘blues.” Mr. Willett and Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins
proposed the site ultimately chosen ; and no other spot in the district would,
all things considered, have presented equal advantages,
Sl strata passed through up to the present time (September 1873) are as
follows :—
Strata, Thickness. Depth from surface;
ft. in. ft, im,
Shales seeceeeenes Ooeterreeeteere deoeseevores Oeoeece OOeerenee 16 6 0 0
MSIE IAMESHONG cee cesccveccussesecosacecccsrsveesccssesss 2 6 19 O
BAIS secs cccocscncvscccscenccvscheccesccscessoeccecsccsses 5 O 24 0
Blue limestone .,.......ssccerssccssesscssnscctcenceeees . 2 0 26 0
Shale ....cccccsseces Lea cats Citiecdeveseadecevinadestegeba 4 0 30 0
Limestone ......00008 AGWcdehuechestanaseanecaessacuccuees 1 6 31 6
AOU stenceaneustneens Panettiseaschrsletapsiiecsarsuneess . 4 0 35 6
Limestone ......s0sssse00s meseneddeckscdesdencesssnece cos 3.0 38 6
BSAAIGI ccs cuctcccuaccesestnccconsavessdestedessncrestssoaver 4 0 42 6
MITAGRLONC) Tria vivesacctccboncsbuacssscussvavenccsssersadse 4 0 46 6
Hard blue shale.......cccosssecsscccoscssssstersbecsseee 15 6 62 0
Yard grey sHale ......0sccsscessescrenssasscnscoscoeses 3.0 65 0
Hard shale........ Bai. Gooseacc cic ap aber Spe pnacesce 14 6 79 6
Shales, fiery crystals of carbonate of lime ......... 9 O &8 6
Rreya Hale ss, ineceest sav tiiedeavceteeceeclacvacvesdetete 3 0 101 6
Greenish shales, with gypsum veins .............+. 20 0 121 6
MAPUTO PYPSUD 5. coccvevnssrercserescoseescovaceranes 8 6 130 0
Pure white gypsum ......cesccstssssecseesssseveresees 4 0 134 0
EMU cy sss iaeeiceysVarvsbesewey. rasenteostvtnae 5 6 139 6
494 REPORT—1873.
Strata. Thickness. Depth from surface.
ft, in. ft. in.
Pure white, sy paumih ascii strgcssies avencasedens-sabvegees 3.0 142 6
Gypsum, more or less pure, hard, and dark....., 14 6 157 0
Blue shales. ca; taducuepaecisaescaiees ces sssfoeseenese 5 3.6 160 6
Gypsum, in nodules and Veins .........sseeeeeeeees 12 0 172: 6
Gypreous mail eases talsed i hewn bay. 6 6 179 0
San dy, nobel ji 5 saespatay {4 Geasw'eyoddas svalthevads davesunys 0 6 179 6
Black sulphurous shale.........0.....,::seseesseqeeeees 0 6 180 0
Greenish sand, with nodules of black chert ...... 21 0 201° 0
Many pMdlD a encacgsats sseseasasentacatcl creates ttecerte 30 0 231 0
Ps with more or Higa variations of eal- }
careous matter, and with interspersed chert- 8 0 239 O
MOMDIAS, ie isswestignh > aseasndvbrb dase ibeegess«teqssep
Carbonate of lime, in veins intersecting ditto ... 2 0 241 0
Indurated black sandy shale, very sulphurous ... 12 0 253 0
Blacker ditto; softer...-::.....coscesectesevsoreveetbere 7 0 260 0
Harder shales, with much chert .........ceseseseseee 12 0 272 O
Black horizontal shale, very sullen stan bis ade 2.0 274 0
Sessiaaiaia 12 0 286 0
Shale, paler i in colour, with veins of ZYPSUM..,.+» 4°0 290 0
Shale, darker and more BALDY sessssssscoseesestasest : 2 0 202 0
Shale ..scccssscseves coe ece eee ecesvensecsveseseccscseest teee 2 0 294 0
The higher beds marked as “limestones” in the boring-section are
mostly impure. These are the “ bastard blues.” Below these, in Rounden
Wood, there are other limestones known as the “ Rounden greys,” and then
come the “ Dunk shaws.” The ‘ greys” and “ blues ” are easily identified
by the workmen whenever they occur. The “ Dunk shaws” are peculiar in
character; but as neither they nor the “ Rounden greys” have been identi-
fied in the boring, they may be a local peculiarity. The new discovery of
gypsum is an important addition to the Purbeck series of Sussex, The two
principal beds of gypsum consist of perfectly white alabaster. The gypseous
shales are dark in colour, but they contain so much gypsum that, when
pulverized, they appear almost white. The gypsum is mostly eyenly bedded ;
but that found in the shales is nodular and irregular in structure. It is not
improbable that at or near this horizon gypsum will occur over a considerable
area in the Sussex Purbecks; and it probably occurs not far below the sur-
face at the bottom of the ‘“‘ rough field” in Rounden Wood.
With regard to the depth at which the Paleozoic rocks are likely to occur
beneath the Weald, I may remind you that 700 feet has been mentioned as
a probable minimum, and 1700 feet as a probable maximum. It would
seem, from borings already made in other districts, that the depth of the
palzeozoic floor below the present sea-level is to a large extent independent
both of the newer formations above it and of the apparent disturbances which
are supposed to have affected them. The borings at Kentish Town, Harwich,
Ostend, and Calais, all reach the paleozoic floor at a depth only slightly
exceeding, or slightly less than, 1000 feet below the sea-level; and in these
cases the higher strata passed through are of very varying character and
thickness. These, however, are all on, or to the north of, the supposed westerly
extension of the “Axis of ‘Artois,’ > and it is possible that different conditions
prevail to the south of that line.
I may also remind you that, in the Pays de Bray, Carboniferous Limestone
occurs at a depth of 59 feet from the surface, underlying Kimmeridge Clay.
It is this presence of the Carboniferous Limestone in this position which gives
some slight hope of the occurrence of Coal-measures near Boulogne and in
our Wealden area further west. Mr. Godwin-Austen has pointed out that
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 495
the general dip of the Carboniferous Limestone of the Boulonnais is to the
south ; and this is the dip where they are last seen passing beneath the
unconformable secondary rocks, As Carboniferous Limestone occurs under the
Pays de Bray, it is not unlikely that some Coal-measures may be preserved in
a palzozoic trough between these places,
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis Garon, Mr. W.
Froupg, Mr. C. W. Merririexp, and Professor Ranxine, appointed
to consider and Report on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the
Roughness of the Sea and Measurement of Waves near shore.
In consequence of the death of one of our number, the late lamented
Professor Rankine, and the pressing occupations of the other members of the
Committee, it has not been possible to make much progress with this subject
during the past year, and they are not at present prepared to report upon it.
Report of the Committee on Science-Leciures and Organization,—the
Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof.
“W. G. Avams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Batrovr,
F.R.S., F. J. Bramwett, F.R.S., Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E.,
Prof. T. Dyer, Sir Watter Exriot, F.L.S., Prof. Frowrr, F.R.S.,
Prof. G. C. Foster, /.R.S., Prof. Grrniz, F.R.S., Rev. R. Har-
LEY, F.R.S., Prof. Huxtey, F.R.S., Prof. Firrmine Jenkin, F.R.S.,
Dr. Journ, F.R.S., Col. Lanr Fox, F.G.S., Dr. Lanxester, F.R.S.,
J. N. Locnyer, F.R.S., Dr. O’Cattacuan, DL.D., D.C.L., Prof. .
Ramsay, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour Stewart, F.R.S., H. T. Stainton,
F.R.S., Prof. Tart, F.R.S.E., J. A. Tinneé, F.R.G.S,, Dr. ALLEN
Tuomson, F.R.S., Sir Wittiam Txomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wyvitie
Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Turner, F.R.S.H., Prof. A. W. WiLLIAM-
son, F.R.S., and Dr. Youna,
[Read at the Brighton Meeting.]
Your Committee endeavoured in the first place to obtain a clear view into
the nature and extent of their possible sphere of action, as defined in the. two
following Resolutions, by which they were appointed at the Meeting at
Edinburgh :-—
1. To consider and report on the best means of advancing Science by
Lectures, with authority to act, subject to the approval of the Council,
in the course of the present year if judged desirable.
2. To consider and report whether any steps can be taken to render
scientific organization more complete and effectual.
In this endeavour your Committee have been greatly aided by the follow-
ing statement handed in by Dr. Joule, clearly pointing out the general
objects which should be aimed at in Science Organization in this country.
496 REPORT—1873.
Dr. Joule’s Statement.
In order to render scientific organization as complete and effectual as a
great nation may rightly demand that it should be, it is essential to obtain
the authority of and material assistance by Government. This view is
evidently in harmony with that which has been adopted by the country
respecting national education. Indeed the education of the people in the
rudiments of knowledge will prove comparatively useless if the higher
developments are not fostered with at least equal care.
The following are some of the principal objects to be obtained by a
more complete organization, for which Government aid is imperatively
demanded :—
1, Observatories for the continual watching of
a. Astronomical phases.
6. Meteorological phenomena, including Magnetism of the Earth.
ec. Tides and Sea-level.
2. Museums for permanent collections of
a. Specimens in Natural History.
b. As Chemistry.
c. 3 Geology and Mineralogy.
d. Manufactured products.
e. Machines, tools, &c.
J. Scientific Apparatus.
3. Libraries of books on Science, comprising the Transactions of British
and Foreign Societies.
_ 4. Publication of complete classified catalogues of scientific researches,
inventions, and discoveries in this and other countries.
5. Scientific researches.
6. Inquiries, at the instance of Government, respecting
a, Artillery, Ships, Fortifications, &c.; also
b. Mines, Adulterations, Sanitary matters, &e.
7. Scientific Expeditions.
8. Verification and issue of Scientific Instruments.
9. Scientific Instruction by
a. The Foundation of Chairs.
6. Popular Lectures.
10. Rewards for discoveries, researches, and inventions.
The first of the above objects has been treated of by Professor Balfour
Stewart. It is most desirable that thoroughly efficient observatories should
be established in various localities of the British empire.
Complete museums and libraries should be founded and scientific instruc-
tion provided in all the centres of large populations. It is impossible to be
satisfied with national collections in the metropolis only, and with instruc-
tion supplied in a few and sometimes ill-chosen localities, when we regard
the present wants of society.
The fourth object has been undertaken by the Royal Society. It is, how-
ever, absurd to expect that it can be attained in the completeness which is
absolutely essential to the progress of science without the continuous supply
of ample funds.
Government has already done something to promote the fifth object, espe-
cially by its grant to the Royal Society. The result has certainly been to
encourage further steps in the same direction. ‘The same remark applies to
the seventh object.
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION, 497
The sixth object is of immediate concern to the State. At the present day,
when war has been raised from an art to a science, it would be the height of
folly not to secure the best theoretical talent that the country can afford.
Under the head (4) it may be remarked that the commonest feelings of
humanity call for authoritative and intelligent interference with arrange-
ments and processes by which the lives and happiness of so many are so
frequently imperilled.
The verification and issue of scientific instruments is a most important
duty, and ought to be undertaken by a body armed with authority sufficient
to secure the use not only of instruments which are correct, but whose
indications are on a uniform system of units. The duty of verification has
been undertaken by the Kew Observatory with such good results as to
encourage further efforts over a wider field.
The objects proposed are extensive, and would involve some difficulty in
carrying them into effect. But the benefits to be attained are so immense
that these considerations should not be allowed to weigh. Moreover, existing
Societies, several of which possess a very complete organization, would supply
a great deal of the necessary machinery, so that the chief business of the
cnet would be to supervise, give authority, and furnish the necessary
unds*.
Your Committee, believing that the only mode of making progress in so
wide a field as that described by Dr. Joule was to select some few points upon
which to commence action, determined to appoint three Subcommittees for the
purpose of taking up the discussion of three of the above-named objects.
Subcommittee A.—To discuss and report on the first of the resolutions
under which the Committee was appointed, viz. the best means of advancing
Science by Lectures.
Subcommittee B.—To discuss and report on the question of Scientific
Organization as regards Meteorology.
Subcommittee C.—To discuss and report on the question of Scientific
Organization as regards Local Scientific Societies.
Reports from the above Subcommittees have been received; their substance
is as follows :—
Subcommittee A.—On the best meaus of advancing Science by Lectures.
In accordance with the first original resolution, the Council of the Asso-
ciation, on February 28th, 1872, gave permission to the proposed action of
your Committee as regards Science-Lectures. The Subcommittee A was
charged with the preparation for one year of a list of lectures for the con-
sideration of your Committee, and with the task of communicating with the
various towns with the view of establishing a system of Science-Lectures
throughout the country. The necessity of establishing some regulation under
which the names of proposed Lecturers should be selected became at once
apparent. The following regulations were ultimately adopted :—(1) The
names of the Lecturers to be selected (with their consent) from Members of
the General Committee of the Association, or from amongst the Graduates of
any University of the United Kingdom. (2) The subjects of the Lectures
shall be such as are included in one or other of the Sections of the Associa-
tion. Circulars were then sent to a certain number of gentlemen asking for
their cooperation in the delivery of Science-Lectures in various parts of the
* See Lord Wrottesley’s Address to the Royal Society, Noy. 30, 1855; also Report of
the Parliamentary Committee to the British Association at Glasgow, 1855.
1873. 2x
498 REPORT— 18783.
kingdom. It is clearly understood, and distinctly stated in the circular, that
neither your Committee nor the Association can be in any way responsible
for the pecuniary arrangements which must in each case be made between
the Lecturer and the Institution or persons engaging ais services. It is also
not intended to publish the list of Lecturers, but simply to send the same to
the various Institutions who may apply for information. The Subcommittee
have received many promises of assistance from many eminent and well-
qualified lecturers ; the list is, however, not yet completed, and, owing to the
difficulty of getting the several members resident in the country to meet
together, it has not been possible as yet to open any communication with the
various towns or institutions as to the further spread of the Science-Lectures
throughout the country ; it is, however, hoped that speedy action in this
direction may be taken. Your President, Dr. Carpenter, has taken special
interest in this branch of your Committee’s proceedings ; and he writes that
he is sure, from applications which he is continually receiving, that an organ-
ization for the promotion of Science-Lectures would do great service by
facilitating arrangements between such as want them and such as can effi-
ciently supply the want, and by making known what experience shows to be
the best method.
Subcommittee B.—On Science-Organization as regards Meteorology.
The following statements from Professor Balfour Stewart [embodying
certain remarks of Mr. Baxendell] and from Mr. Lockyer, containing their
Opinion as to the present condition of Meteorological Science, have been
received by your Committee.
Prof. Stewart's Statement.
The subject under the consideration of the Subcommittee is a very exten-
sive one, and I am not prepared at this moment to present any thing like a
complete statement of the subject ; nevciileless there are two very pressing
wants of observational science to which I tiink attention ought to be directed
without delay, and which I therefore beg to bring before the Subcommittee.
The first of these refers to aid in meteorological investigations. There is
probably no science which depends more for its progress upon the patient
and laborions reduction and discussion of numerous and extensive series
of observed facts than that of meteorology. Hundreds of valuable series of
meteorological observations, some of them extending over long periods of
years, have been made and published, at a great cost of both time and
money; but hitherto no results have been obtained from them at all pro-
portionate to the enormous outlay they have involved, the reason being that
the close application and labour and expenditure of time required to carry
out meteorological investigations are usually much greater than private indi-
viduals can afford to devote to them. It is therefore absolutely necessary
for the interests of the science that State aid should be given to scientific
men who are willing to undertake meteorological investigations of the nature
of reductions, provided they can show that the objects they have in view are
of sufficient importance to justify a moderate expenditure in endeavours to
attain them—this aid to be given in the form of pecuniary grants, to defray
the expense of engaging assistants to make such reductions and tabulations
of observations and results and such computations as the nature of the
investigations may require. If proper representations were made to Govern-
ment on this subject, there is little doubt. that something would be done;
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 499
for Government are at this moment largely subsidizing the observational part
of meteorology.
It is, however, very evident that unless the facts so accumulated can be
thrown open sufficiently to men of science their use will be limited. In the
establishment of the Meteorological Office, Government have virtually allowed
that the proper maintenance of a sufficient number of observing-stations
cannot be expected from private means ; but they appear to have forgotten
that it is also necessary to open up these observations to men of science, and
to provide the necessary means for discussing them.
When it is considered that it is now an established fact that meteorological
changes have more to do with the production of diseases and death than all
other known causes, it will be apparent that, besides its uses for the purposes
of navigation and in the operations of the agriculturist, a knowledge of the
laws and principles of meteorological science has an important bearing upon
the welfare of all classes of the community, and that therefore the advance-
ment of meteorology ought to be an object of anxious solicitude to every
civilized Goverument.
The second point to which I would direct attention is the bearing of Solar
Physics upon meteorology. ~
Recent investigations have increased the probability of a physical con-
nexion between the condition of the sun’s surface and the meteorology and
magnetism of our globe.
In the first place, we have the observations of Sir E. Sabine, which seem
to indicate a connexion between sun-spots and magnetic disturbances, inas-
much as both phenomena are periodical, and have their maxima and minima
at the same times.
On the other hand, the researches of Mr. Baxendell appear to indicate a
relation between the daily wind-currents of the earth and its magnetism, and
also between the earth’s wind-currents and the state of the sun’s surface.
In the last place, the researches of Messrs. De La Rue, Stewart, and
Loewy appear to indicate a connexion between the behaviour of sun-spots and
the positions of the more prominent planets of our system. Whatever be the
probability of the conclusions derived from these various researches, they at
least show the wisdom of studying together for the future these various
branches of observational science.
Now, while a good deal has been done‘of late years in extending meteoro-
logical and magnetical observations, very little has been done in the way of
taking daily photographs of the sun’s surface. Mr. Warren De La Rue has
undertaken, since 1862, the charge of the Photo-heliograph belonging to the
Royal Society at the Kew Observatory ; and the Royal Society have hitherto
contributed yearly funds from the Government Grant for the working of this
instrument ; but this annual grant from the Royal Society is about to expire.
Unless, therefore, these solar autographs shall continue to be obtained at
private expense, we shall, in February 1872, be without a single station,
either in the British Isles or, as far as we know, in any favourable part of the
earth’s surface, from which any thing approaching to a sufficiently regular
production and discussion of sun-pictures is likely to proceed.
It has already been acknowledged by Government, in the formation of the
Meteorological Board, that it is beyond the power of private liberality ty
maintain such regular and long-continued observations ; we therefore trust
that they will once more come forward and establish stations in which the
‘sun’s surface may be regularly mapped, and the positions and areas of sun-
spots regularly measured.
2x2
500 REPORT— 1873.
Again, in connexion with these solar researches, it is of importance to
know both the heating and actinic effects of our luminary, and how these
vary, not only from hour to hour, but from day to day and from year to vear.
No instrument has, however, yet been devised by which the heating-effect
can be conveniently registered. On the other hand, Dr. Roscoe has perfected
his method of observing the actinic effect so as to make it automatic; and
thus a series of hourly observations of this element of the sun’s activity can
be very easily obtained. This ought to be done at every station where the
surface of the sun is mapped ; and we understand that this plan of Dr. Roscoe’s
is about to be adopted in all Russian observatories. It would thus appear
that we are now in a position to define with precision what ought to be done
at a sun-station; and, as long as the sun-establishment at Kew lasts, ob-
servers may there receive instruction in solar photography through the
courtesy of Mr. De La Rue.
They may also receive instruction in the art of measuring the areas and
position of sun-spots through the same source ; and, finally, Dr. Roscoe will
be glad to give the necessary instruction in actinic observations.
It is hardly necessary to remark that the stations should be so selected as,
taken together, to be independent of weather, and to be capable of giving at
least one picture of the sun’s disk every day without the chance of inter-
ruption. We know enough of the climate of various places to bring about
this result ; and in our dependencies, if not in Great Britain, we have a suffi-
cient area from which to choose our stations.
The influence of weather in causing blank days is particularly detrimental
in solar research. In the observations lately reduced by Messrs. De La Rue,
Stewart, and Loewy, it has been found that a good record of the behaviour of
sun-spots, with regard to increase and diminution, as they pass across the
disk, is of great value ; but that, owing to blank days, this record can only be
obtained for half the whole number of spots observed, and even for this half
in a more or less imperfect manner. And it is of so much greater importance
to select the stations so as to obtain a coutinuous record, inasmuch as such
observations are not like experiments which may be multiplied ad libitum;
for here we are furnished in a year with a record of a certain number of sun-
spots and no more; and it remains with us to make the best possible use of
the limited information which nature gives us.
In fine it is believed that a daily record of the sun’s surface, accompanied
by a record of his actinic power, is, in the present state of science, of the
greatest possible importance.
In the preceding remarks no allusion has been made to the establishment
of regular spectroscopic observations of the sun’s disk—not because it is con-
sidered unimportant, but because it forms a separate branch of inquiry, which
will be best reported upon by Messrs. Janssen and Lockyer, and by Dr. Hug-
gins, gentlemen who have especially devoted themselves to this subject.
Your Committee have received the following communication on the im-
portance of the establishment of regular Spectroscopic Observations of the
Sun’s Disk from Mr. Lockyer.
Mr. Lockyer’s Statement.
The following are some among the secular inquiries which in my opinion
ought to be undertaken at once on a perfectly definite basis and with un-
swerving regularity. Of course I have not named all the secular inquiries,
nor have alluded to any of the special ones which are suggested almost
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 501
every time one looks at the sun. These must be provided for, of course ; but
the great thing is not to lose time in starting the work in which time plays
the most important part. I think the future will show that in its broad
outline this work is as follows :—
a. Observations on the Janssen-Lockyer Method.
Prominences at limb :—
1. Number.
2. Position on sun, with reference to spots and faculee.
3. Height and brilliancy.
4. Materials.
5. Currents, direction, and velocity.
. Thickness of lines at top and bottom.
a
Prominences on sun :—
7. Number.
8. Position (as above).
9. Materials.
10. Rate of elevation or depression.
10a. Width of lozenge.
1]. Thickness and brilliancy of lines and associated bright lines in spectrum
of photosphere.
Spots :—
12. Lines thickened.
13. Thickness of lines.
14. Alterations of wave-length.
15. Variations of spectrum near spots, including bright lines.
Faculee :-—
16. Thinning and disappearance of lines.
17. Bright photospheric lines.
b. Observations on Kirchhof’s Method.
18. Map frequently suspected regions of spectrum to detect changes in
Fraunhofer lines.
19. Determine accurately every three or six months the thickness of the
principal Fraunhofer lines.
20. Note changes in bright lines.
If the Committee wish, I shall be happy to state at length the reasons
which have led me to consider these observations as of high importance and
of a secular nature. I may at once, however, very briefly point out, seeing
that observations of the spots are considered valuable on all hands, that as
the prominences occur in regions where the pressure is less than at the spot-
level, they wili be likely to afford better indications of the fact of the solar
forces being at work ; and as there is reason to believe that they are connected
with the spots, we shall get more complete evidence in the same direction as
that given by the spots. But we may get very much more than this. We
now know that the sun’s atmosphere extends 10’ at least above the spot-
level ; we may therefore hope in this way to catch shorter periods than the
sun-spot periods. Again, the spectroscope takes us beyond the fact of forces
being at work. The bright prominences and the lozenges seen on the sun
itself, the thickening of lines in spots, and the alterations of wave-length are
502 REPORT—1873.
unmistakable evidences of what is going on; we get an idea of what forces
are at work. But spots are not alone in question.
I say a few words with reference to some of the proposed lines of obser-
vation.
Prominences at Limb.
1. This is clearly necessary. We must have a prominence-curve as well as
a sun-spot one.
2. In this way we shall be able to do for prominences what Carrington
has done for the distribution of the spot in latitude, and in time setile another
question about which there is much contradictory assertion among foreign
observers at present.
3. For this perhaps C and brilliancy at base should be universally adopted.
It will doubtless prove of much importance ultimately to keep to the division
of prominences I have proposed in a paper communicated to the Royal
Society.
4. Some one line in the case of each element must be taken and kept to.
These observations have already given me much evidence of this kind—
a+b-e,
at+b+c+d;
and the series should be extended as far as possible. The structure of the
solar and stellar atmospheres cannot be got at in a more convenient manner
than this at present ; and as the lines indicate the vapours above the highest
level of the photosphere we may look for secular changes.
6. I have already evidence, I think, of change since 1868.
Prominences on Sun.
7, 8, 9, 10, 11. The observations are complementary to those made at
the limb.
12, 13. I have already detected changes which are probably connected with
the sun-spot period.
18, 19, 20. I have already detected changes.
I think these observations should be made over one of the 11-year periods,
under absolutely the same conditions, with the same eyes and instruments, if
possible ; and even after that time I would rather extend the programme than
alter it. The value of each observation will be increased by each additional
similar observation.
Of course I expect the chemical end of the spectrum to be photographed.
Rutherford and Cornu have shown this to be perfectly feasible in the case of
18, 19, 20. I believe that time and money are alone wanted to do part of
all I have put down by photography. It will be an immense gain if this
can be done from F, for the region between F and G is terribly trying for
the eye. Up to F the eye must naturally be depended on.
Of associated work there will be such researches as explain to us what the
various phenomena mean; measures of solar diameter ; photographs of sun-
spots on a large scale; and eye-observations with a fine instrument to deter-
mine whether the changes I have pointed out in the spectra and appearance
of sun-spots are connected with the sun-spot period.
I hope my accidental connexion with the new method of work will not
cause me to be considered presumptuous if I state my opinion, that if it is
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 503
considered necessary to study the sun—the fountain of all our energies—at
all, whether for practical ends or for higher objects, the method of local
spectroscopic observation must not be neglected. I further believe, as I have
before stated, that it helps us where nothing else does, even if the photosphere
be alone considered ; and that, as we have above the photosphere a region of
greater delicacy, the continued study of this will lead us far beyond the
point we could hope to attain by merely observing the spots.
While I hold these opinions most strongly, I must also add that I see no
way of having the work done by private effort. I have tried hard to continue
the work ; and in the fact that it was begun in this country by myself I had
the strongest inducement to carry it on ; but nothing short of one’s whole
_ time will suffice for such inquiries.
For the purpose of commencing action in this branch of science, your
Committee directed its Meteorological Subcommittee to put themselves into
communication with the Observational Establishments of the United Kingdom,
with a view of ascertaining from the directors of these establishments what
information besides that which they publish, they are willing to communicate
to men of science, and on what terms. This has been done with respect to
the four following institutions :—
1. The Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
2. The Meteorological Committee.
3. The Kew Observatory Committee.
4. The Stonyhurst Observatory.
The following questions were put to the Astronomer Royal :-—
1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Green-
wich self-recording instruments, especially those recording the changes in
terrestrial magnetism and those recording earth-currents, and to take notes
of them ?
2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms?
3. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values, taken from such
traces, be procured? and on what terms ?
To these questions the following reply was received from the Astronomer
Royal :—
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E.,
April 3, 1872.
My pear Si1r,—In reply to the questions which you, acting with the
British-Association’s Committee on Science-Lectures and Organization, have
placed before me (received this day), I have to answer as follows :—
1. It will give me great pleasure to offer every facility to any man of
science to see, examine, and take notes on all traces of self-recording in-
struments in this Observatory. I cannot very well allow the sheets to be
taken out of the Observatory, and should be glad if persons inspecting these
sheets would come at an early hour in the morning.
2. Every facility shall be given for taking accurate copies of the records.
If a small number only is required, we will at once have them made (when
the specific records are designated) without further trouble to our visitor ; if
a large number is wanted, some further arrangement may be necessary, on
which at present I cannot speak positively.
3. Copies of the tabulated values shall be furnished to any practicable ex-
504 REPORT—1873.
tent—limited as above, but not so closely, because copying figures is easier
than copying curves.
I am, my dear Sir,
Yours very truly,
(Signed) G. B. Arry.
Professor Roscoe.
The Astronomer Royal was thanked in the name of the Committee for the
facilities which he was willing to give.
The following questions were put to the Meteorological Committee :—
1. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values, taken from the
traces of the various self-recording instruments of the Meteorological Com-
mittee, be procured? and on what terms?
2. Could accurate copies of certain portions of logs, relating to meteorolo-
gical observations, or any other meteorological information in the possession
of the Meteorological Committee, be procured? and on what terms ?
The following reply has been received from the Meteorological Committee :—
Meteorological Department,
116 Victoria Street, London, 8S.W.
April 30, 1872.
Str,—In reply to your inquiries, I am instructed to inform you that the
Committee will be ready to afford to gentlemen recommended by the Council
of any recognized Scientific Body facilities for obtaining accurate copies of
MS. meteorological information which may be in their office.
1. Accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values taken from the traces
of their self-recording instruments can be supplied.
2. Accurate copies of portions of logs relating to meteorological observa-
tions and of other meteorological information in the Meteorological Office can
be supplied.
In every instance the cost of copying must be defrayed by the applicant,
who, in the case of ships’ logs, must state whether he prefers to have the
observations corrected, or to receive the correction, and apply them himself,
I am further to draw your attention to the fact that in the first Annual Re-
port of this Committee, at page 11, it was stated that copies of information
in the Meteorological Office could be supplied on the terms mentioned in the
enclosed circular, which are identical with those above mentioned. I may
say that several gentlemen have availed themselves of the opportunities offered.
Iam &c.,
(Signed) Rosert H. Scorrt,
Professor H. E. Roscoe. Director.
[A circular accompanied Mr. Scott’s reply, in which it is stated that in
case of the publication of such information or of results wholly or in part
from it, an acknowledgment of the source from which it has been obtained
must be annexed. |
The Meteorological Committee were thanked in the name of the Committee
for the facilities which they were willing to give.
The following questions were put to the Kew Observatory Committee :—
1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Kew
self-recording magnetographs, and to take notes of them ?
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 505
2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms?
3. Could accurate copies of the hourly tabulated values from such traces
be procured? and on what terms?
The following answer has been received :—
Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey, 8.W.,
June 5, 1872.
Sir,—With reference to your letter of March 25th, addressed to the Kew
Committee of the Royal Society, I am instructed to send you the following
reply, which was adopted at their meeting of the 31st ult. :—
1. Resolved, that the Committee will be ready to afford facilities to men of
science to inspect and take notes of the traces of the Self-recording Magneto-
graphs; application to be forwarded in each case to the Secretary of the
Committee, in order that arrangements may be made for the attendance of a
duly authorized person.
2 & 3. The furnishing of unpublished results of tabulations not only in-
volves considerable expense, but would materially disturb the current work
of the Observatory. The Committee are therefore not prepared at present to
supply copies of such results. They would, however, if necessary, gladly
supply photographic copies of the instrumental traces at the cost of produc-
tion, and they hope that this would meet the requirements of the case. In
aall three cases the cost would depend on the amount of time and labour
required.
Your obedient Servant,
Rosert H. Scort,
Professor H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S. Hon. Sec.
The Kew Committee were thanked for their communication.
The following questions were put to the Director of the Stonyhurst Ob-
servatory :—
1. Might men of science be permitted to inspect the traces of the Stony-
hurst self-recording magnetographs, and to take notes of them ?
2. Could accurate copies of such traces be procured? and on what terms?
The following reply has been received from the Director of the Stonyhurst
Observatory :—
Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.
April 3rd, 1872.
Dear Srr,—In answer to the two questions appended to the circular with
which you favoured me this morning, I have little else to say than that I
shall always be most happy to place at any gentleman’s disposal the curves
traced by the Stonyhurst instruments. Iam at present working systematically
at the tabulation of the magnetograph traces, and I hope to be able in time
to publish the results, but this will not in the least interfere with any man
of science recommended by your Committee taking any notes he may require.
Accurate copies of the distinct curves can easily be taken photographically ;
the assistant’s time and the materials used will be the only things charged
for. I could not undertake any thing that would deprive me of the aid of
any of my assistants for any considerable time ; but a fair sacrifice I am quite
willing to make, and that is all I am sure you will expect.
Yours sincerely,
Professor Roscoe. S. J. Perry.
506 REPORT—1873.
The Director of the Stonyhurst Observatory was thanked by the Com-
mittee for the facilities which he was willing to give.
Subcommittee C.—On the question of Scientific Organization as regards
Local Scientific Societies,
Your Committee, believing that much valuable scientific effort is being lost
throughout the country for want of a system by which the labours of isolated
workers can be brought forward, appointed a Subcommittee, with Sir Walter
Elliot as Secretary, for the purpose of discussing and reporting whether some
means can be taken for establishing closer relations than at present exist
between Local Scientific Societies, which, as a rule, work independently each
in their own circle, with little knowledge of what others are doing. It is
thought that if such means can be adopted it may lead to something like
unity of action amongst them, and to investigations productive of general
results, as well as to the interchange of views and observations advantageous
to Societies individually and to the cause of Science at large. The Subcom-
mittee point out that this end may be accomplished in two ways :—
1. By the publication annually, in a collected form, of observations or dis-
coveries possessing general interest.
2. By organizing a system of cooperation by personal or written com-
munication, or both.
The Subcommittee also suggest that delegates from certain selected So-
cieties, varying from year to year, together with representatives from such
Societies as may find it convenient to depute them, should meet along with
the British Association, and that to them should be submitted any general
questions of combined action or inquiry ; and that the Councils of Local
Scientific Societies should place in their hands such contributions made to the
Societies during the year as they may think it desirable to publish in a com-
mon volume of Reports, the Court of Delegates being possibly assisted by the
officers of Sections of the British Association acting along with them as a
Committee of Selection. Your Committee think it right here to observe that
all cost of publication and expenses incidental to such suggested Meetings
must be defrayed by the Societies concerned.
After some preliminary discussions, the Subcommittee determined to com-
municate with as many of the Provincial Scientific Societies and Field Clubs
as possible, explaining the objects for which the Subcommittee was appointed,
and inviting them to consider the means by which the results of their opera-
tions could be made available to each other and to the advancement of
science at large.
Circulars expressing the above-mentioned views were in June forwarded
to ninety-four English, twenty-two Scotch, and eight Irish Local Scientific
Societies. Replies cordially concurring in the plan have been received from
the following Societies, several likewise engaging to send delegates to Brighton
to deliberate further on its details :—
1. Bath Natural-History Society and Field Club.
2. Bristol Natural-History Society.
3. Eastbourne Natural-History Society.
. Folkestone Natural-History Society.
5. Ludlow Natural-History Society.
6. Ludlow Field Club.
7. Lunesdale Naturalists’ Field Club.
8. Maidstone and Mid Kent Natural-History and Philosophical Society.
AS
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 507
9. Norfolk and Norwich Natural-History Society.
10. Tamworth Natural-History and Geological Society.
11. Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club.
12. Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Natural-History Society.
13. Whitby Literary and Philosophical Society.
14. Largs (Scotland) Field Naturalists’ Society.
Acknowledgments have been sent by many more, promising that the sub-
ject shall receive their early attention.
The Subcommittee find that proposals of a similar character to those which
they now put forward have previously been made by several Societies and
private individuals who have favoured them with communications. ‘These
plans have, however, for one reason or other, proved abortive, Your Com-
mittee confidently hope that the Subcommittee on its reappointment may
succeed in carrying out the objects aimed at.
In concluding what must inevitably be a very incomplete first Report,
your Committee have only to request that they may be reappointed, and to
express the hope that, if you see fit to renew their powers, they may be able
in the coming year to make further progress.
Second Report of the Committee on Science-Lectures and Organiza-
tion,—the Committee consisting of Prof. Roscon, F.R.S. (Secretary) ,
Prof. W. G. Apams, F.R.S., Prof. Anprews, F.R.S., Prof. Bat-
rour, F.R.S., J. Baxenpent, F.R.A.S., F. J. Bramwen, F.R.S.,
Prof. A. Crum Brown, F.R.S.E., Mr. T. Bucuan, Dr. CARPENTER,
F.R.S., Prof. Corr, Warren De La Ruz, F.R.S., Prof. T. Dyer, Sir
Watrer Exnior, F.L.S., Prof. M. Fosrzr, F.R.S., Prof. FLower,
F.R.S., Prof. G.C. Fostmr, F.R.S., Prof. Gerxin, F.R.S., Dr. J. H.
Guapstonr, F.R.S., Mr. Grirrira, Rev. R. Harty, F.R.S., Dr.
Hirst, F.R.S., Dr. Hooxer, F.R.S., Dr. Houeerns, F.R.S., Prof.
Huxury, F.R.S., Prof. Freemine Jenxin, F.R.S., Dr. JOULE,
F.R.S., Col. A. Lant Fox, F.G.S., Dr. Lanxester, F.R.S., J. N.
Lockyer, F.R.S., Prof. Crerx Maxwett, F.R.S., D. Mitne-Homg,
F.R.S.E., Dr. O’Catracuan, LL.D., D.C.L., Dr. Opuine, F.R.S.,
Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., W. Srorriswoops, F.R.S., Prof. Batrour
Stewart, /.R.S., H. T. Srainron, F.R.S., Prof. Tarr, F.R.S.E.,
J. A. Tinné, F.R.G.S., Dr. ALLEN Tomson, F.R.S., Sir Witu1aM
Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. Wyvitte Tuomson, F.R.S., Prof. TURNER,
F.R.S.E., Col. Strance, F.R.S., Prof. A. W. Wiuiamson, F.R.S.,
G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., and Dr. Younc.
Tue report of this Committee will on the present occasion consist entirely of
proceedings originating in the various Subcommittees, and which have like-
wise received the sanction of the full body, It will therefore be desirable to
proceed without further delay to the business transacted by these Branch
Committees.
508 ; REPORT—1873.
Report of Subcommittee A on Organization as regards Science- Lectures.
(Prof. Roscoz, Secretary.)
Subcommittee A on Science-Lectures have to report that a list has been
printed, for private circulation only, of gentlemen who have kindly intimated
to the Committee their readiness to undertake to aid the scheme by deliver-
ing lectures on scientific subjects on terms which are indicated. As certain
Members of the Committee are also willing to deliver lectures, the names of
the Committee are appended.
A short Circular, pointing out the aid which the Committee was thus
willing to give, was forwarded (as a private communication) to about ninety
Scientific Institutions throughout the country, with an intimation that a
copy of the list of lecturers would be sent to any institution requiring assist-
ance of the kind. Owing to the death of Mr, Askham, the late Clerk, the
Secretary has been unable to learn the exact number of Institutions which
have made application for the aid of the Committee ; but, judging from the
numerous letters which he has received on the subject, he believes that the
action of the Committee in this matter has proved useful, and that the aid
which has thus been afforded appears to be generally appreciated.
Report of Subcommittee B on Organization as reyards Meteorology.
(Dr. Batrour Stewart, Secretary.)
At a meeting of this Subcommittee, held at Albemarle Street, it was re-
solved, ‘‘ That in the opinion of the Committee it is desirable that the indivi-
dual observations in magnetism and meteorology, which at present exist,
should, as much as possible, be accessible to all those men of science who wish
to make use of them. ‘They therefore request their Secretary (Dr. Stewart)
to put himself into communication with the Directors of the following British
and Colonial observational establishments, with a view of ascertaining,—
(1) What unpublished individual observations in magnetism and mete-
orology they possess, specifying the most important.
«© (2) On what terms, if any, will they consent to open them up to men of
science desirous of obtaining copies of them.
“ British.—The Meteorological Committee ; the Greenwich Observatory ;
Sir E. Sabine (Magnetical Superintendent); the Scottish Meteorological
Society ; the Trinity House ; the Hudson-Bay Company.
“ Colonial.—The Observatory at Mauritius; Cape of Good Hope; Mel-
bourne; Sydney; Toronto; Bombay ; Calcutta; Madras.”
The various replies to this communication are given at length in an
appendix to this Report, and this Committee desire to express their thanks to
the Directors of the various establishments, who, in sending their replies,
have not only afforded much information regarding their unpublished obser-
vations, but have likewise shown their willingness to open up these observa-
tions to men of science as much as possible *.
* No communications have yet been addressed to foreign observatories.
It is requested that any observer into whose hands this Report may fall, and who may
have information he is willing to communicate, will have the goodness to forward the same
to Dr. Balfour Stewart, The Owens College, Manchester
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 509
Report of Subcommittee C on Scientific Organization as regards Local
Societies. (Sir Waxrer Exxior, Secretary.)
The Subcommittee have given their best consideration to the instructions
- of the Committee, to report as to a plan for the systematic publication of the
proceedings of local societies, with reference to the suggestion adopted at the
Meeting held at Brighton, viz. to incorporate in an annual yolume such
papers as the societies considered worthy of reproduction, by means of a given
number of additional copies struck off for the purpose. It was further
added that the responsibility of selecting and publishing such papers as were
offered should not be undertaken by the Association.
The chief difficulty to the elaboration of any such scheme is the financial
one. It has been found that none of the Provincial Societies are in a posi-
tion to contribute towards the cost, either of editing and publishing such
papers, or even of furnishing additional copies printed of a uniform size,
especially where, as often happens, they are accompanied by plates. It is -
also found that the local publications are so irregular in appearing, that it
would be no easy matter to get a sufficient number together, to allow of their
being brought out in a volume simultaneously. Moreover some of the lead-
ing societies, especially those of which the Transactions have attained some
celebrity, object to the proposal, as tending to detract from the value of their
own publications.
Besides the plan specially referred to them, the Subcommittee have con-
sidered other suggestions ; for example, the issue of a quarterly or monthly
magazine, containing the best papers of the various learned societies, not con-
fined to those of the provinces, with the titles of the rest, and a brief outline of
the proceedings of each. But this appears to go beyond the scope of the
Subcommittee’s deliberations, and to belong rather to an independent pub-
lishing speculation.
The Subcommittee, however, consider that a Handbook or List of Societies
might be prepared annually, showing the names and addresses of the office-
bearers of each, the day and place of meeting, and a list of the articles printed
during the past year.
It is believed that by this means a closer intercourse would be induced ;
persons engaged in particular subjects of inquiry would be directed to sources
of information bearing on their own investigations, and those engaged in
similar pursuits would be led to assist each other.
An intercourse so commenced will, it may be hoped, lead to more intimate
relations, and so bring about that larger cooperation and union which it is
the object of the Committee to promote.
The Subcommittee believe that a Handbook of this description might be
produced at a moderate cost. From the general approval of some plan of
cooperation by the greater number of Provincial Societies, it is believed that
they would readily purchase such an annual, the moderate cost of which would
cover a part of the expenditure ; and it is recommended that the Committee
should apply to the Council for a small grant to cover the remainder,
At the Brighton Meeting, it was intimated by a member for the Society
for Promoting Useful Knowledge, that if the Society resumed their publica-
tions they would probably aid in bringing out such a work.
H. E. Roscox, Secretary to the Godntaee
510 REPORT—1878.
Appendix to the Report of Subcommittee B.
The following replies have been received from the various observational
institutions communicated with.
Meteorological Committee.
Meteorological Office,
116 Victoria Street, London, 8.W.,
9th April, 1873.
Dear Str,
In compliance with the request contained in your letter of the 28th of
February, I am directed by the Meteorological Committee to enclose, for the
information of the Observational Subcommittee of the Science-Organization
Committee of the British Association, a list of the principal unpublished
materials in this office. It is understood that an answer to your second
question has been already given in my letter to Dr. Roscoe of April 30, 1872.
(See First Report.) Yours faithfully,
Roszrt H. Scorr, Director.
Balfour Stewart, Esq., LL.D.,
The Owens College, Manchester.
The tabulated information received from the Meteorological Committee
will be found at the end of this Appendix.
Greenwich Observatory.
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E.,
1873, March 3.
My pear Sir,
In reply to your inquiry (on the part of the British Association) of March 1,
as to the extent of unpublished observations of magnetism and meteorology
preserved in this observatory :—
1. You will remark that the Greenwich Observations in extenso are in the
library of the Philosophical Society of Manchester. Referring you to these
volumes for the observations which are published, I will state the following
as the deficiencies, generally.
2. The eye-observations of the three magnetometers (declination, horizon-
tal force, vertical force) for every two hours, and sometimes more frequently,
from 1841 to part of 1848, are printed in full. The indications derived from
the photographic sheets for the salient points of the curves are printed in
full from 1849 to 1867; after 1867 they are printed in detail only for the
days of great disturbance, the means of the less disturbed days for useful
purposes being printed. All the photographic curves exist, furnished with
the base-lines and the time-scales, which make the records immediately
available.
3. The means of numbers for all dips and measures of absolute force are
printed ; the individual readings are not printed.
4, The abstracts of meteorological observations are printed to an extent
which you will best see in the Greenwich Observations. Few of the indivi-
dual numbers are published; but the sheets of the two anemometers, the
photographie sheets of the two thermometers (wet and dry), and of the
barometer are all preserved and available.
5. As to the terms on which observations can be communicated. The
omitted observations &c. can only be copied in manuscript at this place, either
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 511
by the Officers of the Observatory, or by persons engaged to come here for
the purpose. When limited extracts are required, I will have them made
here at once. When the extracts required are long, I will give every
facility to other persons ; the expense then ought to be borne, I think, by
those who apply for them.
I am, my dear Sir,
Yours very truly,
G. B. Arry.
Professor Balfour Stewart.
Scottish Meteorological Society.
Scottish Meteorological Society,
General Post-Office Buildings,
Edinburgh, 13th May, 1873.
Dear Sir,
Your letter of 28th February last, enclosing the resolution of the Observa-
tional Subcommittee of the Science-Organization Committee of the British
Association, dated 13th of the same month, was laid before the Council of
this Society at their Meeting of 28th ult.
In reply, the Council have instructed me to state that the more important
of the unpublished individual Observations in Meteorology which this Society
possesses are the following :—
I. Regular daily observations made at the Society’s Stations, beginning with
January 1857. The Stations at which the observations have been and are
made are given in the successive Numbers of the Society’s Proceedings—the
last issued of which I send by this post. The Stations are given on pp. 334—
336 and 339-342. The nature of the observations will appear from the
specimen of the Society’s Schedule sent herewith. The hours of observation
are 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. At Stykkisholm, in the N.W. of Iceland, the hours are
9 a.m., noon, and 9 p.m.
In addition to the regular daily observations of atmospheric pressure,
temperature, humidity, wind (direction and force), rain, and cloud, obser-
vations are made at certain Stations on the temperature of the soil, of the
sea, and of wells, and on ozone. The Stations at which such observations
are made will be seen by consulting p. 329 of Journal sent.
II. Observations for elucidation of special questions :—
1. Daily curves showing for every ten minutes the pressure, temperature
of dry and wet bulbs, and the rainfall from Nov. 1868 to Nov. 1872. The
self-registering instruments with which these curves haye been made
were designed under the superintendence of the Marquis of Tweeddale, in
connexion with the growth of agricultural products.
2. Observations, twelve times daily, at six Stations, on temperature of the
soil (3, 12, 22 inches deep), together with observations of pressure, tempera-
ture, humidity, wind, rain, &c. during these four months, viz. July and Octo-
ber 1867, and January and April 1868.
3. Observations on temperature of drained and undrained hill pasture,
and of drained and undrained arable land, at two Stations daily, from Ist
October 1864 to 30th September 1865.
4, Daily maximum and minimum temperatures as shown by thermometers
(not blackened) fully exposed to the sun and weather, at 4 feet over old
grass, at eight Stations, from Ist April 1861 to 30th March 1862.
512 REPORT—18738.
5. A large number of Term-day Observations (hourly) of temperature of
sea (Hebrides), together with observations of pressure, temperature, humi-
dity, &c. during 1858-63.
III. Old Registers :—
1. From July 1767 to November 1827, at Gordon Castle, giving pres-
sure, temperature, rain, winds, &c. daily, and for shorter intervals during the
same period at Sion House, Edinburgh, Selkirk, &e.
2. Daily register of pressure, temperature, and rain at Carbeth-Guthrie,
from January 1817 to December 1859.
3. Daily register of pressure, temperature, humidity, rain, &c. at Dollar,
from April 1836 to present time.
4. A number of other weather registers,—Edinburgh, 1820-36, Castle
Newe, 1836-47, &c.
IV. Monthly Means and Sums :—
Of these may be specially mentioned the rainfall for individual months for
nearly the whole of 290 Stations, discussed in the Papers on the Scottish Rain-
fall in Society’s Journal.
As regards the unpublished meteorological information possessed by the
Society, the Council have hitherto supplied copies of any portion of it to all
meteorologists or other scientific men who have applied for it, free of charge.
The Council will still be glad to continue to do so in so far as the very limited
means at their disposal will enable them.
I am, yours faithfully,
ALEXANDER Bucwan.
Professor Balfour Stewart.
Trinity House (received through Dr. J. H. Gladstone).
(Letter from Dr. Gladstone to Dr, Stewart.)
17 Pembridge Square, London,
28th April, 1873.
My pear Proressor STEWART,
I ought perhaps to have told you long before this what has been done in
regard to the Trinity House. In accordance with the desire of the Science-
Organization Committee, I put myself in communication with the Elder
Brethren about their meteorological records, and received the reply of which
I enclose a copy. You will see that in fully acceding to our request they
asked me to come and judge for myself as to the value of their records. On the
first convenient Tuesday I accordingly went to Tower Hill, and found that
they possessed most voluminous returns from all the Lighthouses, giving the
state of the barometer and thermometer, the direction and force of the wind,
with description of fog, cloud, &c. every three hours, drawn out on tabulated
forms, of which I send you one not filled up. At the Floating Lights a log-
book is kept, in which is entered very much the same particulars, but not so
frequently during the day, and not in a tabulated form.
Captain Nisbet, the Chairman of the Light Committee, spoke to me about
the differences he had observed between the readings of different barometers
and his endeavours to obtain the true correction for each. He has also tried
to get “ fog-marks” set up at the same distance from the different light-
houses ; but at present there is no accepted definition as to where a “ mist
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 513
ends and a ‘‘fog”’ begins. He would be thankful to us for any suggestion
on these or other points. ¥
From the enclosed ‘‘ Regulations’ you will see that every Light-keeper on
being first appointed as a supernumerary has to learn the use of the meteoro-
logical instruments, and to obtain a certificate of competency in that and
other duties.
Believe me,
Very truly yours,
J. H. Grapstone.
Professor Balfour Stewart, F.BRS.
(Letter from Trinity House to Dr. Gladstone.)
Trinity House, London, #.C.,
15th March, 1873.
Dear Sir, 5
Sir Frederick Arrow having placed your note of the 10th instant, with its
enclosed resolution of the Science-Organization Committee of the British
Association, before the Board, I am directed to assure you of the pleasure it
will be to the Elder Brethren to afford any facilities to men of science for the
inspection of the Trinity House meteorological records that may be compati-
ble with their official purpose ;.and I am to suggest that if you can make it
convenient to attend here about half-past one o’clock on any Tuesday, the
Light Committee will be happy to go fully into the matter with you.
I am, dear Sir,
Your most humble Servant,
(Signed) Rosin ALLEN.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.BRS,
Mauritius Observatory.
Observatory, Mauritius,
26th June, 1873.
My prar Stewart,
I enclose a copy of my answers to your questions. We are to make a bold
attempt to publish all our observations on the spot. The first step is to find
out the cost, and the next to raise the funds. The local government will be
applied to for a smallannual grant. If we get the necessary assistance, there
need be no delay, as the greater part of the material is ready, all the meteoro-
logical observations having been reduced.
Yours truly,
C. Metprum.
Answers to the Questions of the Subcommittee of the Science Organization.
(1) The unpublished observations, belonging either to the Mauritius
Observatory or to the Meteorological Society of Mauritius, are as follows :—
(a) Observations of the principal meteorological elements taken since the
1st January, 1853, at 33 and 93 a.m. and P.m., and also for several years at
noon.
Since the 1st January, 1872, the 33 a.m. observations have been discon-
tinued, and others taken at 6 a.m.
(6) Hourly meteorological observations on the 21st of each month, for a
ie of nineteen years and also during hurricane weather.
1873. 21
514 REPORT—1873.
(c) Barographie curves since February 1872.
(d) An extensive collection of daily meteorological observations taken on
board ships in the Indian Ocean for a period of twenty-five years. Since 1853
these observations have been tabulated in chronological order. They afford in-
formation respecting the atmospheric pressure and temperature, the direction
and force of the wind, the state of the weather and sea &c.,and amount to about
250,676 of twenty-four hours each.
(e) Aseparate colleetion of the details of the hurricanes, storms, and gales
which have taken place in the Indian Ocean since 1847.
(f) A large number of daily synoptic weather-charts of the Indian
Ocean for different periods since 1853, and charts showing the tracks of
hurricanes.
(g) Observations of the absolute values and daily variations of the magnetic
elements since February 1872.
(2) Sun-spot observations taken three or four times a week since 1869.
All these observations are valuable, but, considering the length of time
and the locality, I think the meteorological observations are the most valu-
able.
(2) I have little doubt that the Observatory and the Meteorological Society
would consent to open up the observations to men of science, on condition of
their paying the expense of copying, and that they would, as far as possible,
give copies gratis. The best and cheapest way in the end, however, would pro-
bably be to publish the observations in ewtenso, and to distribute copies of
them. The Meteorological Society will do all in its power to accomplish this
object.
Mauritius Observatory,
26th June, 1873.
C. Mretproum.
Cape of Good Hope Observatory.
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope,
873, May 2.
My pear Sir,
With respect to your letter requesting copies of magnetical observations
which have been made here. Soon after I came here I hunted these records
up and completed their reductions, but the observations have not received my
final examination. I hope, however, to get them printed this year, when
copies shall be at once forwarded to you. I am sorry, however, to say that the
observations do not appear of great value. However, such as they are, you
will soon haye the results.
Believe me,
Yours very truly,
Professor B. Stewart. E. J. Strong,
Melbourne Observatory.
Observatory, Melbourne,
May 20, 1873.
My prar Sir,
I received your note and enclosure (resolution of the Observational Sub-
committee of the B.A.) by last mail, and I am very glad to find a step has
been taken in this most important direction. We shall be only too glad to
make any arrangements we can to meet the end in view. I suppose, of
course, there will he some general scheme adopted in which we can join.
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 515
In the mean time I enclose a memorandum showing a, our observations
in magnetism and meteorology now stand.
Since the beginning of 1872 we have published the pelt of meteorological
observations at Melbourne: and those of the stations in a more condensed
form; copies of this monthly Record are, I believe, sent to you every month,
but I post another copy now in case I am mistaken. In this pamphlet you
will see we give the results of our monthly observations for the absolute
force of Terrestrial Magnetism.
The question, how to make all these available to such men of science as may
wish to make use of them, is not easy to answer. Pentagraph or Photo copies
of all the graphic records could be furnished; and MS. copies of such un-
published other observations could also be made to be deposited in any con-
venient place that the Committee of the B. A. may decide upon. ‘This, or
any other plan, I should be glad to adopt in order to render our work of use
and available. I shall be glad to hear what the Subcommittee recommend
or decide upon, and I shall do my best to fall in with its views.
Yours faithfully,
Rosert J. ELLEery.
Balfour Stewart, Esq., Owens College,
Manchester.
Magnetic Observations.
Between 1863 and the end of 1867 occasional absolute determinations
were made with Lamont’s instruments, which are unpublished; from De-
cember 1867 regular monthly absolute determinations were made with the
Kew instruments, which are not published to the end of 1871; also the
Magnetograph Curves are complete from December 1867, of which no results
are published.
Meteorological Observations.
Barograph Curves complete from August 1, 1869—not published. Ther-
mograph Curves complete from January 21, 1870—not published. Meteoro-
logical Observations for Melbourne and country stations, unpublished from
January 1, 1863, to December 31,1871. From January 1, 1872, results of
Meteorological and absolute Magnetical Observations have been published
monthly.
Sydney Observatory.
Sydney Observatory,
June 14, 1873.
Dear Sir,
I am in receipt of your letter 6th of March, enclosing a resolution of the
Subcommittee of the British Association.
I shall be glad to assist you in any way I can.
(1) Our magnetic observations are few; none were taken before Mr.
Smalley’s arrival in 1864, and, with the exception of a few determinations
of variation and observations of dip at different parts of the colony, the rest
were found at his death to be wanting in some essentials for their reduction.
At the present time the press of work, astronomical and meteorological
(I have now more than forty stations), renders it impossible to do more than
take the variation, but I hope in a few weeks to have a Declination Magne-
tograph at.work.
Pe,
516 REPORT—1873.
I send you a short paper read before our Royal Society, in which I brought
together all the available observations of variation at Sydney. So much may
be of interest to science, but the curves of daily variation were only added
for the use of our local surveyors.
I have a great mass of meteorological work, of which only monthly means
have been printed. I will by next mail send you a complete set of our pub-
lished results, from which you will be able to see what the means are derived
from, and whether any of the individual observations are likely to be of
service. Generally the country results are taken from one observation (per
day) at 9 a.m., and at Sydney from three observations, 9 a.m.,3 P.M., and 9 P.M.
Of self-registering instruments we have an Anemometer at work since
1863, from which the direction of wind to sixteen points and the total velocity
and mean daily force of wind have been published.
A Barograph at work since 1870: mean daily and highest and lowest
readings published.
Two Pluviometers, one 65 and the other 7 feet above the ground: monthly
amount from the one 65 feet high published. At work, one since 1867, the
lower one since 1870.
Two Tide-gauges, one at Sydney since 1867, the other at Newcastle since
1870; no results published.
(2) I cannot state on what terms they could be opened up to men of science
until I know what is wanted, for it may be only a fraction of what I have
mentioned would be of any use. I may say that if fifteen or twenty sets, such
as I will send you next month, will meet the want, I will be glad to send
them ; and if a portion only of the individual results are wanted, the Govern-
ment here might perhaps grant money to print them if asked to do so by the
British Association. Yours faithfully,
H. C. Russex1,
Govt. Astronomer.
Balfour Stewart, Esq.,
The Owens College.
Toronto Observatory.
Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, Canada,
April 10, 1873.
Desr Sir,
I am in receipt of your letter of March 6, enclosing copy of resolution of
Subcommittee of Scientific Committee of British Association. The individual
observations made at Toronto are as follows :—
Meteorological, from 1853 onwards.—Six daily observations of the ordinary
elements at 6,8 a.m., 2,4, 10,12 p.m.; continuous record of the wind ;
and during 1870-71 bihourly observations of the ordinary elements through
the 24 hours, on three days in the week.
Of the above, the observations at 6 a.m., 2 p.m., 10 p.m., with the means
of the s¢v observations and the daily resultants of the wind for the whole
day, have been always published in the ‘ Canadian Journal.’
Magnetism—Besides the regular monthly determinations of Declination,
Dip, and Horizontal Force, six observations of the Differential Instruments
have been taken daily since 1856, at the hours above named. Throughout
the series, till recently, the disturbed observations have been separated and
grouped in the manner adopted by Sir E. Sabine.
Various deductions both from the Meteorological and Magnetical Observa-
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION. 517
tions have been published in three volumes to 1862, and others subsequently
in the Canadian journals. For reasons, chiefly financial, I have been hindered
from utilizing as I would wish the results of the Toronto observations, by
issuing regular and frequent publications of them. I am now, however,
printing a volume which will give the principal results derived from the
Toronto observations from their commencement to the end of 1871. This
will be followed, I hope, by regular annual volumes giving results of obser~
vations from all the Canadian stations.
Though willing to regard it as a duty to do all in my power to meet the
wishes of your Committee, I think that it would be better to postpone any
decision on the second question in the resolution till the first of the volumes
shall have been printed.
I am, dear Sir,
Very truly yours,
G. T. Krneston.
Balfour Stewart, Esq.
Bombay Observatory.
Kolaba Observatory, Bombay,
April 18, 1873.
Dear Sir,
In reply to your letter of the 6th March, I subjoin a list of the unpublished
observations in magnetism and meteorology at present in my possession.
Magnetic Observations.
Hourly readings of Magnetometers (Declination, Horizontal Force, and
Vertical Force) from 1865-0 to 1873-0.
Photographic traces from Magnetographs :—
Declination from 1870°5 to 1873-0.
Horizontal Force from 1870-7 to 1873-0.
Vertical Force from 1872-1 to 1873:0.
Meteorological Observations.
Hourly readings of Barometer, Dry and Wet Thermometers, Ground
Thermometers, and Rain-Gauges, estimation of wind and cloudiness, and
description of weather phenomena, from 1865-0 to 1873-0.
Traces from Anemograph, direction and movement, from 1867-5 to
1873-0.
Photographic traces from Barograph, from 1871-9 to 1873-0.
Photographic traces from Thermograph (Dry and Wet Thermometers),
from 1872-0 to 1873-0.
2. There is no present purpose of publishing the above in detatl, but com-
pilations of results of meteorological and absolute magnetical observations are
published from time to time, the last volume issued including the years
1865 to 1870 and some discussion of special observations.
The absolute magnetical observations of Declination, Horizontal Force,
and Dip are given in full detail.
3. The reduction and discussion of the whole body of observations, mag-
netical and meteorological, collected since 1846, is in progress at the Kolaba
Observatory.
518 - REPORT—18758.
I should mention too that up to the year 1864 similar hourly observations
to those described were printed, forming twenty-one large 4to volumes, and
distributed amongst scientific bodies ; but that little use seeming to have been
made of them outside this observatory, the expense thus incurred, amounting
. to many thousands of pounds, represents, up to the present day, little more
than so much waste. This statement I may observe reflects no discredit upon
scientific men, seeing that the labour of reduction of such multitudinous ob-
servations is utterly beyond the power of any individual. But I think it
justifies fully the course which the Government are now pursuing in devoting
a part of the funds formerly granted for publication to the eliciting, by the
agency of the observatory itself, of some scientific conclusions from the obser-
vations.
4, With reference to the Committee’s second inquiry, I beg to inform you
that I am permitted by Government to supply copies of observations on the
same terms as those on which the Meteorological Committee of London
furnish copies of their records, viz. on condition that the applicant pays the
expense incurred in producing the copies. Any moderate demands that
would not seriously interrupt the regular work of the observatory, I should
gladly meet under this sanction.
I remain,
Dr. Balfour Stewart, .B.S., Yours sincerely,
Secretary of the Observational Subcommittee Cuaries CHAMBERS,
of the Organization Committee of the
British Association.
Calcutta Observatory.
Meteorological Office, Calcutta,
May 26, 1873.
Dear Sir,
I understand, from the Report of the Proceedings of the Observational Sub-
committee of the Science-Organization Committee of the British Association,
that the Committee desires information what original meteorological registers
exist in this office which have not been published in detail. I append a list,
but would remark that many of the registers contain some entries which are
evidently erroneous. Copies of any of these that I consider trustworthy can
be furnished to the British Association for the cost of copying.
It obviously depends on the nature of the inquirer’s object which of these
registers he would hold to be most important. In some respects I am inclined
to regard Darjeeling as the most important, since it affords, what is rare in
most parts of the world, a register (continuous for nearly six years) of a
station at an elevation of about-7000 feet. Goalparah, at the embouchure of
the Assam valley, is interesting for comparison with Darjeeling.
The most complete and detailed register extant in Bengal is that of the
Calcutta Observatory at the Surveyor-General’s Office, which consists of
hourly observations recorded continuously since 1853. These are very
valuable, but are not equal to those of Bombay or Madras.
Believe me, dear Sir,
Yours faithfully,
Heyry F. Bianrorp.
Balfour Stewart, Esq.
Secretary to Observational Subcommittee,
British Association.
ON SCIENCE-LECTURES AND ORGANIZATION,
Port Blair
Vizagapatam
Cuttack
Saugor Island......
Chittagong .........
MICHSORGysitsssiecage ssi
tence eee eeesene
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ROD WY o-cnhcsex.0 000
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Seebsaugor .........
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Sr,
January 1870 »
May 1866 ef
January 1866 43
June 1867 Bh
January 1865 “f
June 1867 as
Dee. 1868 F
January 1868 5
July 1869 7
Nov. 16 1868 5
Noy. 1868
From October 1867 to December 1872.
519
wanting 1-13 June, 1867.
May to Dec. 1869 and J: anuary to December 1872.
Dec. 1868 to December 1872.
Dec. 1868 ‘3
July 1867 +f
January 1869 "
June 1869 F
August 1869
August 1869 to September 1872, wanting February, March, and
August 1869 to December 1872,
August 1869 to September 1871.
1869 to December 1872, wanting April 1872.
Feb.
Aug. 1867 ce
January 1869 an
January 1869 aS
January 1869 -
January 1869 i
August 1867
August 1867 to April
August 1867 to January
January 1869 to April
Hudson’s Bay Company.
”
”
”
1868.
1869.
1869.
1870,
July 1869.
wanting Jan, and Mar, 1870.
wanting July and Sept. 1872.
wanting May and Oct. 1870
and Oct. 1872.
wanting Oct. 1872.
wanting May 1870 and Nov.
1872.
wanting Feb. and April 1869,
Hudson’s Bay House,
1 Lime Street, London, E.C.,
March 7, 1873.
T have to acknowledge your letter of the 5th inst., and to state that the
Hudson’s Bay Company have no unpublished information of the nature to
which you refer.
I think if you apply to the Bishop of Rupert’s Land, Manitoba, you will
likely obtain material assistance in the matter.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Balfour Stewart, Esq.,
Manchester.
W. Armit,
Secretary.
REPORT—1873.
520
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NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS. af
NOTICES AND ABSTRACTS
or
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS.
MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Address by Prof. H. J. 8. Suara, M.A., F.BR.S., President of the Section.
For several years past it has been the custom for the President of this Section, as
of the other Sections of the Association, to open its proceedings with a brief address.
Iam not willing upon this occasion to deviate from the precedent set by my
redecessors, although I feel that the task presents peculiar difficulties to one who
is by profession a pure mathematician, and who in other branches of science can
only aspire to be regarded as an amateur.
But although I thus confess myself a specialist, and a specialist it may be said
of a narrow kind, I shall not venture, in the few remarks which I now propose to
make, to indulge my own specialty too far.
I am well asware that we are certain in this Section to have a sufficient number
of communications which of necessity assume a special and even an abstruse
character, and which, whatever pains may be taken to give them clearness, and
however valuable may be the results to which they lead, are nevertheless extremely
difficult to follow, not only for a popular audience, but even for men of science
whose attention has not been specially and recently directed to the subject under
discussion. I should think it, therefore, almost unfair to the Section if, at the very
commencement of its proceedings, I were to attempt to direct its attention in any
exclusive manner to the subject which I confess, if I were left to myself, I should
most naturally have chosen—the history of the advances that have been made
during the last ten or twenty years in mathematical science. Instead, therefore,
of adventuring myself on this difficult course, which, however, I strongly recom-
mend to some successor of mine less scrupulous than myself, I propose, though at
the risk of repeating what has been better said by others before me, to offer some
general considerations which may have a more equal interest for all those who take
part in the proceedings of this Section, and which appear to me at the present time
to be more than usually deserving of the notice of those who desire to promote
the growth of the scientific spirit in this country. I intend therefore, while
confining myself as strictly as I can to the range of subjects belonging to this
Section, to point out out one or two, among many, of the ways in which sectional
meetings such as ours may contribute to the advancement of Science.
We all know that Section A of the British Association is the Section of Mathe-
matics and Physics; and I dare say that many of us have often thought how
astonishingly vast is the range of subjects which we slur over, rather than sum up,
in this brief designation. e include the most abstract speculations of pure
mathematics, and we come down to the most concrete of all phenomena, the
most every-day of allexperiences. I think I have heard in this Section a discussion
on spaces of five dimensions; and we know that one of our Committees, a Committee
1873.
9 REPORT—1878.
which is of long standing, and which has done much useful work, reports to us
annually on the Rainfall of the British Isles. Thus our wide range covers the
mathematics of number and quantity in their most abstract forms, the mathematics
of space, of time, of matter, of motion, and of force, the many sciences which we
comprehend under the name of astroncmy, the theories of sound, of light, heat,
electricity, and, besides the whole physics of our earth, sea, and atmosphere, the
theory of earthquakes, the theory of tides, the theory of all movements of the air,
from the lightest ripple that affects the barometer up to a cyclone. As I have
already said, it is impossible that communications on all these subjects should be
interesting, or indeed intelligible, to all our members; and notwithstanding the
pains taken by the Committee and by the Secretaries to classity the communications
offered to us, and to place upon the same days those of which the subjects are
cognate to one another, we cannot doubt that the disparateness of the material
which comes before us in this Section is a source of serious inconvenience to many
members of the Association, Occasionally, too, the pressure upon our time is
very great, and we are obliged to hurry over the discussions on communications of
great importance, the number of papers submitted to us being, of course, in a direct
proportion to the number of the subjects included in our programme. It has again
and again been proposed to remedy these admitted evils by dividing the Section,
or at least by resolving it into one or more subsections. But I confess that I am
one of those who have never regretted that this proposal has not’ commended
itself to the Association, or indeed to the section itself, I have always felt that
by so subdividing ourselves we should run the risk of losing one or two great
advantages which we at present possess; and I will briefly state what, in my
judgment, these advantages are.
I do not wish to undervalue the use to a scientific man of listening to and
taking part in discussions on subjects which lie wholly in the direction in which
his own mind has been working. But I think, nevertheless, that most men who
have attended a Meeting of this Association, if asked what they have chiefly gained
by it, would answer, in the first place, that they have had opportunities of forming
or of renewing those acquaintances or intimacies with other scientific men which,
to most men engaged in scientific pursuits, are an indispensable condition of suc-
cessful work ; and in the second place, that while they may have heard but little
relating to their own immediate line of inquiry which they might not as easily have
found in journals or transactions elsewhere, they have learned much which might
otherwise have never come to their knowledge of what is going on in other
directions of scientific inquiry, and that they have carried away many new con-
ceptions, many fruitful germs of thought, caught perhaps from a discussion turning
upon questions apparently very remote from their own pursuits. An object just
perceptible on a distant horizon is sometimes better descried by a careless side-
ward glance than by straining the sight directly at it; and so capricious a gift is
the inventive faculty of the human mind, thatthe clue to the mystery hid beneath
some complicated system of facts will sometimes elude the most patient and syste-
matically conducted search, and yet will reveal itself all of a sudden upon some
casual suggestion arising in connexion with an apparently remote subject. I
believe that the mixed character and wide range of our discussions has been most
favourable to such happy accidents. But even apart from these, if the fusion in
this Section of so many various branches of human knowledge tends in some degree
to keep before our minds the essential oneness of Science, it does us a good service.
There can be no question that the increasing specialization of the sciences, which
appears to be inevitable at the present time, does nevertheless constitute one great
source of danger for the future progress of human knowledge. This specializatiou
is inevitable, because the further the boundaries of knowledge are extended in any
direction, the more laborious and time-absorbing a process does it become to travel
to the frontier ; and thus the mind has neither time nor energy to spare for the
purpose of acquainting itself with regions that lie far away from the track over
which it is forced to travel. And yet the disadvantages of excessive specialization
are no less evident, because in natural philosophy, as indeed in all things on which
the mind of man can be employed, a certain wideness of view is essential to the
achievement of any great result, or to the discovery of any thing really new. The
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 3
twofold caution so often given by Lord Bacon against over-generalization on the
one hand, and against over-specialization on the other, is still as deserving as ever
of the attention of mankind. But in our time, when vague generalities and empty
metaphysics have been beaten once, and we may hope for ever, out of the domain of
exact science, there can be but little doubt on which side the danger of the natural
philosopher at present lies. And perhaps in our Section, as at present constituted,
there is a freer and fresher air; we are, perhaps, a less inadequate representation
of “that greater and common world” of which Lord Bacon speaks, than if we
were subdivided into as many parts as we include, I will not say sciences, but
groups of sciences. Perhaps there is something in the very diversity and multi-
Lc of the subjects which come before us which may serve to remind us of the
complexity of the problems of science, of the diversity and multiplicity of nature.
On the other hand, it is not, as it seems to me, difficult to assign the nature of
the unity which underlies the diversity of our subjects, and which justifies to a
very great extent the juxtaposition of them in our Section. That unity consists
not so much in the nature of the subjects themselves as in the nature of the
methods by which they are treated. A mathematician at least (and it is as a
mathematician I have the privilege of addressing you) may be excused for con-
tending that the bond of union among the physical sciences is the mathematical
spirit and the mathematical method which pervades them. As has been said with
profound truth by one of my predecessors in this chair, our knowledge of nature,
as it advances, continuously resolves differences of quality into differences of
quantity. All exact reasoning (indeed all reasoning) about quantity is mathe-
matical reasoning; and thus, as our knowledge increases, that portion of it which
becomes mathematical increases at a still more rapidrate. Ofall the great subjects
which belong to the province of this Section, take that which at first sight is the
least within the domain of mathematics ; Imean meteorology Yet the part which
mathematics bears in meteorology increases every year, and seems destined to
increase. Not only is the theory of the simplest instruments of meteorology essen-
tially mathematical, but the discussion of the observations—upon which, be it
remembered, depends the hopes which are already entertained with increasing
confidence of reducing the most variable and complex of all known phenomena to
exact laws—is a problem which not only belongs wholly to mathematics, but
which taxes tu the utmost the resources of the mathematics which we now possess.
So intimate is the union between mathematics and physics that probably by far
the larger part of the accessions to our mathematical knowledge have been
obtained by the efforts of mathematicians to solve the problems set to them by
experiment, and to create ‘for each successive class of phenomena a new calculus
or a new geometry, as the case might be, which might prove not wholly inadequate
to the subtlety of nature.” Sometimes, indeed, the mathematician has been
before the physicist ; and it has happened that when some great and new question
has occurred to the experimentalist or the observer, he has found in the armoury
of the mathematician the weapons which he has needed ready made to his hand.
But much oftener the questions proposed by the physicist have transcended the
utmost powers of the mathematics of the time, and a fresh mathematical creation
has been needed to supply the logical instrument requisite to interpret the new
enigma. Perhaps I may be allowed to mention an example of each of these two
ways in which mathematical and physical discovery have acted and reacted on
each other. I purposely choose examples which are well known, and belong, the
one to the oldest, the other to the latest times of scientific history.
The early Greek geometers, considerably before the time of Euclid, applied
themselves to the study of the various curve lines in which a conical figure may
be cut by a plane—curve lines to which they gave the name, never since forgotten,
of conic sections. It is difficult to imagine that any problem ever had more
completely the character of a “problem of mere curiosity ” than this problem of
the conic sections must have had in those earlier times. Not a single natural
phenomenon which in the state of science at that time could have been intelligently
observed was likely to require for its explanation a knowledge of the nature of
these curves. Still less can any application to the arts have seemed possible; a
nation which did not even use the arch were not likely to use the ellipse in any.
4. REPORT—1873.
work of construction. The difficulties of the inquiry, the pleasure of grappling
with the unknown, the love of abstract truth, can alone have furnished the charm
which attracted some of the most powerful minds in antiquity to this research.
If Euclid and Apollonius had been told by any of their contemporaries that they
were giving a wholly wrong direction to their energies, and that, instead of
dealing with the problems presented to them by nature, they were applying their
minds to inquiries which not only were of no use, but which never could come to
be of any use, I do not know what answer they could have given which might not
now be given with equal or even greater justice to the similar reproaches which
it is not uncommon to address to those mathematicians of our own day who study
quantics of 7 indeterminates, curves of the mth order, and, it may be, spaces of
nm dimensions. And not only so, but for pretty near two thousand years the
experience of mankind would have justified the objection; for there is no record
that during that long period which intervened between the first invention of the
conic sections and the time of Galileo and Kepler the knowledge of these curves
possessed by geometers was of the slightest use to natural science. And yet,
when the fulness of time was come, these seeds of knowledge, that had waited
so long, bore pe fruit in the discoveries of Kepler. If we may use the
great names of Kepler and Newton to signify stages in the progress of human
discovery, it is not too much to say that without the treatises of the Greek
geometers on the conic sections there could have been no Kepler, without Kepler
no Newton, and without Newton no science in our modern sense of the term,
or at least no such conception of nature as now lies at the basis of all our
science, of nature as subject in its smallest as well as in its greatest phenomena,
to exact quantitative relations, and to definite numerical laws.
This is an old story; but it has always seemed to me to convey a lesson, occa-
sionally needed even in our own time, against a species of scientific utilitarianism
which urges the scientific man to devote himself to the less abstract parts of
science as being more likely to bear immediate fruit in the augmentation of our
knowledge of the world without. I admit, however, that the ultimate good fortune
of the Greek geometers can hardly be expected by all the abstract speculations
which, in the form of mathematical memoirs, crowd the transactions of the learned
societies ; and I would venture to add that, on the part of the mathematician,
there is room for the exercise of good sense and, I would almost say, of a kind of
tact, in the selection of those branches of mathematical inquiry which are likely
to be conducive to the advancement of his own or any other science.
I pass to my second example, of which I may treat very briefly. In the course
of the present year a treatise on electricity has been published by Professor Max-
well, giving a complete account of the mathematical theory of that science, as we
owe it to the labours of a long series of distinguished men, beginning with Coulomb,
and ending with our own contemporaries, including Professor Maxwell himself.
No mathematician can turn over the pages of these volumes without very speedily
convincing himself that they contain the first outlines (and something more than
the first outlines) of a theory which has already added largely to the methods and
resources of pure mathematics, and which may one day render to that abstract
science services no less than those which it owes to astronomy. For electricity
now, like astronomy of old, has placed before the mathematician an entirely new
set of questions, requiring the creation of entirely new methods for their solution,
while the great practical importance of telegraphy has enabled the methods of
electrical measurement to be rapidly perfected to an extent which renders their
accuracy comparable to that of astronomical observations ; and this makes it possi-
ble to bring the most abstract deductions of theory at every moment to the test of
fact. It must be considered fortunate for the mathematicians that such a vast field
of research in the application of mathematics to physical inquiries should be thrown
open to them at the very time when the scientific interest in the old mathematical
astronomy has for the moment flagged, and when the very name of physical astro-
nomy, so long appropriated to the mathematical development of the theory of gravi-
tation, appears likely to be handed over to that wonderful series of discoveries
which have already taught us so much concerning the physical constitution of the
heavenly bodies fenaatts
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 5
Having now stated, from the point of view of a mathematician, the reasons
which appear to me to justify the existence of so composite an institution as Sec-
tion A, and the advantages which that very compositeness sometimes brings to
those who attend its meetings, I wish to refer very briefly to certain definite ser-
vices which this Section has rendered and may yet render to Science. The im-
provement and extension of scientific education is to many of us one of the most
urgent questions of the day; and the British Association has already exerted
itself more than once to press the question on the public attention. Perhaps
the tiie has arrived when some further efforts of the same kind may be desirable.
Without a rightly organized scientific education we cannot hope to maintain our
supply of scientific men, since the increasing complexity and difficulty of science
renders it more and more difficult for untaught men, by mere power of genius, to
force their way to the front. KHvery improvement, therefore, which tends to ren-
der scientific knowledge more accessible to the learner, is a real step towards the
advancement of science, because it tends to increase the number of well quali-
fied workers in science.
For some years past this Section has appointed a committee to aid the improve-
ment of geometrical teaching in this country. The Report of this committee will
be laid before the Section in due course ; and without anticipating any discussion
that may arise on that Report, I think I may say that it will show that we have
advanced at least one step in the direction of an important and long-needed reform.
The action of this Section led to the formation of an Association for the improve-
ment of geometrical teaching ; and the members~of that Association have now
completed the first part of their work. They seem to me, and to other judges
much more competent than myself, to have been guided by a sound judgment in
the execution of their difficult task, and to have held, not unsuccessfully, a middle
course between the views of the innovators who would uphold the absolute
monarchy of Euclid, or, more properly, of Euclid as edited by Simson, and the
radicals who would dethrone him altogether. One thing at least they haye not
forgotten, that geometry is nothing if it be not rigorous, and that the whole edu-
cational value of the study is lost if strictness of demonstration be trifled with.
The methods of Euclid are, by almost universal consent, unexceptional in point of
rigour. Of this perfect rigorousness his doctrine of parallels, and his doctrine of
proportion, are perhaps the most striking examples. That Euclid’s treatment of
the doctrine of parallels is an example of perfect rigorousness, is an assertion
which sounds almost paradoxical, but which I nevertheless believe to be true.
Huclid has based his theory on an axiom (in the Greek text it is one of the postu-
lates ; but the difference for our purpose is immaterial) which, it may be safely said,
no unprejudiced mind has ever accepted as self-evident, And this unaxiomatic
axiom Euclid has chosen to state, without wrapping it up or disguising it, not, for
example, in the plausible form in which it has been stated by Playfair, but in its
crudest shape, as if to warn his reader that a great assumption was being made.
This perfect honesty of logic, this refusal to varnish over a weak point, has had its
reward ; for it is one of the triumphs of modern geometry to have shown that the
eleventh axiom is so far from being an axiom, in the sense which we usually attach
to the word, that we cannot at this moment be sure whether it is absolutely and
rigorously true, or whether it is a very close approximation to the truth. Two of
those whose labours have thrown much light on this difficult theory are at present at
this Meeting—Prof. Cayley, and a distinguished German mathematician, Dr. Felix
Klein ; and I am sure of their adherence when I say that the sagacity and insight of
the old geometer are only put in a clearer light by the success which has attended the
attempt to construct a system of geometry, consistent with itself, and not contradicted
by experience, upon the assumption of the falsehood of Euclid’s eleventh axiom.
Again, the doctrine of proportion, as laid down in the fifth book of Euclid, is
polebly still unsurpassed as a masterpiece of exact reasoning, although the cum-
rousness of the forms of expression which were adopted in the old geometry has
led to the total exclusion of this part of the elements from the ordinary course of
geometrical education. A zealous defender of Euclid might add with truth that
the gap thus created in the elementary teaching of mathematics has never been
adequately supplied,
6 REPORT—1873.
But after all has been said that can be said in praise of Euclid, the fact remains
that the form in which the work is composed renders it unsuitable for the earlier
stages of education. Euclid wrote for men, whereas his work has been used for
children ; and it is surely no disparagement to the great geometer to suppose that
after more than 2000 years the experience of generations of teachers can suggest
changes which may make his ‘Elements,’ I will not say more perfect as a piece of
geometry, but more easy for very young minds to follow. The difficulty of a book
or subject is indeed not in itself a fatal objection to its use in education; for to learn
how to overcome difficulties is one great part of education. Geometry is hard, just
as Greek is hard; and one reason why Geometry and Greek are such excellent edu-
cational subjects is precisely that they are hard. But in a world in which there is
so much to learn, we must learn every thing in the easiest way in which it can be
learnt; and after we have smoothed the way to the utmost of our power there is
sure to be enough of difficulty left. Iyegard the question of some reform in the
teaching of elementary geometry as so completely settled by a great concurrence of
opinion on the part of the most competent judges, that I should hardly have
thought it necessary to direct the attention of the Section to it, if it were not for
the following reasons :—
First, that the old system of geometrical instruction still remains (with but few
exceptions) paramount in our schools, colleges, and universities, and must remain so
until a very great consensus of opinion is obtained in favour of some one definite
text-book. It appears to me, therefore, that the duty will eventually devolve upon
this Section of the British Association, of reporting on the attempts that have been
made to frame an improved system of geometrical education ; and if it should be
found that these attempts have been at last successful, I think that the British
Association would lend the whole weight of its authority to the proposed change.
I am far from suggesting that any such decision should be made immediately. The
work undertaken by the Association for the improvement of geometrical teaching
is still far from complete ; and even when itis complete it must be left to hold its
own against the criticism of all comers before it can acquire such an amount of pub-
lic confidence as would justify us in recommending its adoption by the great teach-
ing and examining bodies of the country.
Secondly, I have thought it right to remind the Section of the part it has taken
with reference to the reform of geometrical teaching, because it appears to me that
a task, at once of less difficulty and of more immediate importance, might now be
undertaken by it with great advantage. There is at the present moment a very
general agreement that a certain amount of natural science ought to be introduced
into school education ; and many schools of the country have already made most
laudable efforts in this direction. As far as I can judge, there is further a general
agreement that a good school course of natural science ought to include some part
or parts of physics, of chemistry, and of biology ; but I think it will be found that
while the courses of chemistry given at our best schools are in the main identical,
there is the greatest diversity of opinion as to the parts of physics and of biology
which should be selected as suitable for a school education, and a still greater di-
versity of opinion as to the methods which should be pursued in teaching them.
Under these circumstances it is not surprising to find that the masters of those
schools into which natural science has hardly as yet found its way (and some of the
largest and most important schools in the country are in this class) are doubtful as
to the course which they should take, and, from not knowing precisely what they
should do, have not as yet made up their minds to do any thing of importance.
There can be no doubt that the masters of such schools would be glad on these
points to be guided by the opinion of scientific men; and I cannot help thinking
that this opinion would be more unanimous than is commonly supposed, and, further,
that no public body would be so likely to elicit an expression of it as a Committee
appointed by the British Association. I believe that, if such an expression of the
opinion of scientific men were once obtained, it would not only tend tu give aright
direction to the study of natural science in schools, but might also have the effect
of inducing the public generally to take a higher and more truthful view of the
objects which it is sought to attain by introducing natural science as an essential
element into all courses of education. All knowledge of natural science that is im-
TRANSACTIONS Or THE SECTIONS. 7
parted to a boy, is, or may be, useful to him in the business of his after life ; but the
claim of natural science to a place in education cannot be rested upon its practical
usefulness only, The great object of education is to expand and to train the mental
faculties; and it is because we laBuxe that the study of natural science is eminently
fitted to further these two objects, that we urge its introduction into school studies.
Science expands the minds of the young, because it puts before them great and
ennobling objects of contemplation ; many of its truths are such as a child can under-
stand, and yet such that, while in a measure he understands them, he is made to
feel something of the greatness, something of the sublime regularity, and of the im-
penetrable mystery of the world in which he is placed. But science also trains
the growing faculties; for science proposes to itself truth as its only object, and it
presents the most varied and at the same time the most splendid examples of the
different mental processes which lead to the attainment of truth, and which make up
what we call reasoning. In science error is always possible, often close at hand ;
and the constant necessity for being on our guard against it is one important part
of the education which science supplies. But in science sophistry is impossible ;
science knows no love of paradox ; science has no skill to make the worse appear the
better reason; science visits with a not long-deferred exposure all our fondness for
preconceived opinions, all our partiality for views that we have ourselves maintained,
and thus teaches the two best lessons that can well be taught—on the one hand the
marr truth, and on the other sobriety and watchfulness in the use of the under-
standing,
In accordance with these views I am disposed to insist very strongly on the im-
portance of assigning to physics (that is to say, to those subjects which we discuss
in this Section) a very prominent place in education. From the great sciences of
observation, such as botany, or zoology, or geology, the young student learns to
observe, or, more simply, to use his eyes ; he gets that education of the senses which
is after all so important, and which a purely grammatical and literary education so
wholly fails to give. From chemistry he learns, above all things, the art of experi-
menting, and experimenting for himself. But from physics, better as it seems to
me than from any part of science, he may learn to reason with consecutiveness and
precision from the data supplied by the immediate observation of natural phe-
nomena. I hope we shall see the time when each successive portion of mathe-
matical knowledge acquired by the pupil will be made immediately available for his
instruction in physics, and when every thing that he learns in the physical
laboratory will be made the subject of mathematical reasoning and calculation. In
some few schools I believe that this is already the case ; and I think we may hope
well for the future both of mathematics and physics in this country when the
practice becomes universal. In one respect the time is favourable for such a
revolution in the mode of teaching physical science. During the past few years a
number of text-books have been made available to the learner which far surpass
any thing that was at the disposal of former generations of pupils, and which are
probably as completely satisfactory as the present state of science will admit. It is
pleasant to record that these text-books are the work of distinguished men who
have always taken a prominent part in the proceedings of this Section. We have
Deschanel’s ‘Physics,’ edited, or rather rewritten, by Prof. Everett, a book remark-
able alike for the clearness of its explanations and for the beauty of the engravings
with which it is illustrated; and, passing to works intended for students somewhat
further advanced, we have the treatises of Prof. Balfour Stewart on heat, of Prof.
Clerk Maxwell on the theory of heat, of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin on electricity, and we
expect a similar threatise on light from another of our most distinguished members.
hese works breathe the very spirit of the method which should guide both
research and education in physics. They express the most profound and far-
reaching generalizations of science in the simplest language, and yet with the
utmost precision. With the most sparing use of mathematical technicalities, they
are a perfect storehouse of mathematical ideas and mathematical reasonings. Anold
French geometer used to say that a mathematical theory was never to be considered
complete till you had made it so clear that you could explain it to the first man you
met in the street. Thisis of course a brilliant exaggeration ; but it is no exaggera-
tion to say that the eminent writers to whom I have referred have given something
8 REPORT—18738.
of this clearness and completeness to such abstract mathematical theories as those
of the electrical potential, the action of capillary forces, and the definition of absolute
temperature. A great object will have been attained when an education in physi-
cal science on the basis laid down in these treatises has become generally accepted
in our schools.
Ido not wish to close this Address without adverting, though only for one
moment, to a question which occupies the minds of many of the friends of science
at the present time—the question, What should be the functions of the State in
supporting or organizing scientific inquiry? I do not mean to touch on any of
the difficulties which attend this question, or to express any opinion as to the con-
troversies to which it has given rise. But I do not think it can be out of place for
the President of this Section to call your attention to the inequality with which,
as between different branches of science, the aid of Government is afforded. Na-
tional observations for astronomical purposes are maintained by this as by every
civilized country. Large sums of money are yearly expended, and most rightly
expended, by the Government for the maintenance of museums and collections of
mineralogy, botany, and zoology. Ata very recent period an extensive chemical ©
laboratory, with abundant appliances for research as well as for instruction, has
been opened at South Kensington. But for the physical sciences—such sciences
as those of heat, light, and eleetricity—nothing has been done ; and I confess I do
not think that any new principle would be introduced, or any great burden
incurred, capable of causing alarm to the most sensitive Chancellor of the
Exchequer, it it shonld be determined to establish, at the national cost, institutions
for the prosecution of these branches of knowledge, so vitally important to the
progress of science as a whole. Perhaps, also, upon this general ground of fairness,
even the pure mathematicians might prefer a modest claim to be assisted in the
calculation and printing of a certain number of Tables, of which even the physical
applications of their science are beginning to feel the pressing need.
One word further on this subjeet of State assistance to science, and I have done.
It is no doubt true that for a great, perhaps an increasing, number of purposes
science requires the assistance of the State ; but is it not nearer to the truth to say
that the State acquires the assistance of science? It is my conviction that if the
true relations between science and the State are not recognized, it is the State, rather
than science, that will be the great loser. Without science the State may build a
ship that cannot swim, and may waste a million or two on experiments, the futile
result of which science could have foreseen. But without the State science has
done very well in the past, and may do very well in time to come. Jam not sure
that we should know more of pure mathematics, or of heat, of light, or electricity
than we do at this moment if we had had the best help of the State all the time.
There are, however, certain things which the State might do, and ought to do, for
science. It, or corporations created by it, ought to undertake the responsibility of
carrying on those great systems of observations which, having a secular character,
cannot be completed within the lifetime of a single generation, and therefore cannot
be safely left to individual energy. One other thing the State ought to do for
science. It ought to pay scientific men properly for the services which they render
directly to the State, instead of relying, as at present, on their love for their work
as a means of obtaining their services on lower terms. If any one doubts the justice
of this remark, I would ask him to compare the salaries of the officers in the British
Museum with those which are in other departments of the Civil Service.
But what the State cannot do for science is to create the scientific spirit or to
control it. The spirit of scientific discovery is essentially voluntary; voluntary,
and even mutinous, it will remain: it will refuse to be bound with red tape, or rid-
den by officials, whether well meaning or perverse. You cannot have an Estab-
lished Church in science ; and if you had, I am afraid there are many scientific men
who would turn scientific nonconformists.
I venture upon these remarks because I cannot help feeling that the great desire
which is now manifesting itself on the part of some scientific men to obtain for
science the powerful aid of the State may perhaps lead some of us to forget that it
is self-reliance and self-help which have made science what it is, and that these are
the qualities the place of which no Government help can ever supply.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 9
MartTHemMatics.
On the Mercator’s Projection of a Surface of Revolution.
By Prof. Caytry, PLR.
The theory of Mercator’s projection is obviously applicable to any surface of re-
volution ; the meridians and parallels are represented by two systems of parallel lines
at right angles to each other, in such wise that for the infinitesimal rectangles in-
cluded between two consecutive arcs of meridian and arcs of parallel the rectangle
in the projection is similar to that on the surface. Or, what is the same thing, drawing
on the surface the meridians at equal infinitesimal intervals of angular distance, we
may draw the parallels at such intervals as to divide the surface into infinitesimal
squares; the meridians and parallels are then in the projection represented by two
systems of equidistant parallel lines dividing the plane into squares. And if the
angular distance between two consecutive meridians instead of being infinitesimal
is taken moderately small (5° or even 10°), then it isjeasy on the surface or in plano,
using only the curve which is the meridian of the surface, to lay down graphically
the series of parallels which are in the projection represented by equidistant parallel
lines. The method is, of course, an approximate one, by reason that the angular
distance between the two consecutive meridians is finite instead of infinitesimal.
I have in this way constructed the projection of a skew hyperboloid of revolu-
tion: viz. in one figure I show the hyperbola, which is the meridian section, and
by means of it (taking the interval of the meridians to be=10°) construct the posi-
tions of the successive parallels; I complete the figure by drawing the hyperbolas
which are the orthographic projections of the meridians, and the right lines which
are the orthographic projections of the parallels; the figure thus exhibits the ortho-
graphic projection (on the plane of a meridian) of the hyperboloid divided into
squares as above. The other figure, which is the Mercator’s projection, is simply
two systems of equidistant parallel lines dividing the paperinto squares. I remark
that in the first figure the projections of the right lines on the surface are the tan-
gents to the bounding hyperbola ; in particular, the projection of one of these lines
1s an asymptote of the hyperbola. This I exhibit in the figure, and by means of it
trace the Mercator’s projection of the right line on the surface; viz. this is a ser-
gentine curve included between the right lines which represent two opposite meri-
ians and having these lines for asymptotes. It is sufficient to show one of these
curves, since obviously for any other line of the surface belonging to the same
system the Mercator’s projection is at once obtained by merely displacing the curve
arallel to itself, and for any line of the other system the projection is a like curve
im a reversed position.
A Mercator’s projection might be made of a skew hyperboloid not of revolution ;
viz. the curves of curvature might be drawn so as to divide the surface into squares,
and the curves of curvature be then represented by equidistant parallel lines as
above ; and the construction would be only a little more difficult. The projection
presented itself to me as a convenient one for the representation of the geodesic
lines on the surface, and for exhibiting them in relation to the right lines of the
surface ; but I have not yet worked this out. In conclusion, it may be remarked
that a surface in general cannot be divided into squares by its curves of curvature,
but that it may be in an infinity of ways divided into squares by two systems of
curves on the surface, and any such system of curves gives rise to a Mercator’s
projection of the surface.
On some Curves of the Fifth Class. By Professor W. K. Cu1rrorp.
On a Surface of Zero Curvature and Finite Extent.
By Professor W. K. Cuirrorp.
10 REPORT—1873.
On certain Propositions in the Theory of Numbers deduced from Elliptic-
transcendent Identities. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, B.A.
The paper consisted of a series of propositions in the theory of numbers deduced
from ideittitios either actually or implicitly given in Jacobi’s ‘ Fundamenta Nova’
(Regiomonti, 1829), and of which the author believed some might be new. In this
abstract the demonstrations are omitted, and only the enunciations of the proposi-
tions, with one or two examples of each, are given.
(i) Construct the following scheme :—
Oe seal S| Gl mie Sil gl ro II 12 13 14
—6) —g9/—12|—15/—18|—21|—24/—27) —30 | —33 | —36 | —39 | —42
10} 15] 20] 25] 30] 35/ 401 45, 50| 55| 60] 65| 70
—14|—21|—28)/— 35|—42/—49/— 56,63) —70 | —77 | —84 | —g1 | —98
18} 27| 36 45] 54] 63] 72) 81] 90 99 | 108 | 117] 126
—I1|—22]—33)/—44|— 55|— 66|—77|—88|—99|—110 |—121 |—132 |—143 |—154
the mode of formation of which is evident; then strike out all the numbers that
cancel one another, and every number that remains is either a square or is expres-
sible as the sum of two squares; the converse proposition, that every number that
is a square or is expressible as the sum of two squares will remain, is also true.
Thus, 1=1?, 2=1°+1?, 3 is cancelled, 4=2°, 5=2?+1%, 6 and 7 are cancelled,
=2’+42°,9 is cancelled in the 3-line, but reappears in the 9-line, so that it re-
mains as it ought to do, since it=3*, ]0=3?+1*, 1] and 12 are cancelled, &e.
(ii) Every number which is a square or expressible as the sum of two squares is
of the form 2'(4m—1)?n, n being any odd number, all of whose factors are of the
form 4a+1, and / and m any positive numbers; and if y(7) denote the numbers of
factors of m (unity and » itself included), then the number of ways in which
2'(4m—1)*n can be expressed as the sum of two squares =4y(n); but if the
number be a square, or the double of a square, the number of ways
=2{¥(m)—1} or a{y(m)+1}
respectively (0? not being counted as a square), From this many well-known
theorems follow at once.
(iii) The following is the “sieve” corresponding to that in (i) for numbers that
are the sum of two odd squares.
2 6 Io 14 18 22 26 30 34. 38 42
—6 | —18 | —30 | —42 | —54 | —66 | —78 | —go0 |—102 |—114 |—126
Io 30 50 7o go | 10 | 130] 150 | x70") ~90)])s2to
—14 | —42 | —7o | —98 |—126 |—154 |—182 |—210 |—238 |—266 |—294
Every number that remains after the cancelling is the sum of two odd squares ; and,
vice versd, every such number remains.
(iv) Every number that is the sum of two odd squares is of the form 2(4m—1)?n ;
and every such number can be expressed as the sum of two odd squares in 3y(n)
ways, unless it is the double of a square, when, if of the form 2(4m—1)?, it cannot
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. i |
be expressed as the sum of two unequal odd squares, and, if of the form 2(4m—1)?r2,
it can be so expressed in 3{y(7?)—1} ways—the letters meaning as in (ii).
(v) Consider any number N, and let a be the number of ways in which it can be
expressed as the sum of four squares, all different (a?+ b?+c¢?+d?); a, the number
of ways, two of the four squares being identical (2a?+ 6?+c) ; a,,, when two pairs
of squares are identical (2a?+ 267); a,, when three squares are identical (3a?+ 6?) ;
and a, when all four are identical (4a?). Let 8,, 8., 8, be similar quantities de-
noting respectively the number of ways in which N can be expressed as the
sum of three squares, with none, two, or three identical,
(a?-+ 6?+ ¢, 2a?+ 07, 3a’).
Let y, y2, and 6 be similar quantities for two squares and one square,
(a? + 6, 2a?, a?) ;
48u+ 24a,+12a,,+8a,+2a,4+248+4+126,448,+6y+3y,+6
= the sum of the factors of N, if N be odd,
then
and
= 3x (the sum of the factors of 2) if N is even, and = 2’n, m being odd.
Generally, several of the quantities a, a,, &c. will vanish; and some must always,
for two of the three 8,,y,, 6 must be zero; also a, and 6 vanish unless N is a square;
Gyo) a4, and y, vanish if N is odd; and the letters a,, 8, y,, and 5 can only have the
values O or 1.
Examples—Take N=81; the factors are 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, of which the sum
=121. And
81=36+25+4 164+4=644+9+44+44= 644 164+1=494 164 16=364 3649,
Therefore
a=1, a,=1, B=1, B,=2, S=1, and 48+24424412x%241=121.
Take N=68=27.17 ; and the sum of the factors of 17=18, which multiplied by
3=54, And 68=49+4+9+494 1=254254949=36416416=64+44.
Therefore
ae y=1, and 2441241246=54.
(vi) A considerable reduction takes place when N is of the form 8n+7, in
which case the formula merely becomes
48a+24a,+8a, = sum of the factors of N.
Example.—Take N=63; sum of factors = 104, and
; 63=4949+44+41=364 254+1+4+1=25+25+944=364949+49,
Therefore
a=1, a,=2, a,=1, and 48+48+8=104.
(vii) Let A denote the number of ways in which any number N of the form
8n-+4 can be expressed as the sum of four odd squares, all different; A, the num-
ber of ways when two are identical; A,, when two pairs are identical; A, and A,
. when three and four respectively are identical. Then
24A+12A,4+6A,,+4A,+A, = sum of factors of +N.
Example.—Take N =84, sum of factors of ,N=52. And
84=494254+941=25+425+254+9=81+141+41.
Az=l1, A,=2, and 2448=32.
(viii) Let [1%] denote the number of ways in which any number N, divisible by
8, can be expressed as the sum of eight odd squares, all different; {1°2] the num-
ber of ways when a pair are identical &c., so that, e. g. [1°28] denotes the number
Therefore
12 REPORT—1873.
of ways in which N can be expressed in the form a?+0?+4c?+2d?+8e?; [274] in
the form 2a?+26?+4c? &c. Then
40320 [1°] + 20160 [192] + 6720[153] + 10080 [1127]
+ 1680 [1'4] + 3360 [1°23] + 336[195] + 5040[172°]
+ 840 [1224] + 1120[1°3*] + 56[1°6] + 1680[1273]
+ 168[125] + 280{184] + 8[17] + 2520 [2+]
+ 420[2°4] + 560/237] + 28[26] + 56[35]
+70(4] +([8] = x(@N),
x(”) being the sum of the cubes of all the factors of (=}N) which are such that when
n is divided by any of them the quotient is odd, viz. x() =a’, a being any factor of
n such that ™ is odd.
a
Example.—Take N=96; therefore 3N=12=1.12=2.6=3.4, so’ that the only
factors that have odd cofactors are 12 and 4, whence x(3N)=12°+4°=1792. And
96 = 49425494941414141 = 814+9414141+4+14+141
= 49+94+949494941+1 = 25425+94+9494949+41
= 26+25+25+9+9+1+1+41. :
Therefore
[1224]=1, [1°6]=1, [125]=2, [237]=1, and 840+56+4+336+4 560=1792.
(ix) Every number that is the sum of six odd squares is of the form 8x+6;
and if the half of such a number, being of the form 4x+3, be resolved in any man-
ner into two factors, one must be of the form 4x+1 and the other of the form
4n+3. Adopting a notation similar to that described in (viii), if 2s denotes any
number of the form 8x+6,
720 [1°] + 360 [142] + 120[1°3] + 180[1227] + 30[1°4] + 60[123] + 6/15]
+ 90[2°] + 15[24] + 20[87] + [6] = 2£(),
where &(s) = sum of the squares of all the factors of s that are of the form 4n+8,
— sum of the squares of all those that are of the form 4n+1.
Examples.—Take 2s=30, then
s=1.15=3.5; .. €(s)=15?+3°—5?—1?=208, and 3(208)=26.
And 30 = 26+1+14+1+141 = 94949414141.
Therefore [15]=1, [37]=1, and 6+20=26.
Take 2s=270, then
s=135, and &(s) = 185°+-27?+15?+3?— 45? — 9? - 5-1 = 17056,
so that 2é(s)=2132. And it will be found that the decomposition into squares gives
[142]=1, [1°3]=1, [1727]=7, [194]=2, [123]=5, [15]=2, [#]=1,
360+120+1260+60+3800+12+20 = 2132.
(*) The above are the principal theorems proved, which were illustrated by several
other examples, The paper concluded with an algebraical proof of the identity
(1—22+22'—2e°+...)! + Qet+2et+2Q0 + ...)4 = (1422420! +20°+...)4
which resulted from the development of a process indicated by Gauss in his memoir
“Zur Theorie der neuen Transscendenten,’’ Werke, t. iii. p. 447.
[Since the paper, of which the above is an abstract, was read, Prof. H.J.S. Smith,
who kindly looked through it at the author’s request, has pointed out to him that
most of the theorems contained in it had been previously published by Jacobi,
Eisenstein, and himself, though expressed in a somewhat different form. For
references see Prof. Smith’s Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. art. 127
(British Association Report, 1865, pp. 335-238). ]
an
x
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 13
On the Negative Minima of the Gamma function.
By J. W. L. Guaisuer, B.A.
The definition of the gamma function usually adopted is in effect, that between the
values 0 and 1 of x it is defined by the equation r(x+1) = H % vte-*dy, and for
all other values of x by the equation T'(#+1)=aT(z).
The curve y=I(z) has a minimum corresponding to r=1'4616321..., as is well
Imown ; but as I'(z) is infinite whenever z is a negative integer, there are minima
values of T(z) between e=—1 and —2, —2 and —3, &e. The author had deter-
mined the positions of the first ten of these minima (or, algebraically considered,
minima and maxima alternately) to four places of decimals, and also their values,
the chief object being to obtain data to form a moderately accurate drawing of the
curve. The abscissz of the minima were found by the aid of the table of ¥(zx)
in Gauss’s Gottingen memoir of 1812 and Oakes’s Table of Reciprocals, as fol-
lows. Writing, with Gauss, I(x) for IT'(#+1) and logf x (Gauss’s ¥(x)) for
II'(z)+II (2), the first minimum corresponds to the abscissa —1+ the root of
1 1
logf m= + 5743
the second to the abscissa, — 2 + the root of
1 1 1
3 diag eee MTCER ig! REIT
the third to — 3 + the root of
On the Introduction of the Decimal Point into Arithmetic.
By J. W. L. Guatsuer, B.A.
The following is an extract from Peacock’s excellent history of Arithmetic in
the ‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana,’ which forms the standard (not to say the only)
work on the subject. Speaking of Stevinus’s ‘ Arithmétique,’ Peacock writes :—
“ We find no traces, however, of decimal arithmetic in this work; and the first
notice of decimal, properly so called, is to be found in a short tract which is put
at the end of his ‘ Arithmétique’ in the collection of his works by Albert Girard,
entitled ‘La Disme.’ It was first published in Flemish, about the year 1590, and
afterwards translated into barbarous French by Simon of Bruges.... Whatever
advantages, however, this admirable invention, combined as it still was with the
addition of the exponents, possessed above the ordinary methods of calculation in
the case of abstract or concrete fractions, it does not appear that they were readily
perceived or adopted by his contemporaries.... The last and final improvement
in this decimal Arithmetic, of assimilating the notation of integers and decimal
fractions, by placing a point or comma between them, and omitting the exponents
altogether, is unquestionably due to the illustrious Napier, and is not one of the
least of the many precious benefits which he conferred upon the science of cal-
culation. No notice whatever is taken of them in the ‘ Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Descriptio,’ nor in its accompanying tables, which was published in 1614.
In a short abstract, however, of the theory of these logarithms, with a short
table of the logarithms of natural numbers, which was published by Wright,
1616, we find a few examples of decimals expressed with reference to the deci-
mal point; but they are first distinctly noticed in the ‘Rabdologia,’ which was
published in 1617. In an ‘ Admonitio pro decimali Arithmetica’ he mentions in
_ terms of the highest praise the invention of Stevinus, and explains his notation;
and, without noticing his own simplification of it, he exhibits it in the follow-
ing example, in which it is required to divide 861094 by 432.... The quotient is
1993,273 or 1993,2'7''3"", the form under which he afterwards writes it, in partial
14 REPORT—1873.
conformity with the practice of Stevinus. The same form is adopted in an ex-
ample of abbreviated multiplication which subsequently occurs.... The preceding
statement will sufliciently explain the reason why no notice is taken of decimals
in the elaborate explanations which are given by Napier, Briggs, and Kepler, of
the theory and construction of logarithms; and indeed we find no mention a
them in any English author between 1619 and 1631. In that year the ‘ Loga-
rithmicall Arithmetike’ was published by Gellibrand and other friends of Briggs
(who died the year before), with a much more detailed and popular explanation
of the doctrine of logarithms than was to be found in the ‘Arithmetica Loga-
rithmica.’....From this period we may consider the decimal Arithmetic as fully
established, inasmuch as the explanation of it began to form an essential part of
all books of practical arithmetic. The simple method of marking the separation
of the decimals and integers by a comma, of which Napier has given a solitary
example, was not, however, generally adopted.”
De Morgan (‘ Arithmetical Books,’ 1847, p. xxiii) writes :—“ Dr. Peacock mentions
Napier as being the person to whom the introduction [of the decimal point] is un-
questionably due, a position which I must dispute upon additional evidence. The
inventor of the single decimal distinction, be it point or line, as in 123-456 or 123[456,
is the person who first made this distinction a permanent language, not using it
merely as a rest in a process, to be useful in pointing out afterwards how another
process is to come on or language is to be applied, but making it his final and
permanent indication as well of the way of pointing out where the integers end
and the fractions begin, as of the manner in which that, distinction modifies opera-
tions. Now, first, I must submit that Napier did not do this; secondly, that if
he did do it, Richard Witt did it before him.”
De Morgan then states that he has not seen Wright’s translation of 1616; but he
proceeds to examine Napier’s claim as resting on the two examples in the ‘ Rab-
dologia,’ in the first of which a comma is used, but only in one place. After
this examination he proceeds:—“I cannot trace the decimal point in this; but if
required to do so, I can see it more distinctly in Witt, who published four years
before Napier. But I can hardly admit him to have arrived at the notation of
the decimal point... .” *
I agree with De Morgan in all that he has stated in the above extracts, and
do not think that the single instance of the comma used in the course of work,
and replaced immediately afterwards by exponential marks, is a sufficient ground
for assigning to Napier the invention of the decimal point, or even affords a pre-
sumption that he made use of it at all in the expression of results.
Still one of the objects of this paper is to claim (provisionally, of course, till
evidence of any earlier use is produced, if such there be) the invention of the
decimal point for Napier, but not on account of any thing contained in the ‘ Rab-
dologia.’’ The mathematical works published by Napier in his lifetime (he died
in 1617) were his ‘ Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,’ 1614, containing
the first announcement of the invention of logarithms, and the ‘ Rabdologia,’
1617, giving an account of his almost equally remarkable (as it was thought at
the time) invention of numbering rods or “bones.” In 1619, two years after his
death, the ‘ Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio,’ containing the method of
construction of the canon of logarithms, was published, edited by his son; and in
this work the decimal point is systematically used in a manner identical with
that in which we employ it at the present day. I can find no traces of the decimal
point in Wright’s {translation of the ‘ Descriptio,’ 1616; and, as De Morgan says,
the use of the decimal separator is not apparent in Witt. The earliest work,
therefore, in which a decimal separator was employed seems to be Napier’s
posthumous work the ‘ Constructio’ (1619), where the following definition of the
point occurs on p. 6:—‘‘In numeris periodo sic in se distinctis, quicquid post
periodum notatur fractio est, cujus denominator est unitas cum tot cyphris post se,
* In an essay “On some points in the history of Arithmetic” (Companion to the
Almanac for 1851), De Morgan has further discussed the invention of the decimal point,
but in the same spirit as regards Napier. He seems never to have seen Napier's ‘Con-
structio’ of 1619 ; and the work is very rare. The only copy I have been able to see is
that in the Cambridge University Library.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 15
quot sunt figura post periodum. Ut 10000000-04 valet idem, quod 100000004.
Ttem 25°803, idem quod 258°3,. Item 9999998-0005021, idem valet quod
9999998, 53221,,, & sic de ceteris.” On p.8 we have 10:502 multiplied by 3-216,
and the result found to be 33°774432; and on pp. 23 and 24 occur decimals not
attached to integers, viz. 4999712 and ‘0004950. These show that Napier was
in possession of all the conventions and attributes that. enable the decimal point
to complete so symmetrically our system of notation, viz. (1) he saw that a point
or separatrix was quite enough to separate integers from decimals, and that no
signs to indicate primes, seconds, &c. were required ; (2) he used ciphers after the
decimal point and preceding the first significant figure; and (3) he had no objec-
tion to a decimal standing by itself without any integer. Napier thus had com-
plete command over decimal fractions, and understood perfectly the nature of the
decimal point; and I believe (except, perhaps, Briggs) he is the first person of
whom this can be said. When I first read the ‘Constructio’ I felt some doubt
as to whether Napier really appreciated the value of the decimal point in all its
bearings, as he seemed to have regarded it to some extent as a mark to separate
figures that were to be rejected from those that were to be retained; but a careful
examination has led me to believe that his views on the subject were pretty nearly
identical with those of a modern arithmetician. There are perhaps 200 decimal
points in the book, affording abundant evidence on the subject.
The claim of Napier to the invention of the decimal point is not here noticed
for the first time, as both Delambre (‘ Hist. de l’Astron. mod.,’ t. i. p. 497) and
Hutton allude to the decimal fractions in the ‘Constructio’ (though the latter
claims priority for Pitiscus), and Mr. Mark Napier (‘Memoirs of John Napier,’
p. 454) devotes a good deal of space to it.
Briggs also used decimals, but in a form not quite so convenient as Napier.
Thus he writes 63:0957379 as 630957379, viz. he prints a bar under the decimals:
this notation first appears, without any explanation, in his ‘ Lucubrationes,’ ap-
pended to the ‘Constructio”*. Briggs used this notation all his life (he died in
1631), and he explains it in the ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica’ of 1624. Oughtred’s
symbol, first used (as far as I know) in his ‘ Arithmetice in numeris... Clavis,
1631, differed only from Briggs’s in the insertion of a vertical bar to separate the
decimals from the integers more completely—thus, 63|0957379. Oughtred’s and
Briggs’s notations are essentially the same, the improvement of the former being
no doubt due to the uncertainty that sometimes might be felt as to which was
the first figure above Briggs’s line. From an inspection of MSS. of Briggs and
Oughtred (the Birch MSS. contain a letter of Briggs to Pell; and the Royal Society
hhas a Peter Ramus, with many of his MS. notes, while the Cambridge University
copy of the ‘Constructio’ is annotated in MS. by Oughtred) it is apparent that,
in writing, Briggs and Oughtred both made the separating rectangle in exactly
the same way ; viz. they wrote it 6£(0957379, the upright mark usually being just
high enough to fix distinctly what two figures it was intended to separate, and they
rarely took the trouble to continue the horizontal line to the end of the decimals
if there were many. Thus Oughtred was a follower of Briggs, and only made an
improvement in the printed notation. It is clear that, in writing, Briggs’s rect-
angle was pretty nearly as convenient as Napier’s point ; and there is every proba-
bility that Briggs appreciated all the properties of the “ separatrix”’ as clearly as
Napier; but in his 8 pp. of ‘ Lucubrationes’ he has left much less to judge by than
has Napier. In 1624, as we can see from his ‘ Arithmetica Logarithmica,’ he had
full command over decimal arithmetic in its present form (except that he used
the rectangular “separatrix” instead of the point. Gunter was a follower of
Napier, and employed the point (but see De Morgan). In his ‘ Description and
use of the Sector’ (1623) he uses the point throughout pretty much as we do at
resent (e.g. p. 40 of the ‘ First Booke of the Crosse-Staffe,’ ‘As 4°50 unto 1:00: so
1-000 unto 0:222”’), except that he called the decimals parts in the text. In Roe’s
* A curious blunder is made in Bartholomew Vincent’s reprint of the ‘ Constructio,’
Lyons, 1620 (of which there is a copy in the Royal Society’s Library). The printer, un-
aware that the position of Briggs’s subscript rules had any meaning, has disposed them
symmetrically under all the figures.
16 REPORT—18738.
‘Tabule Logarithmic, or Two Tables of Logarithmes’ (1633), the explanatory
portion of which was written by Wingate, decimal points are used everywhere ;
thus we have (p. 29) “As 1 is to (079578 : so is the square of the circumference to
the superficiall Content;” and he takes the case of circumference 88°75, and
obtains by multiplication (performed by logarithms) 626°8 for the result. Wingate
refers for explanation on the decimal point to his ‘Arithmetic ;’ but I have not seen
any edition of this work that was published previously to Roe’s tables (Watt gives
one 1630). In his ‘Construction and Use of the Line of Proportion, 1628, Wingate
also uses decimals and decimal points.
On the whole, therefore, it appears that both Napier and Briggs saw that a
mere separator to distinguish integers from decimals was quite sufficient without
any exponential marks being attached to the latter—but that Napier used a simple
point for the purpose, while Briggs employed a bent or curved line, for which in
print he substituted merely a horizontal bar subscript to the decimals—that Gunter
and Wingate followed Napier, while Oughtred adopted Briggs’s method and made
an improvement in the mode of printing it. Napier has left so many instances
of the decimal point as to render it pretty certain that he thoroughly appreciated
its use; and there is every reason to believe that Briggs had (in 1619) an equal
command over his separator, although there are not enough printed instances of
that date to prove it so conclusively as in Napier’s case (there is no instance in
the ‘ Lucubrationes’ in which a quantity begins with a decimal point; and there
could not well be one). Napier did not use the decimal point in the ‘ Descriptio’
(1614), nor in his book of arithmetic, first printed under the editorship of Mr.
Mark Napier in 1839; and there is only the single doubtful case in the ‘ Rabdo-
logia,’ 1617 ; so that there is reason to believe that he did not regard it as generally
applicable in ordinary arithmetic. The only previous publication of Briggs’s that
I have seen is his ‘Chilias,’ 1617, which contains no letterpress at all. The
fact that Napier and Briggs use different separating notations is an argument
against either having been indebted to the other, as whoever adopted the other's
views would probably have accepted his separator too. It is doubtful whether, if
Napier had written an ordinary arithmetic at the close of his life, he would have
used his decimal point. Wingate employed the point with much more boldness,
and regarded it much more in the light of a permanent symbol of arithmetic
than did (or could) Napier. The Napierian point and the Briggian separator
differ but little in writing; and as far as MS. work is concerned it is quite easy to
see why many should have considered the latter preferable ; for it was clear, and
interfered with no existing mark. A point is the simplest separator possible; but
it had already another use in language. In all the editions of Oughtred’s ‘ Clavis’
(which work held its ground till the beginning of the last century) the rectangular
separator was used; and it is not unlikely that it was ultimately given up, for the
same reason as that which I believe will lead to the abandonment of the similar
sign now used in certain English books to denote factorials, viz. because it was
troublesome to print. But be this as it may, it is not a little remarkable that the
first separator used (or, more strictly, one of the first two) should have been that
which was finally adopted after a long period of disuse. All through the seven-
teenth century exponential marks seem to have been common, on which see the
accounts in Sir Jonas Moore’s ‘Moor’s Arithmetick,’ London, 1660, p. 10, and
Samuel Jeake’s ‘Compleat Body of Arithmetick,’ London, 1701 (written in 1674),
p- 208, which are unfortunately too long to quote in this abstract.
In his account Peacock is inaccurate in saying that the ‘ Logarithmicall Arith-
metike’ was published by Gellibrand and others, the mistake having arisen no
doubt from a confusion with the ‘Trigonometria Britannica,’ 1633; and in any
case the reference is not a good one, as the ‘Arithmetike’ of 1631 shows (for
reasons which must be passed over here) a less knowledge of decimal arithmetic
than do any of the chief logarithmic works of this period. Also Bnggs died in
1631, not 1630.
There is no doubt whatever that decimal fractions were first introduced by Ste-
vinus in his tract ‘La Disme.’ De Morgan (‘ Arithmetical Books,’ p. 27) is quite
right in his inference that it appeared in French in 1585 attached to the ‘ Pratique
d’Arithmétique.’ A copy of this work (1585) with ‘La Disme’ appended is now
ee ee et eee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 17
in the British Museum. On the titlepage of the ‘Disme’ are the words “Premiere-
ment descripte en Flameng, & maintenant conuertie en Francois, par Simon Stevin
de Bruges.” These words, appearing also in Albert Girard’s collected edition of
Stevinus’s works (1634), no doubt gave rise to De Morgan’s inference that “ the
method of decimal fractions was announced before 1585 in Dutch.”’ The Cambridge
University Library possesses a 1585 copy entitled “De Thiende ... Beschreven
door Simon Stevin van Brugghe..... Tot Leyden, By Christoffel Plantijn,
M.D.LXXXV ” (privilege dated December 20, 1584) ; and there seems every reason
to believe, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, that this was the first
edition of this celebrated tract. Peaceck’s statement that “it was first published
in Flemish about the year 1590, and afterwards translated into barbarous French
by Simon of Bruges,” is also, I suspect, founded on no ether evidence than the
sentence en the titlepage of the ‘Disme,’ which appears also in Girard. De
Morgan rightly remarks that Simon of Bruges is Stevinus himself, but he cannot
tell whence Peacock derived the date 1590. It is probable that it was merely a
rough estimate obtained by considering the dates of the other works of Stevinus.
Stevinus’s method involved the use of his cumbrous exponents: thus he wrote
27847 as 27 0 8 (1)4(2)7(8), and read it 27 commencements, 8 primes,
4 seconds, 7 thirds; and the question chiefly noticed in this abstract is the conside-
ration of who first saw that, by a simple notation, the exponents might be omitted,
and introduced this abbreviation into arithmetic.
Napier’s ‘ Rabdologia’ was translated into several languages soon after its ap-
pearance ; and I have taken some pains to examine the different ways in which the
translators treated the example which Peacock regarded as the first use of the
decimal point, as we can thereby infer something with regard to the state of
decimal arithmetic in the different countries. Napier (1617) wrote 1993,273 in
the work and 1995,2'7"3'" in the text. In Locatello’s translation (Verona, 1623)
this is just reversed, viz. there is 1993.2'7"3" in the work and 1993,273 in the text.
The Lyons edition (1626) has 1993,273 in the work and 1993,2(1)7(2)8(8)
in the text, while De Decker’s edition (Gouda, 1626) has 1993,273 in the work,
and in the text 1993 (0) 2 (a) ‘a (2) 3 (8) , the last being exactly as Stevinus
would have written it. Ursinus’s ‘ Rhabdologia Neperiana,’ Berlin, 1623, is not an
exact translation ; and the example in question does not occur there.
Some Suggestions towards the Formation of an extended Table of Logarithms.
By G. O, Hanon.
On the Theory of Differential Resolvents.
By the Rev. Rosrrr Harury, 7.2.8.
In the earlier development of the theory of differential resolvents attention was
confined almost exclusively to certain trinomial forms of algebraic equations, and
the resolvents were calculated for these forms, A connexion not before noticed
was found to exist between algebraic and differential equations; and results re-
markable for their simplicity and elegance were obtained. Some of these results
have been laid before the Section at former Meetings (see Reports of the Asso-
ciation, ‘Transactions of Sections,’ 1862, pp. 4,5; 1865, p. 6; 1866, pp. 2, 3).
Every differential resolvent may be regarded under two distinct aspects: it
may be considered either (first) as giving in its complete integration the solution
of the algebraic equation from which it has been derived, or (secondly) as itself
solvable by means of that equation. The two equations, the algebraic and the
differential, are in fact coresolvents. The subject was first considered in the former
aspect by Sir James Cockle, the originator of the theory, and by Mr. Harley; and
ee ches will be found embodied in various papers published in the ‘Phi- |
1873,
18 REPORT—1873.
losophical Magazine,’ the ‘Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,’ the ‘ Manchester
Memoirs,’ and the ‘Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.’ It has
been shown that every differential resolvent is satisfied, not only by each of the
roots, but also by each of the constituents of the roots of the algebraic equation to
which it belongs, and that these constituents are in fact the particular integrals of
the resolyent equation. In the latter aspect every differential resolvent of the form
utp(D)ew=0=U, [p = |
in which 6 is a variable parameter, and w considered as a function of @ is a root
of a certain algebraic equation of the (n+1)th degree, gives, when U is of an
order higher than the second, a new primary form—that is to say, a form not re-
cognized as primary in the late Professor Boole’s theory. And in certain cases In
which the dexter of the defining equation does not vanish, a comparatively easy
transformation will rid the equation of the dexter term; and the resulting dif-
ferential equation will be of a new primary form. The same transformation which
deprives the algebraic equation of its second term will deprive the differential
equation of its dexter term.
Boole, in his last paper before the Royal Society, entitled “ On the Differential
Equations which determine the form of the Roots of Algebraic Equations,” re-
marks :—“ While the subject seems to be more important with relation to differ-
ential than with reference to algebraic equations, the connexion into-which the
two subjects are brought must itself be considered as a very interesting fact.
As respects the former of these subjects, it may be observed that it is a matter
of quite fundamental importance to ascertain for what forms of the function
(D), equations of the type
u+¢(D) eeu =0
admit of finite solution. We possess theorems which enable us to deduce from
each known integrable form an infinite number of others. Yet there is every
reason to think that the number of really primary forms (of forms the knowledge
of which, in combination with such known theorems, would enable us to solve all
equations of the above type that are finitely solvable) is extremely small. It will
indeed be a most remarkable conclusion, should it ultimately prove that the forms
in question stand in absolute and exclusive connexion with the class of algebraic
equations here considered.” (Phil. Trans. for 1864, p. 733 et seq.)
In his later researches the author of this paper has sought to determine the
form of the differential resolvents of algebraic equations whose terms are complete,
and whose coefficients are unmodified. Mr. Spottiswoode has also considered the
question in this its most general aspect; and in a short paper on “ Differential
Resolvents,” printed in the second volume of the third series of the ‘Manchester
Memoirs,’ pp. 227-232, he has exemplified a method of finding the resolvents in
the cases of quadratics and cubics, which is directly applicable to all degrees.
This method, considered as a working process, possesses some advantages over that
employed by Sir James Cockle and Mr, Harley in dealing with trinomial forms.
Its chief peculiarity consists in effecting all necessary eliminations by means of
determinants.
Beginning with the quadratic
(a, b, e) (x, 1)?=0,
which gives
2(a, 6) (a, 1) a’+(@’, 8’, c’) (a, 1)?=0,
where differentiation with respect to the parameter is indicated by accents, Mr.
Spottiswoode forms a system of equations from which by the elimination of all
powers of x higher than the first, he deduces
—2x’' a 2b’ c' | =0,
. abe
1. ab
vw» -akss bee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 19
the differential resolvent required. The developed form is
2a(ac—b*)x’ — {a'(2b? — ac) —2b’ab+e'a*}.x —wWbe+2b'ca—c'ab=0,
a result which had been otherwise obtained previously by both Sir James Cockle
and Mr. Harley.
Proceeding to the cubic
(4, b, ¢, d) (x, 1)°=0,
Mr. Spottiswoode, with some assistance in the reductions from the author, finds
that the resolvent may be concisely written in the form
¥ 3E
AEe"+ 1 _ a apes a
|. HE] » + @ 3b'8c' d')=0,
+ |1EF' F|—2E], a'38' 3c'. d’. |
iz GG] hn 6 Sb Bed
NoaSh sox a"
ela)
BO) 2b (C..s
in which the values of A, E, F, G are as follow :—
Azla2b ¢ .|=a'd—Gabed+4ac+-4h'd—3b%%,
26 Dovid «
b2e d
a2be
the discriminant of the cubic.
SE _|q'3p'8e'd'| = a’. (—acd-+-4b'd—3bc)
4. |\a3b3cd| —6b'a(bd —c?)
a2b ec. +8c'a(ad —be)
a2be| —2d'a(ac —b?*).
SF =|a'30'se'a'| = a (—ad?+7bed 6c")
@ |a3b8ced| —8b'( acd+2b?d—3be*)
62 d. +8¢'( abd+2ac? —3b*c)
a2be + d( w&d—Tabe+6b*),
pos a 3b'3c'd'\= 2a'd(bd —c?*)
@ \a3b 3ed\| —8b'd(ad —be)
@2b c¢.| +6¢e'd(ac —b*)
b.2c da. + d (abd—4dac?+ 3b’).
Attempts have been made to exhibit the cubic resolvent as a single deter-
minant, but hitherto without success, the only result obtained (a determinant of
the 16th degree) haying proved illusory. The author has developed the resolvent
in the case of a=1, and he finds that it contains 203 terms. He has also nearly
completed the calculation of the cubic resolvent when the coefficients are all un-
modified. He hopes shortly to publish these results.
Eight years ago, at the Meeting in Birmingham, Mr. Spottiswoode communi-
cated to the author a method of solving algebraic equations by integration which
may be conveniently noticed here.
Let the general equation of the xth degree be represented by
(@) 4.0) (ay 0s ae Gate 4 ee
then, differentiating on the supposition that the coefficients are all functions of a
' single variable, we have
n(a,b,..) (2, 1)" tar+(da, 0b,..) (a, 1)"=0. a |
20 REPoRT—18793.
Now the coefficient of any term a” in the first part of the above equation
(n—1) (n—2)..(n—74+1) . (n—1)..(n—t+1)
ak 132.650) aie 12 cs
Hence (2) may be written thus,
(2a, aex-+-ob, 2bor+-20,..)(#,1)"=0;. . . . « - (3)
=i[n, 1], say.
be 0G 0b
or putting 7.=’, T= - -, (3) becomes
(anat, 2b-Ce, (2, 1) S0,,. = 2 eee
Now the resultant of (1) and (4) with respect to « is
ja [n, 1] b [n, 2] ¢
: a [n, 1] 6
n,
= 0... > 5 eee
a
|
; : Z |
a’ [n, 1](6'+a) [n,2](c'4+2b) . . |
Z a mVy(o'+ a). «|
a’
. . |
And if any one of the minors formed from the x upper lines of (5) be represented
by F (a, b,..), and the complementary one formed from the » lower ones by
F, (a, b'+a,..), and if further we write F, F, for F (a, b,..), F, @, 0, . .) re-
spectively, then (5) may be written thus :—
mn] ' ' 1) my Vv’
0=SF (a, 4, PL, o +a, ..)=SFF,|+3vFF,+3,5FF +. -s = (6)
thai ag tees ”
where V=aq +2b7 +8e5,+ ese eeetteec = CO:
The last two terms of (6) offer some peculiarity. In fact it is not difficult to see,
: 1 i :
by reference to (5) and (7), that the last term, viz. 255," ‘FF, is =a?0, where
D is the discriminant of (1). Also if we multiply (G) throughout by 22”, the last
term but one divided by the last will be the coefficient of ca” in an equation
for determining dz; in other words, it will be = —Sdr=n (2) =" (a o0b—b da).
ay a
So that sv" FF,=n(a2b—bva)0;
BSE Wh gan
1.2..(m—1)
and the last two terms of (6) are consequently
b
Ag Bs
=a Ge(n= +2). es l(t),
Consider the cases of n=2, and n=3. For the quadratic (a, b,c) (a, 1P?=
(6) takes the form
4a? (ac—b*) +8(ac—b*) (ab'—a'b) —4( be! —b'c) (ab'—a'b) +-(ac'—a'e) =0;
and if we subject the variability of the coefficients to the single condition ab!—ab
=0, the resultant reduces to
ae-aC 0 ¢
St ee
A eS +2/(b?—ac),
a
ce
whence ove to 7p a0) ee
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 21
or integrating and determining the constant by the condition that, when e=0, «=0,
we finally obtain the usual solution,
nd erred
%=— ataN (hae).
Next, for the cubic (a, b, c, d) (x, 1)?=0, SFI’, becomes
la Sb ae dd". . | = 0;
la! 3B! 8c d
. a3b 8e ad |
i aeblirac ide.
. - @ 86 8c oH
a’ 3b' 8c! d' |
and when written under this form it is seen that it is a cubic function of the
determinants
| abed |
i} a’ bc d' I;
or writing ab'—a'b=(ab), &c., FF, becomes
81(ab) (bc) (ed) +18 (ab) (ad) (ed) —27(ab) (bd)?
+ 9 ac) (ad) (bd)—27 (ed) (ac)?—(ad)*=0.
Also V(ab) =a, V (ac) =2ab, V (ad) =Sac,
V (bc) =2b?—ace, 7 (bd) = 3be—ad, 7 (ed) =3e°—2bd.
By means of these formule vFF, may be easily calculated ; and thence, with the
help of (8), the entire value of the resultant for the cxbic will be found. If, how-
ever, as in the case of the quadratic, we make (ab)=0, and then reduce by means
of the identical equation
b(ed) + e(db) +d(be)=0,
we find that
2
SFE, = ps {—a(bd)? +9b(bd)*(be)—27 (bd) (be)? +27 (be)*}
and
2
VEEF, = 955 {(ac—b*) (bd)*—3(ad be) (bd) (be) + 9(bd—c)"Cbe)*},
so that VSFF, is @ une facteur pres, the Hessian of SFT. In fact the whole
equation (6) takes the form
V—20H(V)0*+0(V)=9,
in which
V=a(bd)?—9b(bd)*(be) +27 (bd) (be)? +27 (be)°.
If, further, we make a’=0 and b'=0, the above expression retains the same form,
only in it d' takes the place of (bd), and ec’ of (4c). Finally, if we also make e'=0,
we have
ad d?
[ 8@—a0)+- 9 +o0=0 :
whence, substituting —d'=3(aa*+2bx-+c),
cl eee 8dx
: V—o V7 {4(62—ae) —(ax+b)2}?
W being now regarded as a function of d, the only remaining variable ; so that x
may be determined by integration, as in the case of the quadratic.
Those who are interested in this subject may compare the foregoing method
with that exemplified by the author in his paper entitled “On the Theory of
the Transcendental Solution of Algebraic Equations,” Quarterly Journal of Mathe-
matics, vol. v. pp. 337-360.
22 REPORT—1873.
Remarks on Professor Evans’s Method of solving Cubie and other Trinomial
Equations. By the Rey. Ropert Hartey, /.K.S.
Sur UIrrationalité de la Base des Logarithmes Hyperboliques.
Par Cu. Hermire.
On reconnaitra volontiers que dans le domaine mathématique, la possession
d’une vérité importante ne devient compléte et définitive qu’autant qu’on a réussi
a l’établir par pius d’une méthode. A cet égard, la théorie des fonctions elliptiques
offre un example célébre, présent 4 tous les esprits, mais qui est loin d’étre unique
dans l’analyse. Je citerai encore le théoréme de Sturm, resté comme enveloppé
d’une sorte de mystére jusqu’a la mémorable découverte de M. Sylvester, qui a
ouvert pour pénétrer au coeur de la question, une voie plus facile et plus féconde
que celle du premier inventeur. Telles sont encore dans |’arithmétique supérieure,
les lois de réciprocité entre deux nombres premiers auxquelles est attaché le nom a
jamais illustre d’Hisenstein. Mais dans cette méme science et pour des questions
du plus haut intérét, comme la détermination du nombre des classes de formes
quadratiques de méme invariant, on a été moins heureux, et jusqu’ici le mérite de
la premiére découverte est resté sans partage a Dirichlet. Knfin et pour en venir
a l’objet de cette note, je citerai encore dans le champ de l’arithmétique, la pro-
position de Lambert sur lirrationalité du rapport de la circonférence au diamétre,
et des puissances de la base des logarithmes hyperboliques. Ayant éte récemment
conduit & m’oceuper de ce dernier nombre, j’ai l’honneur de soumettre @ la réunion
de l’Association Britannique une démonstration nouvelle du théoreme de Lambert,
ou nintervient plus le calcul intégral, et qui, je l’espére, paraitra entiérement élé-
mentaire. Je pars simplement de la série :
n
x
ce
ee — —- —_——____——_-
C= laa hase |?!
et posant pour un instant :
2
eae ak
Bayt at TT aw
ce qui permet d’écrire :
e* — F(z) il x at
ssa 58 + +. => ——__
fn i we awepoh SoS Leer
il suffira comme on va voir, de prendre les dérivées d’ordre x des deux membres de
cette relation. Effectivement, on obtient d’abord :
x
Dy” hes e*b(x) ‘
tT an+l qen+ 1
ou (x) est un polynome a coefficients entiers du degré z, dont il n’est aucunement
nécessaire d’avoir l’expression qu'il serait d’ailleurs aisé de former. Nous remarque-
F(x ;
rons ensuite, a l’égard du terme Ew), que la differentiation effectuée » fois de
Y
suite, fait disparaitre les dénominateurs des coefficients, de sorte qu’il vient :
Pe 2) ee CD) :
aia b
© ntl gett
D
®,(x) étant un polynome dont tous les coefficients sont des nombres entiers. De
la relation proposée, nous tirons donc la suivante :
&b(x)—#,(x) _ S (K-41) (K+2)....(h-+n)a*
Fate MO, Gam a fate yee oan
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 23
ou bien, sous une autre forme:
- Aa aS yal aa yee
F0(2) 4 (2)=a™ EOE
kK+2n+1
oth Sh+DE+2)..h+n)at
Deh nn ln 22 hn
Or je dis qu’en faisant croitre n, le second membre, qui jamais ne peut s’évanouir,
deviendra plus petit que toute grandeur donnée, II en est effectivement ainsi du
2n+1 A ‘ . ke
2 : etn pes, AFL) (A+2). ..(h+0)a
facteur prrege h d’autre part, la série infinie tl “HA 2 EEA
Di 2 ste
& MDs k+n ad i A
mise sous la forme > are TE eS a on reconnait qu'elle a
ke Div. Fe k+n
es et re ea i sreee is § nenads
aa a ry ORY ea mB
étant
est inférieur & l’unité.
De 1a résulte qu’en suppcsant 2 un nombre entier, e* ne peut étre une quantité
commensurable qi car on aurait
F(x) —0,(a) = elas @®,(x)
et cette fraction dont le numérateur est essentiellement entier, d’aprés ce qui a été
établi a l’égard des polynomes &(#) et (x), ne peut sans étre nulle, descendre
au dessous de =
’ : * i ee Seah x 2
L’expression découverte par Lambert: Pause I ts) que j’évite ainsi
d’employer, n’en reste pas moins un résultat du plus grand prix et qui ouvre la
voie a des recherches curieuses et intéressantes. En supposant par exemple z=2,
on peut présumer qu'il restera quelque chose, de la série si simple des fractions
intégrantes ayant pour numérateurs le nombre constant 4, dans la fraction con-
tinue ordinaire équivalente, dont les numérateurs seraient l’unité. En effet, il
parait que de distance en distance, viennent alors s’offrir des quotients incomplets
continuellement croissants. C’est du moins ce qu’indique le résultat suivant, di &
M. G. Forestier, ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées & Rochefort. Prenant l’expres-
sion que nous ayons en vue, & partir du terme ow les fractions intégrantes sont
inférieures a 3, c’est-a-dire la quantité
44
aa
eh wget
M. Forestier a trouvé pour la fraction continue ordinaire équivalente
la série suivante, des quotients incomplets, g, q’, g", etc., 4 savoir: 2, 2,1, 20, 1, 10,
ma, 1, 2, 11,7, 1, 8, 1, 5, 1, 1, 1, 20, 8, 1, 3, 67, 2, 2, 3,1, 5, 1, 3,3, 4a
_Or on y voit figurer les termes 19, 20, 67, 147, qui semblent justifier cette pré-
vision.
24. REPORT— 1878.
On Modular Equations. By Professor Henry J. Srernun Surry, £.K.S.
On Triple Tangent Planes. By W. Srorriswoopr, F/.R.S.
On the Calculation of Logarithms. By the Rev. Henry Wace, M.A,
Brasenose College, Oxford, Chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn.
For the purpose of any further extension of our power of logarithmic computation,
the author thinks attention should be recalled to the principle of the method pro-
posed in 1845 by Mr. Weddle. An account of this method and of its history may
be found in Mr. Peter Gray’s preface to his ‘Tables for the formation of Logarithms
and Antilogarithms to twelve places,’ published in 1865. It combines with great
directness and simplicity the advantage of increasing in facility of application as
the number of places is increased to which the computation is carried. It may be
briefly described as a means for expressing all. numbers, of whatever magnitude, in
terms of certain factors to any required degree of accuracy. These factorsare of the |
form 1+:1".n, where m is any integer and m any simple integer. When tabulated
they present the following series :—
-9|-99)-999 -9999, 99999)
8-98 -998 -9998)-99998
797 997 9997|-99997
6-96 996 9996-99996
‘595/995 9995-99995) &e. Ke.
“4/-94|-994 -9994)-99994
-3)-93/-993|-9993 -99993
“2'-92/-992/-9992-99992
‘1-91-991/-9991)-99991
1/1-001)1-0001)
2/1-002!1-0002
3/1-003 1-003
1-004 1-0004
1-005 11-0005 &e, &e.
1-006 1-0006
1-007 1:0007
1-008 1-0008
'1-009'1-0009
He 00 |
Or
is
eeceeoss
“IO
te
CO ONID Ore CO bo
led tooo
Ko)
© Go
Os
For convenience the author proposes to call these the Constituent Factors, and
the former the negative, the latter the positive factors; and the tables of their
logarithms may be called positive and negative Constituent Tables. To find the
logarithms of numbers we use the negative table ; to find antilogarithms, the pos-
itive table. A single example will show how numbers may be expressed in terms
of the negative factors and of the integers up to 11.
A number on which Borda and Delambre have operated, viz. 543839, working to
twelve places of decimals, may be taken as an example. Divide by 10° and 5, and
the number becomes
1:087678,
Our next object is to destroy the significant figure 8 in the second place of decimals.
For this purpose multiply the number by 1—-08 or ‘92. This is the same thing as
to subtract from the number eight times itself advanced two places; and the work
is as follows :—
1:0|87 67|80'0
87 01/4214
1:0 00 66 37 6
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 25
By this multiplication we happen to have destroyed the third significant figure as
well as the second. To destroy the fourth, multiply again by 1—-0006; in other
words, subtract six times the number from itself four places in advance. We should
next multiply by 1—-00006 and 1 —-000003 ; and, after what has been said, the
process will be intelligible without further explanation :
1-000(6 637/60 00 0
'6.003/98 256
1-000 0/5 3361)74 4
8 0003/80 2
1-000 0 0/3357 94)2
‘3000 01.0
1-000 00 0357 932
The next factor required would be 1—-0000003; but it is evident that multiplica-
tion by this factor would not affect the twelfth place of decimals, and consequently
the last six significant figures thus obtained represent, without any further work,
the remaining factors required.
It is thus shown that
psn 028% (1-38) (1-8) (1-8) ( 8) (8)
% (35) (ge) * (yon) * (Fy90) * (age) =
or that, to the requisite degree of accuracy, 543839 can be expressed as a fraction,
the numerator of which is
and the denominator
O-B)CE)-B)-B)(-WES)
«(°F (8) (85) (a)
The method of applying the positive table to find antilogarithms is better known,
and need not here be explained.
It is further evident that we may by similar means express in terms of the nega-
tive factors the concluding figures of any number, or any decimal addition made to
a given number. Thus, suppose we know the logarithms of 543 to 12 places, and
wish to know that of 543:839, we operate on the latter number as follows :—
543'8 3 9/0 00)0 0010) x 999
543830 | |
543 2)9516/10000 x -999,5
27 16 4/75 805,
543 02135 134/195, x ‘999,96
2{1 7 209/405)
5430017924790, x-999,997
16290054
5430001634736 x3
1629000
5736) X°0,1
5 430)
306)
27 2)
“B4 x6
x 0,5
26 REPORT—] 873.
After working to half the number of figures, we proceed by simple division; and
the multipliers corresponding to the successive quotients are
-999,999,7, 999,999,999, &c.
This process may be regarded as a method of interpolation, and it appears to the
author simpler and more direct than that of differences. It enables us, in short, by a
direct operation to express differences in terms of a limited number of known factors.
The logarithms of these factors are determined with great facility from the fun-
damental series,
log I+y)=+ty—iy tay’ — ty't ke;
for y being of the form -1”, this series converges with great rapidity as m increases,
so much so that for the latter half of the number of columns required in a consti-
tuent table only the first term of the series is required. Suppose, for instance, we
are working to twenty places, then the hyperbolic logarithm of 1—-1"' 7 or of
-99999,99999,3= — -00000,00000,7.
The determination of hyperbolic logarithms by this method is therefore peculiarly
easy, the logarithms of the last half of the factors being written down for inspection
without reference to the tables,
A fuller development of this method, embodying perhaps some improvement in
its working, will be found in a paper contributed by the author to the ‘Cambridge
Messenger of Mathematics,’ which will appear in the September and October
Numbers of this year. The author has there furnished constituent tables for both
hyperbolic and denary logarithms to twenty figures ; and he has discussed the rela-
tion of the method to some modifications of it proposed by Mr. Gray and others. It
would occupy too much space to enter here on these collateral points; but the author
doss not think any modification of the method hitherto proposed retains its elasticity.
It affords, at all events, a valuable means of calculating and testing isolated logarithms,
and of extending partial tables of logarithms, such as are given in Callet, to a high
number of figures. The principle, moreover, of reducing numbers to the form 1:0
..--or100.... might be athplaged to facilitate the printinz of tables of ten or
twelve figures. If the logarithms were tabulated of the integers up to 11 and
of the numbers between | and 1:01 or 1-001, a short table of auxiliary constituent
factors would furnish the logarithms of all other numbers by very simple calculations.
Such a plan would probably be an improvement on that of the partial ten-figure
tables published ten years ago by Pineto,
Mecuanics anp Puysics.
On a Geometrical Solution of the following problem :—A quiescent rigid body
possessing three degrees of freedom receives an impulse ; determine the in-
stantaneous screw about which the body commences to twist. By Roperr
Srawett Batt, LL.D., PRS.
I,
For an explanation of the language used, and for proof of several theorems, re-
ference must be made to ‘‘ Theory of Screws,” Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy, vol. xxv. p. 157. :
All the screws about which the body can be twisted form a coordinate-system ;
one screw of the coordinate-system can be found parallel to any given direction.
An ellipsoid can be found such that the radius vector, from the centre to the
surface, is proportional to the twist velocity with which the body must twist
about the parallel screw, so that its kinetic energy shall be one unit. This is the
ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy.
Let s be the screw about which an impulsive wrench, F,, constitutes the given
impulse, All the screws belonging to the coordinate-system which are reciprocal
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 27
to s lie upon a cylindroid, the principal plane of which is called the reciprocal
plane. Then the required instantaneous screw w is determined ; for it is parallel to
that diameter of the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy which is conjugate to the
reciprocal plane.
he demonstration is as follows:—Any three conjugate diameters of the ellip-
soid of equal kinetic energy are parallel to three screws of the system, which are
conjugate screws of kinetic energy. The property possessed by three conjugate
screws of kinetic energy A, B, C, is that if A', B', C' be three impulsive screws
corresponding respectively to A, B, C as instantaneous screws, then A’ is reciprocal
to B and C, B' is reciprocal to A and C, C' is reciprocal to A and B.
If u be one of three conjugate screws of kinetic energy, the two others must be
parallel to the reciprocal plane, and therefore reciprocal to s. Hence an impulsive
wrench about s must make the body commence to twist about wu.
Ii.
The same construction may be arrived at in a different manner.
Let g be the screw of the coordinate-system which is normal to the plane reci-
procal to s.
Let aaa be the impulsive wrench which acts about s for the infinitely
small time ¢.
Let o, be the twist velocity with which a body must twist uniformly round g
in order to do one unit of work against F, in the time ¢.
Draw a plane parallel to the reciprocal plane at a distance w, from the kinematic
centre.
Draw the cone from the kinematic centre to the intersection of this plane with
the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy.
Then all the screws of the coordinate-system which are parallel to the gene-
rators of this cone possess the following property :—That if the body be constrained
to twist about any one of these screws it will, in consequence of the impulsive
wrench F’,, move off from rest with the unit of kinetic energy.
The screw s being given, F, will vary inversely as ,; consequently when the
plane touches the ellipsoid, and when the cone has shrunk to one right line, a
smaller impulse about s will give the body the unit of kinetic energy about the
screw of the system parallel to that line, than if the body had been constrained
about any other screw of the system.
Applying Euler’s theorem, that a body will always move off with the maximum
kinetic energy, we arrive at the construction already given.
Til.
Conversely, given the instantaneous screw w, about which the body will com-
mence to twist, selected from the general coordinate-system with three degrees of
freedom, determine the corresponding impulsive screw s.
This problem is really indeterminate ; the conditions to be fulfilled by s are
thus proved. Draw the plane in the ellipsoid of equal kinetic energy, conjugate
to the direction of w. Construct the cylindroid of screws belonging to the system
which are parallel to this plane, then s may be any screw reciprocal to this cylin-
droid. For example, through any point a cone of screws can be drawn, any one
of which, as an impulsive screw, corresponds to wu as an instantaneous screw.
Contributions to the Theory of Screws.
By Rozerr Stawert Barr, LL.D., FBS.
1. Coordinates of a Screw.—Six screws, each of which is reciprocal to the re-
maining five, are called a group of coreciprocals*. If the unit twist velocity about
* A group of six coreciprocals is intimately connected with the group of six funda-
mental complexes already introduced into geometry by Dr. Felix Klein (see ‘Math. Ann,’
Band ii. p. 208).
28 REPORT—1873.
a screw a be decomposed into six components, «,, &c., a,, about the coreciprocals,
then #,, &c., a,, are the coordinates of a.
The pitch of a is
: 2
25 Prax A
where p,, &c., p,, are the pitches of the coreciprocals.
The condition that two screws a, 8 are reciprocal is
Be Px Bx=0.
2. Impulsive and instantaneous Screws.—By proper selection of the coreciprocal
group the relation between an impulsive screw and the corresponding instanta-
neous screw is very simple. If «,, &c.,a,, be an instantaneous screw, then p,«,,
&e., p,a,, is the corresponding impnlsive screw. Two of the coreciprocals are
directed along each of the principal axes through the centre of inertia of the rigid
body ; and the corresponding pitches are -- and — the radius of gyration.
3. Conjugate Screws of Kinetic energy.—lf
'
D5 Pr7AxPx=9,
then the impulsive screw corresponding to a is reciprocal to 8 ; but precisely the
same condition expresses that the impulsive screw corresponding to @ is recipro-
cal to a.
On the Kinematics of a Rigid Body*. By Professor J. D. Evrrrrt, F.R.S.E.
The object of the paper is the investigation of the instantaneous movement of a
rigid body (having no point fixed). Such investigation has usually been confined
to properties depending on the consideration of two consecutive positions; and the
investigation is here extended to properties depending on three, and in the case of
motion in one plane to four and five consecutive positions.
The most general motion of a rigid body may, as is well known, be represented
by a succession of small screwings about successive lines called central axes; and
these successive central axes generate two ruled surfaces—one in the body, and the
other in space—these two surfaces being perfectly determinate in the case of any
given motion.
Two cones of determinate shape can be constructed by drawing through an arbi-
trary point of the body lines parallel to the successive central axes in the body,
and by drawing through an arbitrary point of space lines parallel to the successive
central axes in space. It is shown in this paper that the most general motion of a
rigid body can be represented by giving to the cone in space a motion of pure
translation, and causing the cone in the body to roll upon the cone thus translated.
Expressions are obtained for the curvatures of the two cones corresponding to a
given instantaneous motion, the data being derived from the consideration of four
consecutive positions of the body. When only three consecutive positions are
given, the curvatures of the two cones are indeterminate, being merely connected
by one equation of condition. Hence, so far as regards properties depending on
three consecutive positions, the instantaneous motion of a rigid body can always
be represented by the rolling of a right circular cone in the body upon a plane
which has a movement of translation in space. In this representation the curva-
ture of the circular cone is determinate, but its vertex is an arbitrary particle of
the body.
The Gar of those particles which at the instant considered have straight
motion, is investigated, and is found to be in general a cubic curve.
The curvatures of the two ruled surfaces at points on their respective lines of
striction are investigated ; and it is shown that the tangent plane to either of the
ruled surfaces at a point on the line of striction is perpendicular to the correspond-
ing tangent plane of the cone. The forms of the two ruled surfaces, at points very
* The paper will appear in full in the *‘ Quarterly Journal of Mathematics’ for 1874.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 29
distant from thé lines of striction, are investigated and shown to be ultimately
identical with the forms of the two cones.
The condition of intersection of successive central axes is investigated ; and ex-
pressions are obtained for the curvatures of the two cuspidal edges which are then
generated, one in the body and the other in space.
Throughout this investigation the motion is supposed to be specified with refer-
ence to rectangular axes fixed in space—the specifying elements being the three
component velocities of translation, the three component velocities of rotation, and
the differential coeflicients of these six velocities with respect to time.
The latter portion of the paper deals with motion in two dimensions. It is
shown that, in the most general motion of a plane rigid figure in its own plane,
the locus of points which at a given instant have straight motion is a circle
traversing the instantaneous centre; but one singular point on this circle is to be
excepted from the locus, namely the instantaneous centre itself, which, instead of
being (like other points on the circle) at a point of inflection of its path, is ata
cusp, and is moving with infinite curvature, whereas all other points on the circle
are moving with zero curvature. This startling result is confirmed by a com-
— of the cycloid with the trochoid. When a circle rolls along a straight
ine, a point just within the circumference describes a trochoid having two points
of inflection very near together, and the short connecting arc has a total curvatnre
of nearly 180°; whereas in the case of a point on the circumference, these features
are replaced by a cusp.
. The instantaneous curvatures of the paths traced by the particles of a moving
figure depend on three consecutive positions only. Four consecutive positions of
the figure are sufficient to determine two consecutive “circles of straight motion.”
Those two particles of the body which are situated at the intersections of these
two circles might at first sight be deemed to be points of double straight motion—
that is, to have straight motion for two consecutive instants; but on examination
it turns out that one of these two points is not a point of straight motion at all,
being, in fact, the singular point above mentioned. There is therefore in general
only one point of double straight motion. The position of this point is investi-
gated in the general case of one circle rolling on another, and its connexion with
the subject of “apparently neutral” equilibrium of a heavy body is pointed out.
On certain connexions between the Molecular Properties of Metals.
By Professor G. Fores.
On the Final State of a System of Molecules in Motion subject to Forces of any
kind. By J. Crurx Maxwett.
Since reading Principal Guthrie’s first letter on this subject (‘ Nature,’ May 22,
1873), Ihave thought of several ways of investigating the equilibrium of temperature
in a gas acted on by gravity. One of these is to investigate the condition of the
column as to density when the temperature is constant, and to show that when this
is fulfilled the column also fulfils the condition that there shall be no upward or
downward transmission of energy, or, in fact, of any other function of the masses
and velocities of the molecules. But afar more direct and general method was
peted to me by the investigation of Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann* on the final dis-
tribution of energy in a finite system of elastic bodies; and the following isa
sketch of this method as applied to the simpler case of a number of molecules so
great that it may be treated as infinite. -
Principal Guthrie’s second letter is especially valuable as stating his case in the
form of distinct propositions, every one of which, except the fifth, is incontrover-
tible. Ele has himself pointed out that it is here that we differ, and that this
difference may ultimately be traced to a difference in our doctrines as to the distri-
* Studien tiber das Gleichgewicht der lebendigen Kraft zwischen bewegten materiellen
Punkten, von Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann. Sitzb. d. Akad. d. Wissonsch. October 8, 1863
(Vienna).
30 REPORT—1873.
bution of velocity among the molecules of any given portion of the gas. He
-assumes, as Clausius (at least in his earlier investigations) did, that the velocities
of all the molecules are equal, whereas I hold, as I first stated in the Philosophical
Magazine for January 1860, that they are distributed according to the same law as
errors of observation are distributed according to the received theory of such errors.
It is easy to show that if the velocities are all equal at any instant they will
become unequal as soon as encounters of any kind, whether collisions or “ perihelion
passages,” take place. The demonstration of the actual law of distribution was
given by me in an improved form in my paper on the “ Dynamical Theory of Gases,”
Phil. Trans. 1866, and Phil. Mag. 1867; and the far more elaborate investigation
of Boltzmann has led him to the same result. I am greatly indebted to Boltzmann
for the method used in the latter part of the following sketch of the general
investigation.
Let perfectly elastic molecules of different kinds be in motion within a vessel
with perfectly elastic sides, and let each kind of molecules be acted on by forces
which have a potential the form of which may be different for different kinds of
molecules.
Let z, y, z, be the coordinates of a molecule, M, and &, n, ¢ the components of
its velocity, and let it be required to determine the number of molecules of a given
kind which, on an average, have their coordinates between x and x+dz, y and
yt+dy, z and z+dz, and also their component velocities between & and €+dé, n and
n+dn, and ¢and ¢+d¢. This number must depend on the coordinates and the
components of velocities and on the differences of the limits of these quantities.
We may therefore write it
AN=F(@, Yo %, & 75.0).a0 dy dz d& dn dl. ©. site
We shall begin by investigating the manner in which this quantity depends
on the components of velocity, before we proceed to determine in what way it
depends on the coordinates.
f we distinguish by suffixes the quantities corresponding to different kinds of
molecules, the whole number of molecules of the first and second kind within a
given space, which have velocities within given limits, may be written
fi (é, My) ¢,) dé, dn, =m, mee OR (2)
Fo (Ey May G) dba, Any d= 6 we ee (3)
The number of pairs which can be formed by taking one molecule of each kind
is n, 2.
Let a pair of molecules encounter each other, and after the encounter let their
component velocities be €,', n,', ¢' and &', n,', ¢,'.. The nature of the encounter is
‘completely defined when we know €—&, n.—m, &G—G the velocity of the second
molecule relative to the first before the encounter, and x,—zx,, y,—y,, 2,—2, the
position of the centre of the second molecule relative to the first at the instant of
the encounter. When these quantities are given, &,/—&,’, n,/—n,/, and ¢/—G/’, the
components of the relative velocity after the encounter, are determinable.
Hence, putting a, 8, y for these relative velocities, and a, b, c for the relative
positions, we find for the number of molecules of the first kind having velocities
between the limits &, and &,+dé&, &c., which encounter molecules of the second
kind having velocities between the limits &, and €,+d, &c., in such a way that
the relative velocities lie between a and a+da, &c., and the relative positions be-
tween a and a+da, &e.
Fi (E: my Gr) UE dy dE. f., (Ex May Ca) UE dy dC. ch (abc By) da db de daddy; . (4)
and after the encounter the velocity of M, will be between the limits é,' and
£,'+dé, &c., and that of M, between the limits &,' and &,'+dé, &e.
The differences of the limits of velocity are equal for both kinds of molecules,
and that both before and after the encounter.
When the state of motion of the system is in its permanent condition, as many
pairs of molecules must change their velocities from V,, V, to V,', V,! as from
and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 31
mh ve to V,, V,; and the circumstances of the encounter in the one case are pre-
cisely similar to those in the second. Hence, omitting for the sake of brevity the
quantities df &c., and ¢, which have the same values in the two cases, we find
ti (é, My Qh, (é., No» ¢,) =f, (E15 715 Cwiha (3% Biss bua) wing 6,15. 5 0 Oy
If we now write
log f (1, O=F(MV?,,m,n), 2 2. 2. ss @)
where /, m, m are the direction cosines of the velocity V of the molecule M,
taking the logarithm of both sides of equation (5),
F,(M,V7/,m,n,) + F,(M, V3l,m,n,) =F, (M,V320,m',n',) + FM V20ym'n',). (7)
_ The only necessary relation between the variables before and after the encounter
is
WY 2 ee Nee M2 a) on!) <) Siglied ae ee
If the right-hand sides of the equations (7) and (8) are constant, the left-hand
sides will also be constant; and since /,, m,, , are independent of /,, 1,,,, We
must have
F=—AM,V?2 and F,=—AM,V2,. . . ss es Q)
where A is a quantity independent of the components of velocity, or
—AM,Vi
Ai(Ey my O)=Cye tab Peer etie e 2 (KG)
—AM.V2
Fl E25 Nay G2) = Cre OB, Diths 38) os)” sé od Tag ee
This result as to the distribution of the velocities of the molecules at a given
place is independent vf the action of finite forces on the molecules during their en-
counter ; for such forces do not affect the velocities during the infinitely short time
of the encounter.
We may therefore write equation (1)
dN=Ce AME HP 0¢ dn dtdxdydz, » . . . . (12)
where C is a function of xyz, which may be different for different kinds of molecules,
while A is the same for every kind of molecule, though it may, for aught we know
as ye vary from one place to another. ;
et us now suppose that the kind of molecules under consideration are acted on
by a force whose potential is ¥. The variations of xyz arising from the motion of
the molecules during a time é¢ are
Som Edt, Oy—it, Be C8. kus cu ce em
and those of &, 7, ¢ in the same time due to the action of the force, are
dy dw dy
df= — 7, ot, n= — Gy d¢=— 7, ot. rein (2)
If we put
E=lopiCss NX. Wa Wen ec ek hyn
dN :
log ae ede dy de =o AMEE +7 +0): gh! this hae
The variation of this quantity due to the variations 62, dy,, 5z,, 5&, 67, 8¢ is
de de de 2
(e@ tng tha) ot
dw dy dy
2AN ae pale —) dt
Se r( é du bn dy +e tL) @)
ft
era eee
—M(E+ 77+) ( é*. ace +¢)ar.
32 REPORT—1873.
Since the number of the molecules does not vary during their motion, this
quantity is zero, whatever the values of &, 7, ¢. Hence we have in virtue of the
last term,
dA dA dA
ae. = =0, —- =O; 5.) Sue
Geert dy) da i)
or A is constant throughout the whole region traversed by the molecules.
Next, comparing the first and second terms, we find.
= —2AM(W+B).0 9 2 ic oS Pe
We thus obtain as the complete form of dN,
dN, =e AMET +05 +67 +21 + Body dy dzdédn dt, . . . (20)
where A is an absolute constant, the same for every kind of molecule in the vessel,
but B, belongs to the first kind only. ‘fo determine these constants, we must in-
tegrate this quantity with respect to the six variabies, and equate the re-ult to the
number of molecules of the first kind. We must then, by integrating
AN 3M (Ej tnt +0? +2y,),
determine the whole energy of the system, and equate it to the original energy.
We shall thus obtain a sufficient number of equations to determine the constant A,
common to all the molecules, and B,, B,, &c., those belonging to each kind.
The value of A determines that of the mean kinetic energy of all the molecules
in a given place, which is : = and therefore, according to the kinetic theory, it
va
also determines the temperature of the medium at that place. Hence, since A,, in
the permanent state of the system, is the same for every part of the system, it
follows that the temperature is everywhere the same, whatever forces act upon
the molecules.
The number of molecules of the first kind in the element dz dy dz,
(=)? —AMy(2y1+B,)
Ay ?
The effect of the force whose potential is y, is therefore to cause the molecules
of the first kind to accumulate in greater numbers in those parts of the vessel
towards which the force acts; and the distribution of each different kind of
molecules in the vessel is determined by the forces which act on them in the
same way as if no other molecules were present. This agrees with Dalton’s
doctrine of the distribution of mixed gases.
GO'UY Tite, As, a) ie a fas
On the Awis of least Moments in a Rectangular Beam. By Joun Nuytire.
——
On certain Phenomena of Impact. By Professor Osporne Reynoxps.
On Athereal Friction. By Professor Batrour Stewart, LL.D., PRS.
Prof, J. 0. Maxwell has made a series of experiments on the friction of gases.
In these experiments a horizontal disk was made to oscillate in an imperfect va-
cuum near a similar disk at rest, and it was found that the motion of the oscilla-
ting disk was carried away by the residual gas of the vacuum at a rate depending
on the chemical character of the gas, and depending also upon its temperature, but
nevertheless independent of its density.
While the temperature of the arrangement remained constant, it was found by
Prof. Maxwell that this fluid friction was rather greater for atmospheric air than
for carbonic acid, while for hydrogen it was about half as great as for air.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 30
On the other hand, when the temperatures were made to vary, the result was ”
found to be proportional to the absolute temperature,
These experiments do not show that there is no such thing as «ethereal friction—
that is to say, friction from something which fills all space and is independeat of
air; but we may argue from them that such an ethereal friction must either have
been nearly insensible in these experiments, or it must, as well as the friction from
the gas, have varied with the absolute temperatures, in which case the two frictions
would not be separable from one another by the method of the experiment.
Prof, Tait and myself have made some experiments upon the heating of a disk
by rapid rotation x vacuo. In these experiments we found a mere surtace-heating
due to air, which varied not only with the quality but also with the quantity of the
residual gas; and we also found a surface-etlect (more deeply seated, however, than
the former) which appeared to be a residual effect, and which it is possible may be
due to ethereal friction. We made no experiments at varying temperatures; but
we made use of various residual gases, and found that the heating-effect for
carbonic acid was perhaps a trifle less than for air, while that for hydrogen ap-
peared to be about four times less than that for air. Now, comparing Prof. Max-
well’s experiments with ours, we have in the former a stoppage of motion, which is
rather less for carbonic acid than for air, and about half as large for hydrogen as
for air. In the latter, again, we have a heating-eftect rather less for carbonic acid
than for air, and only about one fourth as large for hydrogen as for air. Thus it
appears that the stopping effect of hydrogen in Prof. Maxwell’s experiments is re-
latively greater in comparison with air than is its heating-effect in our experiments
when compared with that of air. The effects of these various gases would bear to
one another more nearly the same proportion in both experiments if we might
suppose that in Prof. Maxwell’s experiments there was mixed up with gaseous
friction a very sensible xthereal friction; but in that case it would be necessary to
suppose that the ethereal friction was proportional to the absolute temperature.
During the Meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh, I brought before the
Association reasons for imagining that if we have a body in visible motion in an
enclosure of constant temperature the visible motion of the body will gradually be
changed into heat. The nature of the argument was such as to render it probable
(although not absolutely certain) that in such a case the rapidity of conversion will
be greater the higher the temperature of the enclosure.
I will now refer to some experiments of Prof. Tait, which formed the subject of
the last Rede Lecture. These experiments were suggested to Prof. Tait by an
hypothesis derived from the theory of the dissipation of energy, which led him to
think that the resistance of a substance to the conduction of electricity, and also of
heat, would be found proportional to the absolute temperature. Matthiessen and
Von Bose in the case of electricity, and Principal Forbes in the case of heat, had
already proved that, as a matter of fact, the law was not very different from that
imagined by Prof. Tait. The result of these experiments has been to confirm the
truth of this law.
_ The following considerations, also connected with the dissipation of energy, point
to the same conclusion. Perhaps we may regard the xthereal medium as that
medium whose office it is to degrade all directed motion and ultimately convert it
into universally diffused heat, and in virtue of which all the visible differential
motion of the universe will ultimately be destroyed by some process analogous to
friction.
Now in order to imagine the way in which «ther may possibly act in bringing
about this result, let us imagine some familiar instance of directed motion, as, for
instance, a railway-train in motion. The train, let us suppose, and the air in it,
are both in rapid motion, while the air outside is at rest. Now as the train pro-
ceeds, suppose that a series of cannons loaded with blank cartridges are fired
towards the train. A series of violent sounds will go in at the one window and
out at the other of each carriage. Each sound will push some air from the stratum
of air at rest into the carriage on the one side, and it will push some air from the
carriage into the stratum at rest on the other side. Now in this operation it would
seem that part of the visible motion of the train must be taken frum it. To make
a comparison, it is as if a series of individuals were jumping into the train at the
1873.
34 REPORT—1873.
. one side and out of it at the other, the result being that each carries away so much
of the motion of the train, and therefore renders it difficult for the engine to drive
the train. Each individual comes to the ground with an immense forward impetus
and rubs along the ground till this is lost, in fact he carries with him so much
motion of the train and conyerts it into heat by friction against the ground.
Now something similar to this must happen to a substance in visible motion in
an enclosure of constant temperature. The rays of light and heat will play very
much the same part as the waves of sound, or as the crowd of people in the above
illustration, at least if we except those which fall perpendicularly upon the surface
of the moving body. The moving body is like the train, and the rays of light and
heat are similar to individuals entering the train from a stratum of ether at rest,
and leaving the train into a stratum of ether at rest again, each probably transmu-
ting into heat a certain small portion of the visible motion of the train as it were
by a species of friction. Of course the intensity of such an influence would depend
upon the intensity of the rays of light and heat. Now it matters not what the
particular kind of motion be which constitutes this train, and we may assert that
all directed motion will suffer from such a cause, and possibly according to the
same laws. Visible motion, such as that of a rotating disk or of a meteor is of
course one form of such motion; but a current of electricity or of heat may equally
represent some form of directed motion. In fine we may perhaps suppose that all
forms of directed motion are resisted by this peculiar influence, which evidently
depends upon what we may term the temperature of the ether, or at least upon the
intensity of those vibrations which the ether transmits.
ASTRONOMY.
On the Importance and Necessity of continued Systematic Observations on the
Moon’s Surface. By W.R. Bret, F.RAS.
Note on the Proper Motions of Nebule.
By Wittram Hueains, D.C.L., LL.D., PRS.
There are three kinds of motion which we may expect to exist in a nebula, which,
if sufficiently rapid, might be detected by the spectroscope :—
1. A motion of rotation in the case of the planetary nebule, which might be dis-
covered by placing the slit of the spectroscope on opposite limbs of the nebula.
2. A motion of translation in the visual direction of some portions of the nebu-
lous matter within the nebula. Such motion might possibly be detected by com-
paring, in a See ee of sufficient dispersive power, the spectra of different parts
of a large nebula such as that in Orion.
3. A motion of translation in space of the nebula in the line of sight.
The observations to be described were undertaken with the view of searching for
this last kind of motion, namely that of the whole nebula in the line of sight. For
this purpose it is necessary to compare the lines of the nebula with those of a ter-
restrial substance which has been found to be in the nebula. Now the coincidence
of the third and fourth line of the nebular spectrum with lines of hydrogen was
available in the case of a few only of the brightest nebule.
I had found that the apparent coincidence of the brightest line of the nebule with
the brightest line in the spectrum of nitrogen was not maintained when a more
powerful spectroscope was used. The nebular line was then seen to be thin and
defined, while the line of*nitrogen appeared double and each of its components
nebulous at the edges. The thin line of the nebula coincides very nearly with the
less refrangible of the two lines forming the double line of nitrogen.
Fortunately I found a line which appears under some conditions of the spark in
the spectrum of lead, which is single, defined, and occurs exactly at that part of
the spectrum, This line is represented in Thalén’s map by a short line, to indicate
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 35
that under ordinary conditions of the spark, when the characteristic lines of lead -
are strong, this line is seen only in the part of the metal vapour which is close to
the electrode. I found, however, that under other conditions of the electric dis-
charge this line extends across the spectrum, and becomes bright, at the same time
that the principal lines of the lead-spectrum are very faint.
A simultaneous comparison of this line with the brightest of the lines of the
nebulz showed that, if not truly coincident, it was sufficiently so, under the powers
of dispersion which can be applied to the nebulz, to serve as a fiducial line of com-
parison in the observations which I had in view.
Ineed not say that the coincidence of the lines does not indicate the presence
of lead in the nebula.
I found that in the spectrum of the great nebula in Orion, at the same time that
the third line was seen to be coincident with H, the first line appeared to coincide
with the line in the spectrum of lead. There was a very slight apparent excess of
breadth in the nebular line, due possibly to its being in a small degree the brighter
of the two, which appeared to extend towards the red, so that the more refrangible
sides of the lines were in a right line.
The lead line could now be used as a fiducial line for the examination of the
motion of the nebule which are too faint to permit of direct comparison with hy-
drogen.
By this method the following nebule have been carefully examined. In all
these nebulz the relative position of the first nebular line with the lead line was
found to be exactly the same in a spectroscope containing two compound prisms
which together give a dispersion about equal to that of four single prisms of dense
flint of 60°.
The results, though negative, are, however, not without interest, as they show
that these nebulz were not moving toward or from the earth with a velocity so
great as thirty miles per second.
List of Nebula.
h. H.
No. 1179, 360. M. 42.
No. 4234, 1970, 2. 5.
No. 4373. IV. 37.
No. 4390. 2000. 3. 6.
No. 4447. 2073. M. 57.
No. 4510. 2047. IV. 51.
No. 4964, 2241. IV. 18.
The numbers in the above list are from Sir J. Herschel’s ‘General Catalogue of
Nebulee.’
On the Application of Photography to show the passage of Venus across the
Sun’s Disk. By M. Janssen.
Results of some recent Solar Investigations. By J. Norman Locxyer, F.R.S.
On the Visibility of the Dark side of the Planet Venus.
By Professor A. Scuararrx, Prague.
[Ordered to be printed iz extenso among the Reports. |
38*
36 REPORT—18723.
Lieut.
Experiments on Light with circularly ruled plates of Glass.
By Pari Branam, F.C.8.
A point of light, viewed at a distance through plates of glass with concentric
circles ruled thereon, is seen to be surrounded by rings of brilliant colours. The
author tried the experiment of introducing the ruled glass into a beam of sunlight
3 an inch in diameter, and viewing the rings on a screen placed 10 feet from the
ruled plate, with the following results :—
With 2500 lines to the inch there appear two rings of colour, the diameters of
the red rings (which are always outward) being 1 foot 5 inches and 2 feet 10 inches,
the width of the rings from the outside of the red to the inside of the violet in each
case being respectively 33 inches and 6} inches.
With 3500, 1 foot 8 inches and 3 feet 3 inches, width 41” and 8”.
With 5000, only one ring 3 feet in diameter, width 8”.
With 10,000, one ring 5 feet in diameter, width 11”.
There are other rings visible, but they are faint and indefinite.
The coloured rings are also seen by reflection from the outer glass, with the same
angular dispersion.
On some Abnormal Effects of Binocular Vision. By W.S. Davrs.
While using a Herapath blowpipe a short time since, and haying my eyes fixed
intently on a bead held in the flame, I was suddenly startled by seeing the papered
wall, which was about three feet in front of me, make its appearance close up to
the point of the flame, the patterns of the paper being at the same time much
diminished in size, Casting my eyes from side to side, and upwards and down-
wards, the appearance still remained as distinct as in ordinary sight; on moving
my eyes beyond the boundary of the wall the appearance immediately vanished.
I afterwards succeeded in reproducing the appearance by simply looking at the wall
and converging the optic axes of my eyes.
It occurred to me that the phenomenon I had seen was due to the erossing of the
optic axes of my eyes, the angle being such that each eye received the impression
of a precisely similar figure. Under these circumstances a single figure would be
seen, as when a single flat object is viewed with both eyes in ordinary sight. In
order to satisfy myself that this was the correct explanation I made a geometrical
construction, traced the relations which should hold, and verified them by actual
measurements. m
Continuing my experiments, I succeeded by a further convergence of the optic
axes to combine alternate patterns, and pairs still more widely separated, up to
twelve or more. It is a very interesting experiment to combine a given pattern
with, say, the fifth or sixth from it, and then by a peculiar effort, more easily made
than described, to let one pattern slip at a time, the wall retreating by steps as each
pattern is slipped.
On one occasion, when I had combined two patterns at some distance apart, |
happened to shut one eye, when, to my surprise, the combinational figure remained
as distinct and at the same distance as before. I can only account for this by sup-
posing that the muscles of the eye which was closed were still acting in sympathy
with those of the open eye; and subsequent experiments favoured this view.
The results of the foregoing experiments led me to think that it would be possible
to optically combine two patterns without crossing the optic axes, provided the
distance between the centres of the patterns was not greater than that between the
centres of the eyes. This I succeeded in doing, and the result was very remarkable :
the wall appeared to retreat and take up a fixed position at some distance beyond its
actual position; on looking slowly upwards and sideways along the wall the di-
mensions of the room appeared to be enormously increased, while on looking down-
wards I appeared to be perched on asort of gallery, the wall appearing to be several
yards from me, and descending many yards below the floor on which I was standing.
This appearance was as vivid and distinct as in the case of ordinary vision.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 37
With patterns on a horizontal surface, such as a carpet, the results were very curious.
On combining pairs of patterns with the optic axes crossed, I appeared to be stand-
ing in a hole with the level of the floor up to my waist, while on combining pairs
of patterns with the optic axes uncrossed, | was apparently standing on a pedestal
with the widely expanded floor far below me ; and so strong was the delusion, that
I could scarcely venture to move for fear of falling over.
Colours I found could be fairly well combined by painting two patterns different
colours and then causing the two to coalesce, with or without crossing the optic
axes, :
I have also succeeded in combining two solid bodies of the same size and shape,
but of different colour, both with the optic axes crossed and with them uncrossed.
Perhaps one of the most curious experiments I have made of this kind is to opti-
ony combine the heads of two persons, thereby producing a combinational figure
of the two.
On a Refraction-Spectrum without a Prism.
By Professor J. D. Evrergrtr, £.R.S.L£.
Tt was pointed out by Wollaston in the Philosophical Transactions for 1800, that
triple images can be obtained by looking at real objects through the stratum of
intermixture of two liquids of different refractive powers, one of which has been
gently poured on the top of the other.
Having set up an arrangement of this kind last spring, in a cubical vessel (mea-
suring 6 inches each way) with plate-glass sides, a strong solution of common salt
being the lower liquid and pure water the upper, I observed such decided colour-
effects, that the idea occurred to me of trying whether a spectrum could be obtained.
I accordingly placed the vessel of liquid on a high stool in the centre of a dark room,
and looked through the stratum of intermixture at a horizontal slit in the window-
shutter, which was about 10 feet distant, and was below the level of the said stra-
tum. The following were some of the phenomena observed, about a week having
elapsed since the liquids were placed in the vessel. When the eye was at any dis-
tance less than about 3 feet from the vessel, one image of the slit was seen. It was
highly coloured, forming a very impure spectrum, with blue above and red below.
Its apparent position was above the real slit, and at about the same distance from
the observer.
When the eye was at a distance of 33 feet or upwards from the vessel, three
images of the slit were visible. At some distances they could all be seen at once.
At other distances two could be seen at once, and the third came into view on rais-
ing or lowering the eye. All three of them were above the true direction of the
slit, and all were highly coloured. The highest and the lowest were virtual images,
and were almost precisely alike and similar to the single image above described,
They were erect images, and had accordingly blue above and red below. Between
them, when the eye was at a proper height, was seen another image with more
colour than either, and with the colours in inverted order, that is to say, with
red above and blue below. It was in fact a real and inverted image, formed at
the distance of about 3 feet from the vessel; and a screen held,there received the
image in the form of a horizontal line of light with coloured edges, the action of
the liquid being somewhat similar to that of a cylindrical lens. All the images
were very impure in colour, being nearly white in their central portions.
The colours were improved by lowering the eye so as to make the middle image
move up to the highest. Red was the first colour that appeared at the junction ;
and it showed extremely well. Violet (or when the light was feeble, blue) was
the last colour that was seen before both images became extinct by the descent of
the obseryer’s eye.
The largest sheets of colour were seen when the eye was exactly at the place
where the real image was formed. It was easy to obtain a long vertical strip of
blue by holding the eye at the distance of about 3 feet, and a long vertical strip of
red by holding the eye at the distance of about 4 feet. A long vertical strip of rich
yellow could be obtained at an intermediate distance.
The experiment was varied by holding close in front of the eye a card with a
38 REPORT—1873.
fine horizontal slit, the observer of course looking through the slit ; and in some
of the observations this card was fixed in an adjustable stand, and the slit brought
into coincidence with the real image before looking through. The red and blue
were not much altered by the introduction of the card; but yellow could with diffi-
culty be obtained, the yellow previously obtained having in fact been a highly com-
posite colour.
The apparatus was left to itself for several days; and its focal length was found
to be continually increasing; that is to say, the real image receded further and
further from the vessel, the average recess (estimated very roughly) being about a
foot per day, till it reached the wall, which was 10 feet distant.
The experiment was repeated, first with solution of sugar of lead, and secondly
with solution of alum, in place of solution of salt; but the original experiment gave
the finest displays of colour.
There is no difficulty in explaining the phenomena above described, They are
mainly due to the bending of rays towards that side on which the index of refrac-
tion is greatest (which in the above instances is the lower side), and to the fact
that this bending is greatest for the rays of shortest wave-length. The magnitude,
however, of the chromatic effect is very startling; and I am not aware that any
such results have been previously recorded.
Possibly the increase of focal length in such an arrangement as is above described
may be found to furnish a convenient test of the rapidity of liquid diffusion.
On Irradiation. By Professor G. Forses.
Photographs of Fluorescent Substances. Exhibited by Dr. Guavstonr, F.R.S.
These photographs were of the same nature as those exhibited at the Meeting in
1859, to show that the alteration of the refrangibility of the extreme rays of the
spectrum by fluorescent substances reduces their chemical activity. But'as it had
been objected that the lessened photographic effect might be due to a change of
surface through wetting the paper and coating it with a salt, a crucial experiment
was made by writing on a piece of white paper with black ink, bisulphate of qui-
nine, bisulphate of potash, common salt, and pure water. When this was photo-
graphed, the writing in water or in the non-fluorescent salts was not perceptible,
but the fluorescent quinine was strongly rendered, though not so strongly as the ink.
In another photograph, however, two glasses filled respectively with ink and with
a very strong but colourless solution of quinine, came out equally almost black.
On the Dresser-Rutherford Diffraction-grating.
By J. Norman Locxyzur, F.R.S.
On the Relation of Geometrical Optics to other Branches of Mathematics and
Physics. By Professor Crunk Maxwett.
y ZF:
The author said that the elementary part of optics was often set before the student
in a form which was at once repulsive to the mathematician, unmeaning to the phy-
sical inquirer, and useless to the practical optician. The mathematician looked for
precision, and found approximation ; the physicist expected unity in the science,
and found a great gulf between geometrical and physical optics; and the optician
found that if he had to design a microscope, he was expected to combine the ana-
lytical power of a Gauss with the computative skill of a Glaisher before he could
make head or tail of the formule. The author maintained that elementary optics
might be made attractive to the mathematician by showing that the correlation
between the object and the image is not only an example, but the fundamental type
of that principle of duality which was the leading idea of modern geometry. The
object and image were homographic figures, such that every straight line or ray in
the one was represented by a straight line or ray in the other. The relations between
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 39
pairs of figures of that kind formed an important part of the geometry of position,
an excellent treatise on which had been brought out by M. Theodor Reye. To the
physicist he would exhibit the unity of the science, by adopting Hamilton’s cha-
racteristic function as explained in his papers on systems of rays, and using it in the
most elementary form from the very beginning of the subject, leading at once to the
undulatory theory of light. At the same time the practical optician would learn what
were the cardinal points of an optical instrument, and would be able to determine
them without taking the instrument to pieces. Helmholtz and Listing had pointed
out the advantages of the method to the oculist; and Beck had recently placed some
of the elementary points in a clear light. Casorati had also exemplified some of the
advantages of the method of homographic figures in elementary optics; but though
Gauss, the modern founder of that method, and several others, had made honourable
mention of the name of Roger Cotes, and of that theorem with respect to which
Newton said that “if Mr. Cotes had lived we should have known something,” no
one seemed to have suspected that it would form the meeting-point of all the three
methods of treating the science of optics.
On a Natural Limit to the S harpness of the Spectral Lines.
By Lord Rayzreten.
[Published in extenso in ‘ Nature’ for Oct. 2, 1873.]
On the Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the Widening of the Lines
in the Spectra of Gases. By Artuur Scuuster, Ph.D.
The question has often been discussed whether it is temperature or pressure which
causes the widening of the lines in the spectrum of hydrogen. Some spectroscopists
are of opinion that this widening of the lines is caused by the clashing together of
the gaseous molecules, while others seem to think that the forces which maintain
the molecule in vibration are altered by the temperature, and now allow the mole-
eule to vibrate in different or less-defined periods. It is difficult to decide the
question by experiment. The only means we have to render the gas luminous is to
ass an electric current through it. But we know not in what way this current
influences the velocity of the molecules, and therefore the number and force of the
shocks. Wecannot alter the temperature of the spark without altering the pressure
within it; and therefore we cannot decide the question, as has been tried, by merely
changing the mode of discharge. The following considerations seem to me to be
strongly in favour of the view that each separate molecule would show at all tem-
peratures the narrow lines, but that the shocks of the other molecules cause the
widening. Frankland and Lockyer have found that if we increase the pressure of
hydrogen while an electric current is passing through it, the lines begin to expand,
all the spectrum becomes continuous, and, finally, the resistance becomes so large
that the electric current will not pass at all. On the other hand, Gassiot and Pliicker
have observed that if we diminish the pressure of hydrogen its electric resistance
diminishes, attains a minimum, then increases again ; and if we keep on exhausting
the tube, it becomes so great again that the current cannot pass. Plicker says that
a tube exhausted to its utmost limits shows the lines of hydrogen and silica. He
says at one place, “I think that the lines are very fine and distinct.” If there
had been any widening, he would have been sure to mention it. Now it is not
too much to assume that the resistance of the gas at the moment when the
discharge just ceases to pass is the same whether the increase of resistance is pro-
duced by too great a pressure or too great an exhaustion. At this moment, there-
fore, the current is the same, and the same energy must be converted into heat by
resistance. But in the case in which the current does not pass on account of the
excessive diminution of pressure, there is only a much smaller quantity of gas to be
heated than in the other case; it must consequently be heated up to a much higher
temperature; and yet the spectrum is not continuous; the lines are not even
widened. We are therefore compelled to accept Frankland and Lockyer’s original
conclusion, that pressure, and not heat, is the cause of the widening of the lines.
40 ~ REPORT—18738.
On a curious Phenomenon observed on the top of Snowdon.
By Axrtnvr Scuuster, Ph.D.
This was a short account of a curious phenomenon observed by the author two
years ago on the top of Snowdon. He saw his own shadow surrounded by five
concentric coloured bows, which seemed to approach as the fog came nearer, until
at last he saw the shadow of his head surrounded by a brilliantly coloured ring.
Similar phenomena haye often been observed ; but so great a number of bows has
never been seen.
Hear.
On Thermal Conductivity. By Prof. G. Forzers.
Notes of some Experiments on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks.
By Prof. A. 8. Hurscart, B.A., ERAS.
The paper read was an abstract of the physical portion of that communicated to
the Geological Section by Professor Herschel and Mr. G. A. Lebour. It was re-
marked that the principal difficulty in determining thermal conductivities from
experiments with thin plates, is to ascertain the real temperatures of their faces
during the transmission of the heat. The measurements of temperature were
made with thermoelectric couples of thin platinum and iron wires connected with
a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer; and it was found that although enclosed
between two metallic plates differing as much as 80° or 90° C. from each other
in temperature, the corresponding range of temperature between the two surfaces
of the half-inch rock plates employed in the experiments only amounted at most
to between 3° and 5° C., while the amount of heat transmitted with this range
corresponded very nearly to the approximately known thermal conductivities of
the rocks. The thermal resistance between the surfaces of solid conductors and
air or other fluids in which they are immersed haying been shown by Peclet to
arise from an adhering film of the badly conducting fluid with which they are in
contact, it is proposed in another series of experiments, by varying the thicknesses
of the conducting plates, to ascertain the laws of this resistance, and, if they admit of
a convenient interpretation, to arrive at some simple means of eliminating the effects
of its influence upon the calculated results of experiments like those to which the
various rock-specimens now examined have hitherto been provisionally submitted,
and to obtain exact determinations of their real powers of conducting heat.
On the Correlation between Specific Weight and Specifie Heat of Chemical
Elements. By Prof. Zunenr.
Ecrcrriciry anp MAGnetism.
On the Molecular Changes that accompany the Magnetization of Iron, Nickel,
and Cobalt. By W.F¥. Barnerr.
On the Relationship of the Magnetic Metals, Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt.
By W. F. Barrerr*.
* See the Philosophical Magazine for December 1873, p. 478.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. Ad
On Symmetric Conductors, and the construction of Lightning-conductors.
By Prof. Cu. V. Zencur*.
It is an experiment very well known in physics, to place two insulated metallic
hemispheres in contact with an insulated sphere of brass. If the former be charged
with electricity and removed from the inner brass sphere, no trace of electricity is
found on its surface. The electricity is shown to be accumulated only on the sur-
face of the outer spherical conductor, with equal tension at every point of that
surface,
_ The author shows that if the outer hemispheres be replaced by two circular
wires, no action whatever will be found on the inner conductor. This fact may be
best illustrated by the apparatus shown, which consisted of a very sensitive electro-
scope placed on a brass plate, supported by a well-insulated stand. If a charged
ebonite rod be brought near to the electroscope when protected by two circular
wires placed round it, in such a manner as to be in connexion with its gold leaves,
or even if it is brought into contact with the ball of the electroscope, there is no
action upon the leaves; and if the electrified rod be brought between the two
wires and the electroscope itself, only a small action is observed. The author has
tried this experiment with a powerful electric machine (a Holtz machine), and
finally with a large induction-coil of Ruhmkorff; and the result was, that sparks
of 35 centims. length produced no effect on the electroscope.
At the request of M. Faye, Ruhmkorff made similar experiments with his largest
electric machines, putting a workman in the space between the protecting wires.
There was no sensation of electric shocks on using the most powerful electric
machine, though a shock was felt on the head of a workman when a large induc-
tion-coil was used. The author showed that the effect produced by the action of
the pointed needle, though greatly diminished by the wires, is yet sensible, and
that in Ruhmkorft’s experiment a discharge produced by the interference of a
pointed body may account for the difference observed by him.
Tt is easy to see that this experiment may prove useful in regard to the construc-
tion of electric apparatus and of lightning-conductors. The author, therefore, has
examined the action of other forms of symmetrically-arranged conductors. In the
first instance he tried parabolic wires, joined in the same manner to the electroscope
to be protected from the action of electricity, with the same effect; next rect-
angular wires. If the electroscope is placed exactly in the middle of the rectangular
Wire, no action is observed ; placing it excentrically, there is small but increasing
action, at least if electric sparks of great intensity are striking the ball of the elec-
troscope. If a needle or any other sharp-pointed body is placed between the pro-
tecting wire and the electroscope, it is easy to observe the different actions produced
by placing the electroscope in an excentrical position.
Symmetrical wires placed on buildings or over entire cities in this way, would
probably give complete protection from atmospheric electricity ; for if the electric
clouds were even to enter between the objects protected and the protecting wires,
their activity would be greatly diminished, as shown by the experiments described ;
for the wires would become immediately charged, and nearly all the electricity
would be accumulated on their surface, without any danger to the protected build-
ings of being struck by lightning.
MeErTEoroLoay &e.
On the Undercurrents of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.
By Wi11am B. Carrenter, MD., LL.D., F.R.S.
In continuation of his communication last year on the Gibraltar Undercurrent
and General Oceanic Circulation, Dr. Carpenter gave the following summary of the
results of the experiments recently made, under direction from the Admizalty, by
Capt. Wharton of H.M.S. ‘Shearwater,’ to put to the test the correctness of Dy.
* Vide Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences Sept. 8, 1872; Le Monde, Sept. 1872.
42 REPORT—1873.
Carpenter’s theoretical conclusion that a strong undercurrent must exist between
the Aigean and the Black Sea.
Although it is commonly supposed that the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus
surface-currents are overflow-currents, carrying off the excess of fresh water dis-
charged by rivers into the Black Sea, yet it is now clear that they are in great
measure wind-currents. During about three quarters of the year the wind blows
pretty steadily from the N.E. (that is, down the Straits) ; and, asa rule, the stronger
and more continuous the wind, the stronger is the surface out-current. On calm
days, the out-current of the Dardanelles is usually slack; and if, as sometimes
happens, a strong wind blows from the §8.W., its flow may be entirely checked.
It requires a continuance of strong S.W. wind, however, to reverse its direction;
and its rate, when reversed, is never equal to that of the out-current. The speed
of the Dardanelles current varies at diferent parts of the Strait, according to its
breadth—heing usually about one knot per hour at Gallipoli, and three knots in the
“ Narrows ” at Chanak Kaleksi, where, with a strong N.E. wind, it is sometimes as
much as four and a half knots, the average of the whole being estimated by Capt.
Wharton at one and a half knots.—The Bosphorus current has not been as care-
fully studied as that of the Dardanelles; but Capt. Wharton states that its rate is
greater, averaging about two and a half knots per hour, apparently in consequence
of the limitation of its channel, which is scarcely wider at any point than is the
Dardanelles at the ‘ Narrows.” It continues to run, though at a reduced rate,
when there is no wind; and it is only in winter, after a continued S.W. gale of
long duration, that a reversal of the Bosphorus current ever takes place.
It might have been supposed that, as the greatest depth of these two Straits
does not exceed fifty fathoms, the determination of the question as to the existence
of an undercurrent would be a comparatively easy matter. But it is rendered
difficult by the very rapidity of the movement, alike in the upper and the lower
stratum ; and the results of the earlier experiments made by Capt. Wharton, in
which he used the current-drags that had been found to work satisfactorily in the
Strait of Gibraltar, were not conclusive. But perceiving from the very oblique
direction of the suspending line, that the undercurrent must be acting on the
cwrent-drag at a great disadvantage, Capt. Wharton set himself to devise a drag
which should hang vertically, even when the suspending line was oblique, so as to
expose a large surface to the impact of a current atright angles toit. This worked
satisfactorily, and gave the most conclusive evidence of the existence of a powerful
undercurrent, by dragging the suspending buoy inwards against the surface-cur-
rent; the force of which, aided by wind, was sufficient on several occasions to
prevent the row-boats from following the buoy, only the steam cutter being able
to keep up with it. The following, which is the most striking of all his results,
was obtained in the Bosphorus on the 21st of last August, with a surface-current
running outwards at the rate of three and a half knots per hour, and a N.E. wind
of force 4. “ When the current-drag was lowered to a depth afterwards assumed
to be twenty fathoms, it at once rushed violently away against the surface-stream,
the large buoy and a small one being pulled completely under water, the third alone
remaining visible. It was a wonderful sight to see this series of floats tearing
through the water to windward. The steam cutter had to go full speed to keep
pace with it.” It is obvious that the real rate of the undercurrent must be very
much greater than that indicated by the actual movement of the float, since the
current-drag impelled by it had to draw the large suspending buoys and the upper
part of the line against the powerful surface-current running at three and a half
knots an hour in the opposite direction, thezr motion through the water therefore
being nearly four and a half knots an hour,
The difference in the specific gravity of water obtained from different depths was
usually found in Capt. Wharton’s investigations (as in the author's) to afford, under
ordinary circumstances, a very sure indication of the direction of the move-
ment of each stratum; the heavy water of the Augean flowing ¢nwards, and the
light water of the Black Sea outwards. And it was indicated alike by both modes
of inquiry, that the two strata move in opposite directions, one over the other,
with very little intermixture or retardation, the passage from the one to the other
being usually very abrupt. In a few instances there was a departure from the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 43
usual rule—an outward movement being found in the deepest stratum, while the
middle stratum was moving inwards, though the water of both these strata had the
lensity of the Aigean. These anomalies are considered by Capt. Wharton to pro-
ceed from the prevalence of opposite winds at the two ends of the Strait.
As a general rule, the strength of the znward undercurrent was proportioned
to that of the outward surface-current; and this was very Saakably shown in
cases in which, both having been slack during a calm, an increase of wind aug-
mented the rates of both currents alike. That a wind blowing outwards should
pau the flow of an undercurrent inwards, may at first sight appear anomalous ;
ut it is very easily accounted for. Suppose that a moderate S.W. wind, by
checking the surface-outflow, keeps the level of the Black Sea just so much above
that of the Aigean that the greater weight of the latter column is counterpoised
by the greater height of the former; then, as the bottom pressures of the two are
equal, their Jateral pressures will also be equal, and there will be no undercurrent
so long as this condition lasts. But so soon as, on the cessation of the S.W.
wind, the level of the Black Sea is lowered by a surface-outflow, the Hgean
column comes to be the heavier, and its excess of lateral pressure produces a deep
inflow. And when this outflow is further aided by a N.E. wind, so that the levels
of the two seas are equalized, or there is even an excess of elevation at the Aigean
end, the greater weight of the Aigean column will produce a greater lateral pres-
sure, and will consequently increase the force of the zzward undercurrent.
The result of this expertmentum crucis may be fairly considered to have clearly
shown that a slight excess of downward presswre—whether arising from difference
of specific gravity, or from difference of /evel—is quite adequate to produce move-
ment in great bodies of water, which movement may have the rate and force of a
current when restricted to a narrow channel. And the “ creeping-flow” of Polar
water along the Ocean-bottom, which, on Dr. Carpenter’s theory of Oceanic
circulation, brings a glacial temperature into the Intertropical zone, is thus found
to have an adequate vera causa in the excess of deep lateral pressure exerted by the
Polar column, whose density has been augmented by cold, over that of the Equa-
torial column, whose density has been diminished by heat,—the levels of the two
columns being assumed to be the same.
On the Refraction of Liquid Waves. By W.S. Davis.
Lunar Influence on Clouds and Rain. By J. Park Harrison, M.A.
On tabulating the mean quantities of cloud at Greenwich in 1871 according to
the age of the moon, the results agreed generally with the mean rainfall on certain
days of the lunation as ascertained by Mr. Chase, an American savant, and Mr.
Hennessy, at Mussoorie, in India. The author pointed out the necessity of obtain-
ing special observations, not only of the amount of cloud, but also its height above
the earth, before any certain conclusions as to the full extent of lunar influence on
the atmosphere, and consequently on air-temperature, can be arrived at. He had
shown in former communications that temperature is sensibly affected by the moon.
On the Application of Telegraphy to Navigation and Meteorology.
By Asrvro pe Marcoarru.
On a Periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with the Sun-spot
Periodicity. By C. Metprvum.
[Ordered to be printed iz extenso among the Reports. |
44, REPORt—1873.
On Experiments on Evaporation and Temperature made at Wisbeach.
By 8. B. J. Sxurrcwry.
On the Passage of Squalls across the British Isles.
By G. M. Wurpprz, B.Sc., PR.AS., of the Kew Observatory.
After exhibiting the uncertainty attendant upon investigation of meteorological
laws by the aid of observations made over a small part of the earth’s surface like
the British Isles, owing to the want of well-marked characteristics which would
serve to identify and track out masses of air moving over the country, the author
calls attention to squalls which, occurring abruptly and presenting certain definite
features, are recorded in a conspicuous manner by self-registering meteorological
instruments when they pass over them.
The appearance of the instrumental curves at the time of a squall was described
and illustrated by means of tracings from the Quarterly Weather Reports of the
Meteorological Committee ; and a table was given showing a brief history of twenty-
three squalls, registered in the Reports from 1869-73.
From this it appeared that their motion is almost invariably in a direction from
westward to eastward, with a velocity diminishing as they progress.
The velocity of the easterly motion is sometimes as high as 100 miles per hour,
and falls as low as 10 miles, the ayerage rate given by the whole series being 38
miles per hour.
Referring to other papers which have appeared on these phenomena, the author
suggests that use might with advantage be made of a better knowledge of squalls
in issuing storm warnings.
INSTRUMENTS.
On Dynamometers in Absolute Measure.
By Roserr Srawet Barr, LL.D., FBS.
On an Improvement in the Sextant. By Capt. J. E. Davis, R.N., F.R.GS.
This small adaptation to the sextant is intended principally to facilitate the taking
observations of heavenly bodies, of course with the view of fixing positions, rating
chronometers, &c. It consists of two parts, viz. the micrometer and the indicator.
The micrometer is simply a toothed wheel attached to the tangent-screw ; and to
the arm of the sextant is attached a pawl or click, adapted to the toothed wheel.
Each tooth represents one tenth of the circumference or turn of the tangent-screw ;
so that (presuming the tangent-screw to be correct) whatever alteration one turn
of the screw makes in the reading on the arc, each click represents exactly one
tenth of that movement; thus, if one turn of the screw moves the yernier 20
minutes, each click moves it exactly 2.
The indicators are two movable brass slides, one placed before the arm, the
other behind the arm of the sextant, and capable of being clamped firmly. By
means of these there is no necessity to read off the observations at the time of
observing.
The micrometer movement can be disconnected at pleasure by means of a small
eccentric, which lifts the pawl.
In using the sextant, if the heavenly body is rising, the indicator behind the arm
is moyed with the arm in bringing the reflected image down; and before it comes
into contact either with the horizon or its own reflection in the artificial horizon, the
arm is clamped, and the indicator also. The first contact is the first observation. The
tangent-screw is then quickly turned one or two clicks; this opens or separates the
two images, which, on coming into contact again, form the second observation ; and
so on,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 45
- The advantages claimed for this little invention are :—
1. Simplicity in the mode of observing.—The author maintains that observations
can be more perfectly made with a sextant by allowing the objects to come into con-
tact, and noting the moment of contact, than by bringing them into contact and
noting that time; thus the observations of the traveller inexperienced in the use
of the instrument will prove of more value by this mode of observing than by that
usually followed.
2. In star observations.—Every observer knows full well the difficulty attending
taking star observations, the trouble in keeping the lamp trimmed, then that of bring-
ing the focus of the light on to the vernier in reading off, and the delay consequent.
There is also a physical difficulty ; viz., in observing, the pupil of the eye has to be
dilated to take in the greatest possible quantity of light, and suddenly contracted to
exclude it in reading off, to be as suddenly changed again. These difficulties, the
author believes, are avoided by this simple adaptation. If circummeridian alti-
tudes are being observed, all the altitudes before and after crossing the meridian
are equal ; and if it be necessary to record the meridian altitude itself (which may
occur between the clicks), it can be done by the indicator before the arm; but the
meridian altitude is not absolutely necessary.
3. Two sets of star observations can be made by the same sextant without reading
off, provided their altitudes are not the same.—Having taken the first set (say the
one with the lowest altitude), the indicator behind the arm is left to record it, and
the indicator before the arm will record the other.
4. In equal altitudes of the sun, before and after noon, for time.—After taking
those in the forenoon, the sextant may be left until the last observation taken comes
on in P.M., and the altitudes respectively worked back to the first of the forenoon.
5. In lunar observations.—Every observer of lunar distances on board ship knows
the difficulty attending taking these observations. When there is much movement
in the vessel it takes some time to get the sextant on; but when once it is got on
the proper angle, he can Keep the objects in contact. By means of the micrometer
he is not necessitated to remove the sextant from the eye, and can go on taking his
distances ad libitum.
6. In thick or cloudy, or even rainy weather, when a heavenly body can only be
seen for a short time, the observer is not dependent on one observation, but can
take a set in less time than he could one or two by the ordinary process.
7. The check on the time-taker.—A good observer has a difficulty in checking
his time-taker. The process to detect error is rather long and complicated ; but the
measurements of arc being equal by the micrometer, an error in time is at once
detected. ;
8. In nautical surveying.—The indicator attached to the ordinary sounding quin-
tant will prove useful by enabling the two angles, to fix a position, being taken
without removing the sextant from the eye, and thus avoiding the necessity of
having two observers (often necessary), or the use of a double sextant.
On an Instrument for the Composition of two Harmonic Curves.
By A. E. Donxin, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.
Since a simple harmonic curve may be regarded as the curve of pressure on the
tympanic membrane when the ear is under the influence of a simple tone, a
curve compounded in the ordinary way of two such harmonic curves will be the
curve of pressure for the consonance of the two tones which they severally
represent.
Hence a machine which has for its object the composition of two harmonic
“curves, possesses the means for rendering distinctly visible to the eye the effect on the
ear of the consonance of any two simple tones,
Tf a pencil-point performs rectilinear harmonic vibrations upon a sheet of paper
moving uniformly at right angles to the direction of these vibrations, it describes a
simple harmonic curve. If there be now given to the paper, in addition to its con-
tinuous transverse motion, a vibratory motion similar and parallel to that which
the pencil has, a complicated curve will be the-result, whose form will depend on
46 REPORT—1873.
the ratio of the numbers of vibrations in a given time of the pencil and paper, and
which will be the curve of pressure for the interval corresponding to this ratio.
The way in which the machine combines these three motions is as follows. There
are two vertical spindles capable of revolving in a horizontal plate. At the lower
end of each a crank is fixed; and at the upper end of each a toothed wheel can be
screwed on: this pair of wheels can be connected by a third intermediate one.
The paper upon which the curve is to be drawn is carried upon a rectangular
frame, capable of sliding horizontally up and down. The frame has a pair of hori-
zontal rollers at each end, between which the paper passes as the rollers turn; and
a uniform motion is given to them by means of a long pinion working into the
teeth of a wheel fixed on one of them, and up and down which the frame slides.
This long pinion is turned by one of the vertical spindles. A connecting-rod is
carried from the crank of this spindle to the frame, a means of which a vibratory
motion is communicated to the latter, which motion, though not truly har-
monic, is, owing to the length of the connecting-rod and small radius of the
crank, quite sufficiently so for practical purposes. A similar and parallel motion is
given to a small glass pen by means of a connecting-rod from the other crank.
This pen is so arranged as to rest upright with its point upon the paper. If the
intermediate wheel be now put into gear with those on the spindles, and either of
them turned by a winch provided for the purpose, a curve corresponding to the
ratio of the numbers of teeth on the spindle-wheels will immediately be drawn.
The general form of equation to the curves which the instrument can produce
will evidently be
y=a sin (me+a)+6 sin (nt+8).
Here a and 0 are the radii of the cranks, which can be altered at pleasure from 0 to
half an inch; mand» are limited by the numbers of teeth of the wheels with which
the instrument is provided, while a and @ depend on the phases of the cranks, 7. e.
the relative position they are in with respect to the vertical plane passing through
their axes when the intermediate wheel is brought into gear with them.
As an example, by taking m=654, n=27, a=b=half an inch, the curve drawn
will be that corresponding to an octave. Substituting a wheel of 55 teeth for that
of 54, the curve alters its form to that representing an octave out of tune. Again,
the numbers 48 and 45, which have the ratio 1£, would give the curve corresponding
to a diatonic semitone. The form of this curve, as of all others where the ratio
approaches unity, shows very distinctly the beats which would ensue upon sounding
the corresponding consonance. :
Since it is possible to vary the radii of the cranks at pleasure, the curves corre-
sponding to the consonance of two tones of unequal intensity can also be drawn.
The length of paper within which the period of any curve is contained depends on
the rate at which the rollers turn. Since this can be regulated at pleasure, by means
contrived for the purpose, the curves may be either extended or compressed; that
is, the period may be made either long or short. The general form of any curve,
however, is better seen in the latter case. The maximum width of contour in any
curve is equal to twice the sum of the radii of the cranks. Thus when these are
each half an inch, the curve will be two inches wide.
The instrument is constructed by Messrs. Tisley and Spiller, of Brompton Road,
to whom several improvements on the original model are due.
On an Improved Form of Aneroid for determining Heights, with a means
of adjusting the Altitude-scale for various Temperatures. By Rogurs
Friern, B.A.
The author begins by stating that the object aimed at in designing this improved
form of aneroid was to simplify the correct determination of altitudes in cases such
as ordinarily occur in England, and that the instrument is therefore arranged to
suit moderate elevations, say of 2000 feet and under, and is not intended for consi-
derable elevations.
The table which is adopted in graduating the aneroid described is that given
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 47
by the Astronomer Royal in the ‘ Proceedings of the Meteorological Society,’ vol.
ill. page 406, and gives results which lie between those of other authorities,
Aneroids constructed for the determination of elevations by readings from analti-
tude-scale consist of two classes—one in which the altitude-scale is fixed and the
other in which it is movable. The first class of aneroid, with a fixed scale, is
accurate in principle; but the scale only allows for one of the conditions which
have to be taken into account, viz. the varying pressure of the atmosphere; and the
other condition or temperature of the atmosphere has to be allowed for by calcula-
tion. The second class of aneroid, that with a movable scale, is radically wrong
in principle as ordinarily used, inasmuch as the movable scale must be graduated
for one fixed position of the zero; and when the zero is shifted at random, according
to the position of the hand of the instrument, the scale necessarily becomes inac-
curate.
In the improved aneroid the scale of altitudes is movable, but, instead of being
shifted at random according to the position of the hand of the instrument, it is
moved into certain fixed positions according to the temperature of the atmosphere ;
so that the shifting of the scale answers the same purpose as if the original scale
were altered to suit the various temperatures of the atmosphere. The aneroid is
graduated for inches in the usual way on the face ; but the graduation only extends
from 31 to 27 inches, so as to preserve an open scale. The outer movable scale is
graduated in feet for altitudes; and the graduation is laid down by fixing the zero
opposite 31 inches. This is the normal position of the scale; and it is then correct
for a temperature of 50° Fahr. For temperatures below 50° the zero of the scale is
moved below 31 inches; and for temperatures above 50° the zero of the scale is
moved above 31 inches: the exact position of the zero for different temperatures
has been determined partly by calculation, and partly by trial, and marked on the
rim of the aneroid. In order to ensure the altitude-scale not being shifted after it
has once been set in its proper position, there is a special contrivance for locking it
in the various positions. The altitudes are in all cases determined by taking two
readings, one at each station, and then subtracting the reading at the lower station
from that at the upper.
The movable scale requires to be set for temperatures before taking any obser-
vation, and not shifted during the progress of the observations. This will practi-
cally not give any inconvenience in the case of moderate altitudes, as small
variations of temperature will not appreciably affect the result ; and so long as the
temperature does not vary during the course of the observations more than 5°
from that at which the instrument is set, the result may be accepted as practically
correct.
In conclusion the author states that the principle of allowing for the variations
of temperature of the atmosphere by shifting the altitude-scale, does not profess to
be theoretically accurate, but simply sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. In
order to satisfy himself that this was the case, the author carefully compared
the readings obtained for different temperatures from the shifted scale with the
correct readings as given by calculation from the normal position of the scale,
and found that the maximum error was 2 feet and the average error under 1 foot,
errors which are perfectly inappreciable. The instrument was constructed by
Mr. Casella, of Holborn Bars, London.
On Eckhold’s Omnimeter, a new Surveying-Instrument. By G. W. Horr.
On Negretti and Zambra’s Test-gauge Solar-Radiation Thermometer.
By G. J. Symons.
Meteorologists have long been endeavouring to obtain an instrument whereby
comparable observations of the amount of solar radiation could be made. Various
experiments and observations by the Rey. F. W. Stow, the late F. Nunes, Esq.,
M.A., and the author have shown that this object is attained by the use of a mer-
curial maximum thermometer, of which the bulb and one inch of the stem are
48 REPORT-—1878.
coated with dull black, which thermometer is enclosed in a glass jacket, the bulb
being in the centre of a sphere of not less than two inches diameter, and from
which jacket nearly all the air has been exhausted. To all thermometers thus
mounted the title of vacuum thermometer has been applied. It has, however, been
found that the amount of exhaustion varies considerably, and that the indications
of the thermometer are thereby greatly affected. Yet the instruments hitherto
made have been indiscriminately sold and used, and no ready means have been
available for determining the amount of air left in.
The speciality of the instrument now exhibited is, that a small vacuum-gauge is
inserted in the jacket, so that the precise extent to which the exhaustion has been
carried can be seen at any time, and strict comparability in this important respect
ensured.
On a Compound-Pendulum Apparatus. By 8. C. Tistey.
This apparatus was originally designed for the purpose of recording the figures
shown in Lissajous’s experiments with tuning-forks.
The method of obtaining the vibrations is by means of two pendulums, which
work upon knife-edges, the supports being secured to two sides of a piece of maho-
gany, so that the pendulums swing at right angles to each other. The pendulums
are about 3 feet long, and are continued above their supports about 8 inches,
finishing at their tops in ball-and-socket joints. Wire arms are screwed into the
ball-and-sockets, and connected with a pen or tracer. When at rest, the two pen-
dulums and tracer are at three corners #5 square. One pendulum has two sliding
pans for holding weights, one above the point of suspension and one below; the
other pendulum has two sliding pans, but both below the point of suspension; four
weights are generally used, each weighing about 23 lbs.
When a single weight is placed on each of the bottom pans and properly ad-
justed, the vibrations of the two pendulums being equal, the figure formed by the
tracer will be an elliptical spiral, gradually dying out so as to produce a watch-
spring-shaped curve. A small sliding weight is attached to the first pendulum ;
and by moving this up or down, the vibrations can be brought perfectly into unison,
or thrown slightly out of time, thus producing through the tracer a variety of com-
plicated and interesting figures. The second pan is used for varying the rates of
vibration of the two pendulums in certain ratios, so as to produce curves of different
characters. A variety of tracings illustrating this were exhibited. ,
The use of the pan above the point of suspension is of great value, as it gives a
ready means of altering the proportions. Thus by moving the weight (23 lbs.) from
a pan below to one above the point of suspension, and placing a balance-weight of
2 lb. on the lower pan, the pendulums having originally been adjusted for unison,
the resulting vibrations will be in the ratios of 3 to 1; and if they had been ad-
justed to 3 to 2, the result would be 2 to 1, and so on.
In the table under the tracer a glass plate is let in, so that, by placing a reflector
below and above, a light can be thrown through the object, and a magnified image
produced on the screen during its formation; in that case blackened glass and a
needle-point for tracer are used.
On a new form of Pendulum for exhibiting Superposed Vibrations.
By Professor A. 8. Hurscuet, B.A., F.R.A.S.
The contrivance exhibited originally presented itself to the author at the Obser-
vatory of R. 8, Newall, Esq., Gateshead-upon-Tyne, where the observing-chair is
supported by a counterpoise consisting of a horizontal iron bar loaded with weights,
and fastened at its two ends to wire ropes, which, passing over two pulleys, support
the chair. When the chair-frame was moved, the two ends of this pendulum
showed themselves to be capable of three modes of vibration—one longitudinal (in
the direction of the bar's length), and two transversal ones proceeding from the
bar’s displacement either angularly about its middle point or parallel to itself,
The domi miitetion of the first two of these movements together made the end of the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 49
swinging bar describe compound vibration-curves of the form known as Lissajous’s,
of great regularity and distinctness, and was suggested to the author by Mr.
Newall as a new means of tracing them. In the new instrument the horizontal
bar is hung by four strings forming a W; and the outer pairs are nipped together
at equal distances from the rod at whatever height above it gives the desired
period of its longitudinal vibrations. Its transversal vibrations are of two kinds,
either of bifilar torsion, or of simple lateral oscillation about the three upper points
of suspension. The points of attachment on the bar are a little above its axis, which
passes through the centre of gravity of a large fixed weight at its middle point;
two smaller sliding weights, moved along it, regulate the rate of its angular oscilla-
tions. The new pendulum possesses a fourth mode of vibration—of rotation round
the line of attachment in the bar, like the rolling of a ship at sea—a condition of
oscillation very similar to one which was lately ingeniously employed to illustrate
that problem by Sir William Thomson, If the bar “rights” quickly round this
axis, these small rolling oscillations do not accumulate very greatly, and soon dis-
appear; but if they are nearly of the same period as the principal transverse vibra-
tion, they are so large and persistent as entirely to disturb the regularity of the
curves. A glass pen fixed to the end of the bar traces Lissajous’s curves by com-
bining the longitudinal with either of the two transversal vibrations. When both
of the latter act together, wavy moditications of Lissajous’s curves are produced,
which present cusps, stationary points, and other interesting varieties of form | of
which some illustrations were exhibited]. Their general expression is given by
the equations
x=A cos (a+at)
y=B sin (6+ ft) +C sin (c+ yt),
which only differ from those of Lissajous’s curves by the addition of a second in-
dependent term at the end of the last equation.
On the Influence of Temperature on the Elastic Force of certain forms of Springs.
By F, H. Wenn.
The author stated that the value of springs in the form of elastic plates or rods
subject to deflection or torsion, in the construction of instruments for measuring
and regulating force, temperature, and time, depends upon the law that the degrees
of motion are equal to the forces, and that this equality of force and motion is
identified with the time in which those motions are performed ; for the vibration of
certain forms of springs is performed in the same time, whether the degree of motion
is great or small: such a spring will give the same musical note at all ranges, and
have the important property of isochronism, as illustrated in the balance-springs of
chronometers, meaning that the time is the same at all ranges in the are of vibration.
The author pointed out that the form of balance-spring commonly used in time-
ieces is not strictly isochronal ; for beyond one revolution the forces are unequal,
increasing during winding and decreasing in the opposite extreme of uncoiling, but
that in the acting range of vibration of these instruments the differences were not
appreciable.
Instruments for measuring force, temperature, or time, such as aneroid barometers,
thermometers, or chronometers, the accuracy of whose indications depends upon the
uniform elasticity of springs, require a compensation to counteract the loss of elas-
ticity by increase of temperature. A number of experiments were tried and detailed
by the author, in order to determine a law to enable the compensations to be
effected definitely. The materials experimented upon were steel, hardened and
tempered, crown-glass, brass, and german silver highly condensed by hammering.
These materials, while under various degrees of compression, were subject:d to
temperatures ranging up to 500°; but it was found that the loss of elasticity did not
correspond in a regular ratio with the increase of heat; for example, in a steel
spring each hundred degrees from 100° to 500° caused deflections in the ratio of 13,
16, 40, and 52; and, in first experiments, when the springs had cooled they did not
return to their normal point with the pressure remaining the same, but as acquired
1873.
50 REPoRT— 1873.
a permanent set, which was great at first (inan untried material), but became less
by repetitions of the experiments.
With hard hammered german silver the set at fist much exceeded that of steel,
being equal to one-third of the compression, but after four repetitions of the expe-
riment amounted to only one twenty-seventh. This metal, unlike steel, indicated
equal deflections with equal degrees of heat, showing that, in instruments where it
could be used, no secondary compensation would be required, because the ratio is
ejual for mean and extreme temperatures.
These experiments demonstrate, in regard to any insirument for indicating and
registering weight, pressure, temperature, or time by means of the law of elasticity,
the importance of subjecting the material (whether steel, glass, or particularly any
metal in which this property is obtained by condensation or hammering) to an
excess of temperature Feforo the graduations and adjustments are made.
On a New Form of Rutherford’s Minimum Thermometer, devised and con-
structed by Mr. James Hicks. By G. M. Wurerte, B.Sc., F.R.AS., of
the Kew Observatory.
Many different kinds of thermometers have been constructed for the purpose of
indicating the lowest temperature of the air during a given time; but none has been
found to fulfil the desired object so well as the common or Rutherford spirit-
thermometer.
The chief objection to the use of this instrument is found to be in the fact that
the spirit-thermometer cannot follow sudden variations of temperature so quickly
as the mercurial thermometer; hence, on occasions when rapid changes occur, the
indications of the two instruments are not accordant.
In the thermometer exhibited Mr. Hicks has in a great measure succeeded in
overcoming this difficulty by the device of largely increasing the surface of the bulb
exposed to the air, whilst at the same time he greatly reduces its cubical contents.
n 1862 Mr. Beckley suggested the formation of thermometer-bulbs on the pat-
tern of certain bottles, in which the bottom is forced up a long way into the body,
and Mr. Hicks constructed a mercurial thermometer, which was shown in the In-
ternational Exhibition. Practical difficulties, however, obstructing the manufacture
of this kind of thermometer, very few have been made. Recently Mr. Hicks
endeavoured to make spirit-thermometers upon the same principle, and having
succeeded can now construct bulbs in the form of a hollowed-out cylinder, with the
film of spirit reduced to any degree of tenuity.
In order to determine the relative advantages of the old- and new-pattern ther-
mometers, experiments have been made at the Kew Observatory, which show that
the time Hicks’s minimum thermometer requires to fall through 25° Fahr. is
55 seconds, whilst a common spherical-bulb minimum takes 2 minutes 25 seconds
to fall through the same extent of scale; and Hicks’s rises 25° in 57 seconds, the
TE aa ad occupying 2 minutes 24 seconds to rise through the same in-
terval.
An improved form of the instrument has the bulb in the form of a double tube
open at both ends, allowing free passage of the air through it.
On a New Electrical Anemograph.
By G. M. Wuirrts, B.Sc., F.R.A.S., of the Kew Observatory.
Amongst the numerous instruments which have been devised for recording con-
tinuously and automatically the velocity and direction of the wind, none has met
with more general adoption than the form known as the Beckley or Kew-pattern
Anemograph.
This instrument was originally constructed in 1857, by a grant from the British
Association ; and a detailed description of it, with Plates, is to be found in the Report
of the Association for the year 1858.
Some minor modifications found necessary having been introduced into the in-
strument, it was accepted by the Meteorological Committee ; and it is now employed
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 51
by them in their observatories, its essential features being identical with the 1858
instrument.
Experience has shown that under most circumstances the working of this instru-
ment leaves but little to be desired, but that in situations where it is necessary
to place the recording-apparatus at a considerable distance from the external
driving parts of the instrument its action is subject to irrecularities, due principally
to the yielding of the long, light shafts which have then to be employed; and it is
to meet such cases that the modification now brought before the Association has
been devised by me.
No originality is to be found in the adaptation of electricity to the purpose of
registering the wind ; numerous arrangements have been made by which it can be
accomplished. I need only allude to Secchi, Crossley, Gordon, Hall, and others
who have constructed instruments which do it.
In my plan for the velocity-recording apparatus, where rotation in one direction
only is required, I employ, first, a simple contact-making key, on the shaft car-
rying the Robinson’s cups, which transmits a short current every time the cups
complete a revolution. This current is then led by means of a wire to the
recording-apparatus placed at any distance ; and there, by means of an arrangement
of electromagnets and escapement similar to that employed in the step-by-step
telegraph instrument, successive currents produce the continuous rotation of a
wheel.
This wheel being put into connexion with the train of wheelwork at present
existing, eventually drives the pencil round and records the wind’s movement
upon the paper.
The Direction-apparatus.—Registration of the wind’s direction by means of
electricity is somewhat difficult of execution by reason of the fact that rotation of
the wind-vane occurs sometimes in a positive or right-handed direction, veering
from and through E. and §., and sometimes vice versd, or from N. through W. to 8.
Various plans have been devised for accomplishing the thing desired, requiring
wires varying in number from four to thirty-two. In the instrument now described
two only are needed, one of which is employed to transmit the rotary motion of the
vane to the recording-pencil, the other determining the direction in which the
rotation is to take place.
A toothed wheel in electrical communication with a battery is fixed upon the
yvane-spindle, and a contact-breaker so arranged that a current is sent to the re-
cording-apparatus every time a tooth passes.
Kvery current transmitted causes a wheel in the registering-apparatus to rotate
through a small are, always of course in the same direction.
In order to record backing of the wind, the second wire must be made use of.
Above the contact-making wheel on the vane-spindle, and turning loosely in it, a
small insulated metallic collar is fitted, immediately over which there is a metal
disk fastened to and turning with the shaft; a stud projecting from the underside
of this disk plays between two stops on the collar, one of which is a conductor, the
other being an insulator.
The play of the stud between the two stops is merely sufficient to make and
break the electrical contact.
The wire from the metallic stop is led to an electromagnet fixed above the
recording-apparatus. A lever-clutch, moved by the armature of the magnet, acts
upon the driving-spindle of the pencil cylinder, raising it when acurrent passes, and
so bringing the lower of two mitre wheels fixed upon the spindle into gear with
the mitre wheel turning the cylinder, on its under side, and causing it to rotate
when the spindle is turned. When the current is discontinued, a spring draws the
spindle downwards, and the top mitre wheel is brought into gear with the upper
side of the pencil-wheel, whilst the lower one is set free; continued rotation of the
spindle has now the effect of turning the pencil in the reverse direction to that
in which it was previously moving.
Under ordinary circumstances this will be the position maintained ; the vane-stud
being in contact with the insulating stop, no current passes; should, however, the
wind veer against the sun, the movement of the vane will make electrical contact,
the sliding shaft be lifted, and, the lower wheel coming into gear, the rotation of
*
52 REPORT—1873.
the shaft under the action of the second wire and contact-breaker will be trans-
mitted to the pencil, and cause it to turn in the direction W. through S$. to E.
instead of the reverse.
It is necessary to make the fittings so exact that no movement of the shaft
can occur without a corresponding motion of the pencil; otherwise the orientation
of the instrument would be rendered incorrect.
The instrument above described has not yet been constructed ; hence no informa-
tion can be given as to battery power necessary to work it. Probably very little
would suffice; for as the rotation of both shafts is continuous and in the same sense,
the whole actual work of moving the pencils over the paper could easily be per-
formed by a small weight or spring suitably arranged.
On an improved form of Oxyhydrogen Lantern for the use of Lecturers.
By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc.
The author stated that the form of oxyhydrogen lantern generally used by
lecturers was merely the old magic lantern, and this was not sufficient for the many
requirements of the lecturer of the present day. What was required was a light
lantern which would direct a beam in any direction whatever, and which would
not only serve to show photographs and slides, but would do also for exhibiting
experiments such as electrolysis of liquids, magnetic curves, cohesion-figures, &c.
he instrument the author exhibited consists of a small lantern swinging between
two uprights. It can be clamped at any angle ; and as the stand is one capable of
rotating, the lantern can be made to project a beam of light in any direction. The
stool of the Jantern is constructed on the principle of Willis’s apparatus for lecturers
on mechanics; and to this is fastened carriers for a table to support a prism or other
ea of apparatus. A projecting bar serves to hold the lenses, which slide on the
ar and can be turned out of the way ina moment, The lantern was made for the
author by Messrs. R. Field & Co., of Birmingham.
A description of the Instrument, with woodcuts, will be found in the ‘ Engineer,’
vol. xxxvi. p. 284.
CHEMISTRY.
Address by W. J. Russrti, Ph.D., F.RS., President of the Section.
OF late years it has been the custom of my predecessors in this chair to open
the business of the Section with an address, and the subject of this address has
almost invariably been a review of the progress of Chemistry during the past year;
I purpose, with your leave, to-day to deviate somewhat from this precedent, and
to limit my remarks, as far as the progress of Chemistry is concerned, to the his-
tory of one chemical substance. The interest and the use of an annual suryey at
these meetings of the progress of Chemistry has to a certain extent passed away ;
for the admirable abstracts of all important chemical papers now published by the
Chemical Society has in a great measure taken its place, and offers to the che-
mical student a much more thorough means of learning what progress his science
is making than could possibly be done by the study of a presidential address.
Doubtless these abstracts of chemical papers are known to others than professional
chemists; but I cannot pass them over without recording the great use they have
proved to be, how much they have done already in extending in this country an
exact knowledge of the progress of science on the Continent, and in helping and
in stimulating those who are engaged in scientific pursuits in this country. I
believe few grants made by this Association have done more real good than those
which have enabled the Chemical Society to publish these abstracts.
I dwell for a moment on the doings of the Chemical Society ; for I believe in the
progress of this Society we have a most important indication of the progress of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 53
chemical science in this country. The number of original papers communicated to
the Society during the last year has far exceeded that of previous years; during
last year fifty-eight papers were read to the Society, whereas the average number
for the last three years is only twenty-nine. Further, I may say there is every
appearance of this increased activity not only continuing but even increasing.
Another matter connectéd with the Society deserves a passing word: I mean its
removal from its old rooms at Burlington House, which afforded it very insufficient
accommodation, to its new ones in the same building. This transference, which is
now taking place, will give to the Society a great increase of accommodation, and
thus admit of larger audiences attending the lectures, of the proper development
of the library, and of the full illustration, by experiment, of the communications
made to it. "These improvements must act most beneficially on the Society, and
stimulate its future development. Even now it numbers some 700 members, and
certainly is not one of the least active or least useful of the many scientific societies
in London,
Since our last Meeting at Brighton we have lost the most renowned of modern
chemists, Liebig. His influence on chemistry through a long and most active life
has yet to be written. Publishing his first paper fifty years ago, it is difficult for
chemists of the present day to realize the changes in chemical thought, in chemical
knowledge, and in chemical experiment which he lived through, and was, more
than any other chemist, active in promoting. His activity was unwearied; he
communicated no less than 317 papers to different scientific journals; and almost
every branch of chemistry received some impetus from his hand.
Liebig took an active interest in this Association ; and I believe the last paper he
wrote was one in answer to a communication made at the last Meeting of this
Association. On two occasions he attended Meetings of the British Association,
and has communicated many papers to this Section. The Meeting at Liverpool in
1837 was the first at which he was present; he then communicated to this Section
a paper on the products of the decomposition of Uric Acid, and, further, gave an
account of his most important discovery, made in conjunction with Wohler, of the
artificial formation of Urea. At this Meeting Liebig was requested to prepare a
report on the state of our knowledge of isomeric bodies. This request, although
often repeated, was never complied with. He was also requested to report on the
state of Organic Chemistry and Organic Analysis; thus our Section was evidently
desirous of giving him full occupation. At the Meeting in 1840, at Glasgow, a
paper on Poisons, Contagions, and Miasms, by Liebig, was read; it was, in fact, an
abstract of the last chapter in his book on Chemistry in its applications to Agricul-
ture and Physiology; and the work itself appeared about the same time, dedicated
to this Association. In his dedication Liebig says :—‘‘ At one of the meetings of
the Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
the honourable task of preparing a Report upon the State of Organic Chemistry
was imposed upon me. In this present work I present the Association with a part
of this Report.”
At the next Meeting, which was at Plymouth in 1841, there was an interesting
letter from Liebig to Dr. Playfair, read to our Section; in it, among other matters,
Liebig describes an “excellent method,” devised by Drs. Will and Varrentrapp, for
determining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies: he also says, “we have re-
peated all the experiments of Dr. Brown on the production of silicon from paracya-
nogen, but we have not been able to confirm one of his results; what our experi-
ments poe is, that paracyanogen is decomposed by a strong heat into nitrogen
gas and a residue of carbon, which is exceedingly difficult of combustion,”
To the next Meeting (which was at Manchester, and Dalton was the President
of this Section) Dr. Playfair communicated an abstract of Prof. Liebig’s report on
Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology : this abstract is printed in
our ‘ Proceedings ;’ and the complete work is looked upon as the second pait of the
_ report on Organic Chemistry. This Association may therefore fairly consider that
it exercised some influence on Liebig in the production of the most important
works that he wrote. Playfair’s abstract must have been listened to with the greatest
interest; and I doubt not the statements made were sharply criticised, especially
by the physiologists then at Manchester. Playfair concludes his abstract in these
’
5b REPORT—18708.
words, thus summing up the special objects of these reports :—“ In the opinion of
all, Liebig may be considered a benefactor to his species for the interesting dis-
coveries in agriculture published by him in the first part of this report. And
having in that pointed out means by which the food of the human race may be
increased, in the work now before us he follows up the chain in its continuation,
and shows how that food may best be adapted to the nutrition of man. Surely
there are no two subjects more fitted than these for the contemplation of the phi-
losopher ; and by the consummate sagacity with which Liebig has applied to their
elucidation the powers of his mind, we are compelled to admit that there is no
living philosopher to whom the Chemical Section could have more appropriately
entrusted their investigation.”
At the Meeting at Glasgow in 1855 Liebig was also present; but he then only
communicated to this Section a short paper on fulminuric acid, and some remarks
on the use of lime-water in the Point tai of bread.
Such, I believe, is the history of the direct relationship which has existed
between Liebig and this Association. Indirectly we can hardly recognize how
much we owe to him. Interested as he ever was in the work of this Association, I
could not but to-day record the instances of direct aid and support which this
Section has received from him.
{ pass on now to the special subject to which I wish to ask your attention. It
is the history of the vegetable colouring-matter found in madder: it has been in
use from time immemorial, and is still one of the commonest and most important of
dyes; it is obtained from a plant largely cultivated in many parts of the world for
the sake of the colour it yields ; and the special interest which now attaches to it is
that the chemist has lately shown how this natural colouring-matter can be made
in the laboratory us well as in the fields—how by using a by-product which for-
merly was without value, thousands of acres can be liberated for the cultivation of
other crops, and the colouring-matter which they formerly produced be cheaper
and better prepared in the laboratory or in the manufactory. That a certain
colouring-matter could be obtained from the roots of the Rubia tinctorum and other
species of the same plaut has been so long known that apparently no record of its
discovery remains. Pliny and Dioscorides evidently allude to it. The former, re-
ferring to its value as a dyeing material, says :—“ It is a plant little known, except
to the sordid and avaricious—and this because of the large profits obtained from
it, owing to its employment in dyeing wool and leather.” He further says :—“The
imadder of Italy is the most esteemed, and especially that grown in the neighbour-
hood of Rome, where and in other places it is produced in great abundance.” He
further describes it as being grown among the olive-trees, or in fields devoted
_especially to its growth. The madder of Ravenna, according to Dioscorides, was
the most esteemed. Its cultivation in Italy has been continued till the present
time ; and in 1863 the Neapolitan provinces alone exported it to the value of more
than a quarter of a million sterling. At the present day we are all very familiar
with this colouring-matter as the commonest that is applied to calicoes; it is
capable of yielding many colours, such as red, pink, purple, chocolate, and black.
The plant which is the source of this colouring-matter is nearly allied, botanically
and in appearance, to the ordinary Galiums or Bedstraws. It is a native pro-
bably of Southern Europe as well as Asia. It is a perennial, with herbaceous
stem, which dies down every year; its square-jointed stalk creeps along the ground
to a considerable distance ; and the stem and leaves are rough, with sharp prickles.
The root, which is cylindrical, fleshy, and of a pale yellow colour, extends down-
wards to a considerable depth ; it is from this root (which, when dried, is known as
madder) that the colouring-matter is obtained. The plant is propagated from
suckers or shoots; these require some two or three years to come to full maturity
and yield the finest colours, although in France the crop is often gathered after
only eighteen months’ growth. From its taking so long to develop, it is evidently
a crop not adapted to any ordinary series of rotation of crops. The plant thrives
best in a warm climate, but has been grown in this country and in the north of
Europe.
In Andia it has been grown from the earliest times, and, as before stated, has
been abundantly cultivated in Italy certainly since the time of Pliny; he also
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 55
mentions its cultivation in Galilee. In this country its culture has often been
attempted, and has been carried on for a short time, but never with permanent
success. The madder now used in England is imported from France, Italy, Hol-
land, South Germany, Turkey, and India. In 1857 the total amount imported
into this country was 434,056 cwt., having an estimated value of £1,284,989;
and the ayerage annual amount imported during the last seventeen years is
310,042 ewt., while the amount imported last year (1872) was_283,274 cwt.,
valued at £922,244. In 1861 it was estimated that in the South Lancashire dis-
trict alone 150 tons of madder were used weekly, exclusive of that required for
reparing garancine. I quote these figures as showing the magnitude of the
industry that we are dealing with. Another point of much interest is the amount
of land required for the cultivation of this plant: in England it was found that an
acre yielded only from 10 to 20 ewt. of the dried roots; but in South Germany and
in France the same amount of land yields about twice that quantity. The madder-
cultivator digs up the roots in autumn, dries them, in some cases peels them by
beating them with a flail, and exports them in the form of powder, whole root, or
after treatment with sulphuric acid, when it is known as Garancine.
The quality of the root varies much; that from the Levant, and known as Tur-
key-root, is most valued. According, however, to the colour to be produced is
the madder from one source or another preferred. To obtain the colouring-matter
(which is but very slightly soluble in water) from these roots, they are mixed, after
being ground, with water in the dye-vessel, and sometimes a little chalk is added.
The fabric to be dyed is introduced, and the whole slowly heated; the colouring-
matter gradually passes from the root to the water, and from the water to the
mordanted fabric, giving to it a colour dependent of course on the nature of the
mordant.
To trace the chemical history of this colouring-matter we have to go back to
the year 1790, when a chemist of the name of Watt precipitated the colouring-
matter of madder by alum from neutral, alkaline, and acid solutions ; he obtained
two different colouring-matters, but could not isolate them, and many different
shades of colour. Charles Batholdi asserted that madder contained much magnesic
sulphate; and Hausmann observed the good effect produced on madder by the
addition of calcic carbonate. In 1823 F. Kuhlmann made evidently a careful
analysis of the madder-root, and describes a red and a fawn colouring-matter. But
the first really important advance made in our knowledge of the chemical consti-
tution of this colouring-matter was by Colin and Robiquet in 1827; they obtained
what they believed to be, and what has since really proved to be, the true colour-
ing principle of madder, and obtained it in a state of tolerable purity. Their
process for preparing it was very simple: they took Alsace madder in powder,
digested it with water, obtained thus a gelatinous mass, which they treated with
boiling alcohol, then evaporated off 4 of the alcohol, and treated the residue
with a little sulphuric acid to diminish its solubility ; then, after washing it with
several litres of water, they got a yellowish substance remaining. Lastly, they
found that, on moderately heating this product in a glass tube, they obtained a
yellowish vapour formed of brilliant particles, which condensed, giving a distinct
zone of brilliant needles reflecting a colour similar to that from the native lead
chromate. They named this substance alizarin, from the Levant name for madder,
alizari, the name by which it is still known there.
A few years later we find other chemists attacking this same subject. In 1831
Gaultier de Claubry and J. Persoz published the account of a long research on the
subject. They describe two colouring-matters, a red and a rose one: the red one
was alizarin; and the rose one was another body nearly allied to it, and now well
known as purpurin. Runge also made an elaborate examination of the madder-
root; he found no less than five different colouring-matters in it—madder-red,
madder-purple, madder-orange, madder-yellow, and madder-brown. The first
three he considers to be suited for dyeing-purposes, but not so the last two. Runge’s
madder-red is essentially impure alizarin, and his madder-purple impure purpu-
rin. He does not give any analysis of these substances.
During the next ten years this subject seems to have attracted but little atten-
tion from chemists ; but in 1846 Shiel prepared the madder-red and madder-purple
56 : REPORT—1873.
of Runge by processes very similar to those employed by Runge, and analyzed
these substances: for madder-red he gives the formula C,,H,,0O,, which differs
only by H, O from the formula now adopted ; for the madder-purple he gives the
formula C,,H,,O,;, and for the same substance after being sublimed C,H,O,. The
chemist who has worked most on this subject, and to whom we are principally
indebted for what we know with regard to the different constituents contained in
the madder-root, is Dr. Schunck, of Manchester. In Liebig’s ‘Annalen’ for 1848
he gives a long and interesting account of his examination of madder; he isolates
and identifies several new substances, which are most important constituents of the
root, and has since that time added much to our knowledge of the chemical constitu-
tion of madder. In the paper above alluded to he confirms the presence of the alizarin,
and gives to it the formula C,,H,,O0,. The principal properties of this body may
best be sketched in here. Its volatility and brilliant crystalline appearance have
already been mentioned ; it is but slightly soluble in cold water, but much more so
in alcohol, in ether, and in boiling water. The colour of its solution is yellow;
and when it separates out from a liquid it has a yellow flocculent appearance,
differing thus greatly from the red, brilliant, crystalline substance before described.
In order to obtain this latter body, heat had always been used; so, until the ela-
borate experiments of Schunck, it was a question whether the heat did not produce
a radical change in the substance, whether, in a word, these two bodies were
really identical. Schunck’s experiments proved that they were, and consequently
that this beautiful colouring-matter, alizarin, existed as such in madder. If, how-
ever, we go one step further back and examine the fresh root of the Rubia tinc-
torum (that is, as soon as it is drawn from the ground), we shall find no trace of alizarin
there. On slicing the root it is seen to be of a light carroty colour, and an almost
colourless liquid can be squeezed out of it; but this is entirely free from the
colouring-matters of madder. Let the roots, however, be kept, if only for a short
time, and then they will give abundant evidence of the presence of alizarin; if
simply heated, alizarin may be volatilized from them. It appears, then, that the
whole of the tinctorial power of this root is developed after the death of the
plant. Schunck explains this curious phenomenon as follows:—In the cells of
the living plant there is a substance which he has isolated and has named
Rubian ; it is easily soluble in water and in alcohol: the solution is of a yellow
colour, and has an intensely bitter taste; when dry it is a hard brown gum-like
body. It has none of the properties of a dye-stuff; but if we take a solution of it,
add some sulphuric or hydrochloric acid to it, and boil, a yellow flocculent sub-
stance will slowly separate out, and on filtering it off and washing it, it will be
found to have the tinctorial properties of madder, and to contain alizarin. In the
liquid filtered from it there 1s, with the acid added, an uncrystallizable sugar; so
that in this way the original product in the root, the rubian, has apparently been
ng up into alizarin and into sugar. To apply this reaction to what goes on in
the root after its removal from the ground, we have to find if any other substances
can take the place of the boiling dilute acid ; and Schunck has shown there exists in
the root itself a substance which is eminently fitted to produce this splitting-up of
the rubian. He obtained this decomposing agent from madder simply by digest-
ing it in cold water and adding alcohol to the liquid; this threw down a reddish
flocculent substance ; and if only a small portion of this was added to an aqueous
solution of the rubian and allowed to stand for a few hours in a warm place, it
was found that the rubian was gone, and in place of it there was a thick tenacious
jelly ; this, treated with cold water, gave to it no colour, no bitter taste, but much
sugar. From the jelly remaining insoluble, alizarin could be extracted ; in fact,
of all known substances this very one found in the madder itself is best suited for
effecting this decomposition of the rubian.
It has long been known to dyers that the amount of colouring-matter in madder
will increase on keeping it; even for years it will go on improving in quality: and
an experiment of Schunck’s shows that the ordinary madder, as used by the dyer,
has not all the rubian converted into colouring-matter ; for on taking a sample of
it and extracting with cold water, he got an acid solution devoid of dyeing proper-
ties; but on allowing this solution to stand some time it gelatinized, and then
possessed dyeing properties.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 57
It “5 ar then, that there must exist in the root two substances kept apart
during the life of the plant in some way of which we know nothing; but as soon
as it dies they begin slowly to act on one another, developing thus the colouring-
matters in madder.
Coincident with the appearance of Schunck’s first paper was one by Debus on
the same subject. He looked upon alizarin as a true acid, and gave it the name of
lizaric acid ; but, as far as the composition of it was concerned, the percentage num-
bers he obtained agreed closely with those given by Schunck. One other investi-
gation concludes all that is important in the history of alizarin as obtained from
madder, This last investigation is of great interest; it was by Julius Wolff and
Adolphe Strecker, and published in 1850. They confirm the results of others so far,
that there are in the madder-root two distinct colouring-substances, this important
one alizarin, and the other one purpurin. They prepare these colouring-matters
much in the same way that Schunck did, and very carefully purify and analyze
them. The formule which they give for them differ, however, from Schunck’s : for
alizarin they give the formula HO, and for purpurin C,,H,,O,; further, they
suggest that, by the process of fermentation, the former is converted into the latter ;
and they show that by oxidation they both yielded phthalic acid. Since the pub-
lication of this research, until the last year or two, this formula for alizarin has been
generally adopted by chemists; and in most modern books we find it given as ex-
pressing the true composition of that body. It was not only the careful and
elaborate work which they devoted to the subject, but also the ingenious and
apparently well-founded theory on the subject. which carried conviction with it.
Laurent had shown, not many years before, that when naphthalin, that beautiful
and white crystalline substance obtained from coal-tar, was acted on by chlorine
and then treated with nitric acid, a body known as chlornaphthalic acid, and having
the composition C,,H,,Cl,O,, was obtained; and on comparing this formula with the
one they had obtained for alizarin, Wolff and Strecker at once concluded that it
really was alizarin, only containing two atoms of chlorine in place of two of
hydrogen ; make this replacement, an operation generally easily performed, and
from naphthalin they had prepared alizarin. Further, this relationship between
chlornaphthalic acid and alizarin is borne out in many ways: it, like alizarin, has the
ha of combining with different basic substances, has a yellow colour, is insolu-
le in water, melts at about the same temperature, is volatile, and when acted on
by alkalies gives a strongly coloured solution. Taking, then, all these facts into con-
sideration, can we wonder that these chemists feel convinced that they have esta-
blished the composition of alizarin, and have shown the source from which it is
to be obtained artificially ? Apparently but one very simple step remains to crown
their work with success, that of replacing the chlorine by hydrogen. Melsens had
only shortly before shown how this substitution could easily be made in the case of
chloracetic acid, by acting on it with potassium amalgam ; and Kolbe had used the
battery for the same purpos?: both these processes, and doubtless all others that the
authors can think of, are tried upon the chlornaphthalic acid; but chlornaphthalic
acid it remains, and they are obliged to confess they are unable to make this sub-
stitution ; still they are strong in the belief that it is to be done and will be done,
and conclude the account of their researches by pointing out the great technical
advantage will be the getting alizarin from a worthless substance such as naphthalin,
» One cannot help even now sympathizing with these chemists in their not being able
to confirm what they had really the strongest evidence for believing must prove to
be a 7 discovery. We now know, however, that had they succeeded in effect-
ing this substitution, or had they in any other way obtained this chlornaphthalic
acid without the chlorine, if I may so speak of it, which since their time has been
done by Martius and Griess, alizarin would not have been obtained ; but a body
having a remarkable parallelism in properties to it would have been. This body, like
alizarin, is of a yellowish colour, but slightly soluble in water, easily in alcohol and
in ether, is volatile, and on oxidation yields the same products; it is, in fact, an
analogous body but belonging to another group. We also now know that the formula
roposed by Wolff and Strecker, and so long in use, is not the correct one. But
ittle more remains to be added with regard to the history of alizarin, as gathered
ro m the study of the natural substance. Schiitzenberger and Paraf suggested
58 REPORT—1873.
doubling Wolff and Strecker’s formula for alizarin; and Bolley suggested the formula
C,,,H,, O,, which, owing to the uneven number of hydrogen atoms, was soon rejected.
If we compare our present knowledge of alizarin with what it was when these re-
searches on the natural product were completed, it is as light compared with
darkness ; and we may well ask, whence has come this influx of knowledge? The
answer, I hope to show you, is undoubtedly that it has come from the careful and
accurate study of abstract chemistry. I know of no history in the whole of
chemistry which more strikingly illustrates how the prosecution of abstract science
oo the foundation for great practical improvements than the history of alizarin
oes.
My object now is, then, to show you, as shortly as I can, how by indirect means
the composition of alizarin was discovered, how it has been built up artificially,
and how it is superseding for manufacturing-purposes the long-used natural
roduct.
“ To trace this history from its source we must go back to 1785, when an apothe-
cary of the name of Hofmann obtained the calcium salt of an acid called quinic acid
from Cinchona-bark. This acid is now known to be of common occurrence in plants;
it exists in the bilberry and in coffee, in holly-, ivy-, oak-, elm-, and ash-leaves,
and probably many other leaves. Liebig also prepared the calcium salt, and was
the first to give a complete analysis of it; the formula he gave for it was C,, H,, O,,.
Baup, on repeating Liebig’s experiments, arrived at a somewhat different conclu-
sion, and gave the formula C,, H,,0,,. In 18365, at Liebig’s suggestion to determine
which formula was correct, Alexander Woskrensky, from St. Petersburg, then a
student at Giessen, undertook the further investigation of this subject, and esta-
blished the formula C,, H,,O,,, the one in fact now in use. In the course of this
investigation, which he carried further than merely settling the percentage composi-
tion of this acid, he describes what to us now is of most interest, a new substance
having peculiar and very marked properties. He says that when a salt of quinic
acid is burnt at a gentle heat he gets aqueous vapour, the vapour of formic acid,
and a deposit of golden needles, which are easily sublimed. Afterwards he describes
how this same golden substance may be obtained from any salt of quinic acid by
heating it with manganic dioxide and dilute sulphuric acid; it then distils over,
condensing in golden-yellow needles on the sides of the receiver, and may be
rendered pure by resublimation. The composition of this body he finds to be
C,H, 0, and names it quinoyl, a name strongly objected to by Berzelius, as
conveying a wrong impression of the nature of the body ; he proposed in place of it
the name quinone, by which it is still known. Far as this body would seem to be
removed from alizavin, yet it is the study of its properties which led to the arti-
ficial production of alizarin.
Some years afterwards Wéhler also examined the decomposition of quinic acid;
he prepares again this quinone, and follows exactly the process described by
Woskrensky : he states that, with regard to the properties of this remarkable body,
he has nothing particular to add ; however, he proposes a different formula for it,
and discovers and describes other bodies allied to it; among these is hydroquinone,
C,H,0,. Laurent afterwards shows that the formula proposed by Wéhler is incon-
sistent with his and Gerhardt’s views, and by experiment confirms the former
formula for this body. Although many other chemists devoted much attention to
this substance, still its real constitution and relation to other compounds re-
mained long unknown. Thus Wéhler, Laurent, Hofmann, Stiideler, and Hesse all
had worked at it; and much experimental knowledge with regard to it had been
acquired, One important point in its history was, first, the discovery of chloranil
by Erdmann in 1841, and then Hofmann showing that, by heating quinone with
potassic chlorate and hydrochloric acid, chloranil could be obtained from it—
that, in fact, chloranil was quinone in which all the hydrogen had been replaced
by chlorine. Perhaps the most general impression among chemists was, that
in constitution it was a kind of aldehyde; certainly its definite place among
chemical compounds was not known. Kekulé suggests a rational formula for it ;
but it is to Carl Graebe that we owe our knowledge of its true constitution. In
1868 he published a remarkable and very able paper on the quinone group of com-
pounds, and then first brought forward the view that quinone was a substitution-
VRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 59
derivative of the hydrocarbon benzol (C,H,). On comparing the composition of
these two bodies, it is seen that the quinone contains two atoms of oxygen more
and two atoms of hydrogen less than benzol; and Graebe, from the study of the
decomposition of quinone and from the compounds it forms, suggested that the two
atoms of oxygen form in themselves a group which is divalent, and thus replace
the two atoms of hydrogen ; this supposition he very forcibly advocates, and shows
its simple and satisfactory application to all the then known reactions of this body.
This suggestion really proved to be the key, not only to the explanation of the
aaa. constitution of quinone and its derivatives, but to much important discovery
esides.
At this time quinone seemed to stand alone ; no other similarly constituted body
was known to exist ; but what strikingly confirms the correctness of Graebe’s views,
and indicates their great value, is that immediately he is able to apply his lately
gained knowledge, and to show how really other analogous bodies, other quinones
in fact, already exist. He studied with great care this quinone series of com-
pounds and the relation they bore to one another—the relation the hydrocarbon
benzol bore to its oxidized derivative quinone, and its relation to the chlorine
substitution-products derivable from it. At once this seems to have led Graebe
to the conclusion that another such series already existed ready formed, and that
its members were well known to chemists—that, in fact, naphthalin(C,, H,) was the
parent hydrocarbon, and that the chloroxynaphthalin chloride (C,, H, ci, O,) and
the perchloroxynaphthalin chloride (C,,Cl,O,) were really chlorine substitution-
compounds of the quinone of this series, corresponding to the bichloroquinone and
to chloranil—that the chloroxynaphthalic acid, C,, H, Cl (HO) 0,, and the per-
chloroxynaphthalic acid, C,, Cl, (HO) O,, all compounds previously discovered by
Laurent, were really bodies belonging to this series—and, further, that the sup-
osed isomer of alizarin discovered by Martius and Griess was really related to this
ast compound, having the composition C,,H,(HO)O,. Further, he was able to
confirm this by obtaining the quinone itself of this series, the body having the
formula C,,H,(O,)", containing also two atoms less of hydrogen and two atoms
more of oxygen than the hydrocarbon naphthalin; and to this body he gave the
characteristic name of naphthoquinone. The chlorine compounds just named are,
then, chlornaphthoquinones or chloroxynaphthoquinones, and correspond to the
former chloroquinones ; and Martius and Griess’s compound will be an oxynaphtho-
quinone : many other compounds of this series are also known. Another step confir-
matory of this existence of a series of quinones was made by Graebe and Bergmann :
as the chloranil could be found by treating phenol with potassic chlorate and hydro-
chloric acid, and quinone derived from it, they showed that in the next higher series
to the phenol series, viz. with cresol, the same reaction held good; and by bine
|
3
ing it in the same way, they obtained a di- and a trichlorotoluquinone, C, (2)! zi
CH
C, (0,)"; which in physical properties very closely resembled the corresponding
3 . .
compounds in the lower series: other compounds have also been prepared.
In the next step we have the application which connects these series of disco-
_ veries with alizarin. Following the clue of a certain analogy which they believed
to exist between the chloranilic acid (C, Cl, GiB) ) and the chloroxynaphthalic
2
acid (C. H,Cl Co which they had proved to be quinone compounds and alizarin,
believing that a certain similarity of properties indicated a certain similarity of consti-
tution, Graebe and Liebermann were led to suppose that alizarin must also be a deri-
vative from a quinone, and have the formula (C, fiat id} ). This theory they were
able afterwards to prove. The first thing was to find the hydrocarbon from which
the quinone might be derived. This was done by taking alizarin itself and heating
it with a very large excess of zinc powder in a long tube, closed at one end. A pro-
60 REPORT—1873.
duct distilled over, and condensed in the cool part of the tube. On collecting it and
purifying it by recrystallization, they found they had not a new substance, but a
hydrocarbon discovered as long ago as 1832 by Dumas and Laurent, and obtained
by them from tar. They had given it the formula C,,H,,; and as apparently it
thus contained once and a half as many atoms of carbon and hydrogen as naph-
thalin did, they named it Paranaphthalin. Afterwards Laurent changed its name
to Anthracene, by which it is still known. Fritzsche, in 1857, probably obtained the
same body, but gave it the formula C,,H,,. Anderson also met with it in his re-
searches, established its composition, and formed some derivatives from it. Limprich
in 1866 showed it could be formed synthetically by heating benzol chloride (C,H,Cl)
with water; and Berthelot has since proved that it is formed by the action of heat
on many hydrocarbons. This first step was then complete and most satisfactory :
from alizarin they had obtained its hydrocarbon ; and this hydrocarbon was a body
already known, and with such marked properties that it was easy to identify it.
But would the next requirement be fulfilled ? would it, like benzol and naphthalin,
yield a quinone? The experiment had not to be tried; for when they found that
anthracene was the hydrocarbon formed, they recognized in a body already known
the quinone derivable from it. It had been prepared by Laurent by the action
of nitric acid on anthracene, and called by him Anthracenuse; and the same
substance was also discovered by Anderson, and called by him Oxanthracene. The
composition of this body was proved by Anderson and Laurent to be C,, H, O,, and
thus bears the same relation to its hydrocarbon anthracene that quinone and
naphthaquinone do to their hydrocarbons. Graebe gave to it the systematic name of
Anthraquinone.
We have, then, now three hydrocarbons (C, H,, C,, H,, and C,, H,,) differing by
C, H,, and all forming starting-points for these different quinone series. Anthra-
quinone, acted upon by chlorine, gave substitution-products such as might have
been foretold. It is an exceedingly stable compound, not acted upon even by
fusion with potassic hydrate. Bromine does not act upon it in the cold; but at
100° it forms a bibromanthraquinone. Other bromine compounds have also been
formed.
Now, if the analogies which have guided them so far still hold good, they would
seem to have the means of forming alizarin artificially. Their theory is that it is
dioxyanthraquinone (c, pilates (re) ) , and if so, judging from what is known to take
2
place with other quinone derivatives, should be formed from this dibromanthra-
quinone on boiling it with potash or soda and then acidulating the solution. They
try the experiment, and describe how, contrary at first to their expectation, on boil-
ing dibromanthraquinone with potash no change occurred; but afterwards, on
using stronger potash and a higher temperature, they had the satisfaction of seeing
the liquid little by little become of a violet colour. This shows the formation of
alizarin. Afterwards, on acidifying this solution, the alizarin separated out in
yellowish flocks. On volatilizing it they get it in crystals like those obtained
from madder; on oxidizing it with nitric acid, they get phthalic acid; and
on precipitating it with the ordinary mordants or other metallic solutions, they
get compounds exactly comparable to those from the natural product. Every trial
confirms their success ; so, by following purely theoretical considerations, they have
been led to the discovery of the means of artificially forming this important organic
colouring-matter. A special interest must always attach itself to this discovery ;
for it is the first instance in which a natural organic colouring-matter has been built
up by artificial means. Now the chemist can compete with nature in its giant
tion. Although the first, it is a safe prediction that it will not long be the only
one. Which colouring-matter will follow next it is impossible to say ; but, sooner
or later, that most interesting one, scientifically and practically, indigo, will have to
yield to the scientific chemist the history of its production.
Returning for a moment to the percentage composition of alizarin, now that we
know its constitution, its formula is established; and on comparing it (C,, H, O,)
with all the different formule which have been proposed, we see that the one advo-
eated by Schunck was most nearly correct—in fact that it differs from it only by
two atoms of hydrogen. It is not without interest to note that the next most im-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 61
portant colouring-matter in madder, purpurin, which so pertinaciously follows ali-
zarin, is in constitution very nearly allied to it, and is also an anthracene derivative.
Scientifically, then, the artificial production of this natural product was complete ;
but the practical question, Can it be made in the laboratory cheaper than it can be
obtained from the root ? had yet to be dealt with. The raw material, the anthracene,
a by-product in the manufacture of coal-gas, had as yet only been obtained as a
chemical curiosity ; it had no market value; its cost would depend on the labour
of separating it from the tar and the amount obtainable. But with regard to the
bromine necessary to form the bibromanthraquinone it was different; the use of
such an expensive reagent would preclude the process becoming a manufacturing
one. But could no cheaper reagent be used in place of the bromine, and thus crown
this discovery by utilizing it as a manufacturing process? It was our countryman
Mr. Perkin who first showed how this could be done, and has since proved the very
practical and important nature of his discovery by carrying it out on the manufac-
turing scale. The nature of Perkin’s discovery was the forming, in place of a
bibromanthraquinone, a disulphoanthraquinone ; in a word, he used sulphuric acid in
place of bromine, obtaining thus a sulpho-acid in place of a bromine substitution-
compound. The property of these sulpho-acids, containing the monovalent group
HSO,, which is the equivalent to the atom of bromine, is that on being boiled with
an alkali they are decomposed, and a corresponding alkaline salt formed. Thus the
change from the anthraquinone to the alizarin was effected by boiling it with sul-
phuric 0) At a high temperature it dissolves, becoming a sulpho-acid,
(O,)"
Cie, a a ; and then the further changes follow, as they did with the bromine
3
compound. The sulpho-acid boiled with potash is decomposed, and a potash salt
of alizarin and potassic sulphite are formed; acid then precipitates the alizarin
as a bright yellow substance.
While Perkin was carrying on these researches in this country, Caro, Graebe, and
Liebermann were carrying on somewhat similar ones in Germany; and in both
countries have the scientific experiments developed into manufacturing industries.
My knowledge extends only to the English manufactory ; and if any excuse be ne-
cessary for having asked your attention to-day to this long history of a single sub-
stance, I think I must plead the existence of that manufactory as my excuse ; for
it is not often that purely scientific research so rapidly culminates in great practical
undertakings, Already has the artificial become a most formidable opponent to the
natural product; and in this struggle, already begun, there can be no doubt which
will come off victorious.
In the manufactory is rigidly carried out the exact process I have already
described to you. In tar there is about one per cent. of anthracene; this, ina
crude impure state, is obtained from it by the tar-distiller and sent by him to
the colour-works. Here it is purified by pressure, by dissolving from it many of
its impurities, and, lastly, by volatilizing it. Then comes the conversion of it into
the anthraquinone by oxidizing agents, nitric or chromic acid being used, then the
formation of the sulpho-compound by heating it with sulphuric acid to a tempera-
ture of about 260°C. The excess of acid present is then neutralized by the addi-
tion of lime, and the insoluble calcic sulphate is filtered off. To the filtered liquid
sodic carbonate is added, and thus the calcic salt of the sulpho-acid is changed into
2
the sodic salt, C,, H, ne ape This is afterwards heated to about 180°C. with
Ya SO
caustic soda, thus decomposing the sulpho-acid and forming the soda salt of
alizarin and the sodic sulphite. The alizarin salt so formed remains in solution,
giving to the liquid a beautiful violet colour. rom this solution sulphuric acid
precipitates the alizarin as an orange-yellow substance. It is allowed to settle in
arge tanks, and then is run, in the form of a yellowish mud, which contains either
10 or 15 per cent. of dry alizarin, into barrels, and is in this form sent to the
Baiit-warks, and used much in the same way as the original ground madder
was used.
This alizarin mud, as I have called it, containing but 10 per cent, of dry alizarin,
*
62 REPORT—1873.
is equal in dyeing-power to about 8 times its weight of the best madder, and is the
pure substance required for the dyeing, in place of a complicated mixture containing
certain constituents which have a positively injurious effect on the colours produced.
The scientific knowledge and energy which Mr. Perkin has brought to bear on
the manufacture of this colouring-matter seem already to have worked wonders.
The demand and supply for artificial alizarin are increasing at a most rapid rate ;
and yet the manufacture of it seems hardly to have commenced. The value of
madder has much decreased ; and in fact, judging by what occurred in the year of
revolution and commercial depression (1848), when the price of madder fell for a
time to a point at which it was considered it would no longer remunerate the
growers to produce it, that point has now been again reached, but certainly from
very different reasons. Last year * artificial alizarin equal in value to about one
fourth of the madder imported into England was manufactured in this country.
This year the amount will be much larger.
Thus is growing up a great industry, which, far and wide, must exercise most
important effects. Old and cumbrous processes must give way to better, cheaper,
newer ones; and, lastly, thousands of acres of land in many different parts of the
world will be relieved from the necessity of growing madder, and be ready to
receive some new crop. In this sense may the theoretical chemist be said even to
have increased the boundaries of the globe.
On the Detection of Adulteration of Tea. By Atrrep H. Atten, 7.0.8.
On Alpha- and Beta-Naphthylic Sulphide.
By Houyry E. Armsrrone, Ph.D., FCS.
Whereas in the fatty series of organic compounds two classes of bodies of the
form R'(SCN) are known, viz. the sulphocyanates and the so-called mustard-oils
or isosulphocyanates, in the aromatic series the compounds of the latter class alone
have been obtained. Thus all attempts to prepare phenylic sulphocyanate, for
example, by distilling a salt of benzenesulphonic acid with potassic sulphocyanate
have been unsuccessful. It appeared possible that the desired compound, although
formed in the first instance, was produced at a temperature so high that it at once
underwent decomposition, and that better results might be hoped for from the
employment of sulpho-salts more easily acted upon than the benzenesulphonates.
A dry mixture of the potassic salt of alpha-naphthalenesulphonic acid and potassic
sulphocyanate was therefore submitted to distillation; and a semisolid: product
was thus obtained, which could be purified by recrystallization from a solution of
carbonic disulphide in alcohol. On analysis numbers were obtained which show
that the product is a naphthylic sulphide, (C,,H,),S. A mixture of the potassic
salt of beta-naphthelenesulphonic acid and potassic sulphocyanate behaved similarly
on distillation ; the product appears to consist of beta-naphthylic sulphide.
Alpha-naphthylic ae crystallizes in long white needles, melting at about
100° ; it is scarcely soluble in alcohol, but dissolves readily in carbonic disulphide
and glacial acetic acid. The beta-compound has a higher melting-point, and is
also less soluble in a mixture of carbonic disulphide and alcohol.
On distilling the potassic salt of either alpha- or beta-naphthalenesulphonic acid
much naphthalene is formed, but apparently no naphthylic sulphide.
On the Action of Sulphuric acid on Ethylaniline and Dimethylaniline.
By Henry E. Armsrrone; Ph.D., F.C.S.
On heating ethylaniline with an excess of Nordhausen sulphuric acid until sul-
phurous hydride is evolved, and subsequently mixing the product with water, a
* On the Ist of this month (September) the value of madder-roots in France was 24 to
26 francs per 50 kilogrammes. The average price in 1848 was 27, but in June and July
of that year it was 22 francs.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 63
crystalline mass is obtained, which is readily recognized as sulphanilic acid. The
reaction probably occurs thus :
{Cal 4.211,80,=N jC (HSO,)+C,H,.HS0O,+0H,,.
ciel H
Dimethylaniline similarly treated behaves differently, however, being converted
into a monosulphonic acid.
C,H C,H, (HSO T,.
N ) Gip'+H,80,=N oH 3) +OH,
CH, CH,
Note on Cresol Derivatives. By Henry E. Armstrone, Ph.D., F.C.S.
The author briefly referred to the results of the preliminary examination of coal-
tar cresylic acid, which he had commenced in conjunction with Mr. C. L. Field,
and stated that the dinitrocresol described by them in a communication to the
Chemical Society had since been identified with dinitroparacresol.
On the Action of Sulphide of Methyl on Bromacetic Acid.
By Professor Dr. Crum Brown, /.R.S.Z.
On Black Deposits of Metals. By Dr. J. H. Guapsronn, F.R.S.
Tf one metal be thrown down from solution by means of another metal, it does
not always present itself of the same colour as it exhibits when in mass; in fact
most metals that are capable of being precipitated by substitution may be obtained
in a black condition. The allied metals platinum, palladium, and iridium are
enerally, if not always, black when thus prepared ; and bismuth and antimony form
ipa fringes, and little else. Similar fringes are also formed by gold; but it also
yields green, yellow, or lilac metal according to circumstances. Copper when first
deposited on zinc, whether from a weak or a stroug solution, is black; but in the
latter case it becomes chocolate-coloured as it advances, or red if the action be
more rapid. Lead in like manner is always deposited black in the first instance,
though the growing crystals soon become of the well-known dull grey. Silver
and thallium appear as little bushes of black metal on the decomposing plate, if
the solution be very weak, otherwise they grow of their proper colour. Zine and
cadmium give a black coating, quickly passing into dark grey, when their weak
solutions are decomposed by magnesium. The general result may be stated
thus :—If a piece of metal be immersed in the solution of another metal which it
can displace, the latter metal immediately makes its appearance at myriads of
points in a condition that does not reflect light; but as the most favourably
circumstanced crystals grow they acquire the optical properties of the massive
metal, the period at which the change takes place depending partly on the nature
of the metal, and partly on the rapidity of its growth.
In the production of the black deposit of the copper-zine couple lately employed
by the author and Mr. Tribe to break up various compound bodies, there are several
stages that may be noted. At first an outgrowth of copper forms on the zinc;
then while this action is still proceeding the couple itself acts upon the water or
the sulphate of zinc in solution, the metallic zinc being oxidized, and hydrogen
gas or black zinc being formed against the copper branches. This deposit of zinc
was originally observed by Dr. Russell. The arrangement of the particles between
the two metals in connexion is supposed to be somewhat thus :—
Cu | ZnSO, | ZnSO, | H,O | H,O | Zn,
which by the conjoint polar and chemical force becomes
Cu | Zn | ZnSO, | H, SO, | H,O | ZnO.
64 _ REPORT—1873.
If there is still copper sulphate in the solution, this deposited zinc may in its turn
become coated with copper ; but if it remain exposed to water it is sure to become
oxidized. The black deposit often assumes a rowaiel colour when this is the
case. The copper on which zinc has been deposited gives a brassy streak when
rubbed in a mortar; but the presence of oxides tend to prevent the sticking
together of the detached pieces of metal, and thus the formation of a streak on
pressure. If, however, the oxide be removed by acetic acid, the clean ramifications
of metal, whether black or otherwise, conglomerate of their own accord in a re-
markable way, and little pressure is required to obtain a yellowish metallic streak ;
while, if hydrochloric acid be used, the zinc itself also dissolves with effervescence,
and the conglomerating pieces of metal when rubbed give a coppery streak.
On a Continuous Process for Purifying OCoal-gas and obtaining Sulphur and
Ammonium Sulphate. By A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., and F. W.
Fison, £.C.S.
On the Spectra of certain Boric and Phosphoric Acid Blowpipe Beads,
By Cuartes Horner.
This memoir is intended to show the importance of studying coloured phosphoric
and boric acid beads with the spectroscope, and that much valuable fneoiaies
may be derived from a careful observation of the various spectra, since certain
constituents in complex minerals may be often recognized in the same bead. The
author then explains how in phosphoric acid beads didymium, uranium, cobalt,
chromium, &c. may be detected in fractional quantities by their characteristic
absorption-bands and lines in the presence of other substances like iron, nickel, &c.,
which give no such positive spectra.
The author also furnishes new tests for tungsten, molybdenum, and cadmium,
by which the two former more especially may be determined in infinitesimal
quantities of at least 0-0001 of a grain by means of their remarkable absorption-
spectra. To produce these results the author adopts the somewhat novel method
of fusing the substance along with boric acid simultaneously, at a very gentle heat,
until the bead is tolerably clear. Tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, and titanium
oxides all yield brown beads when cold, nickel reddish purple, and cadmium a
bright yellow by reflected light.
The subjoined Table gives the positions of the bands and lines according to Mr.
Sorby’s scale and notation.
TABLE OF SPECTRA.
Phosphoric acid beads. Red end.
5) aA) kite Comma
Direagm Oxide... peas) -uits vecid es 1 I}, 12, 23, 88, 51, 63, 78.
Ohrominm 4) cies = « banda # 12, 13, 23.
4 —
Didymium j, .-sseeseeseeeteens 35 44 6, 63,
Tungsten 5, sseeeeeeeeee seen rates
Molybdenum oxide ...........--. Seepcanl OS
Borie acid beads. 5
Tungsten Oxide .....+..sss.sseeee ae Denon
gy NYA: BOOS 5a 6552s meee 8 soca, 2 ly 38 5j......
Molybdenum oxide ...........4.. 1p 25 bf....0- |
Cadmium PA SAO OLS CANT GE. oaths
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 65
Note on the Elements in the Sun.. By J. Norman Locxyer, F.R.S.
The Sewage of Manufacturing Towns. By W.T. McGowen.
The subject one of greatest difficulty in the management of large manufacturing
towns ; importance of having it considered before the Association.
Sketch of the stages by which the question has attained its present magnitude.
Absurd position of local authorities consequent on conflicting decisions to which they
are exposed.
Endeavours on the part of Government to arrive at satisfactory result by means
of Commissions ; their result.
Proceedings of Government by bill in the Commons; review of the measure;
renewed bill in the Lords ; review thereof. Result of both bills.
Return by Local Government Board as to steps taken in towns to deal with
sewage. Review of the document.
Measures adopted by the Bradford Corporation for defecating their sewage.
However successful, will be comparatively inappreciable as affecting the state of the
Aire and Calder.
Combined efforts of Bradford and neighbouring Corporations to deal with those
rivers on a broad and liberal principle by means of an elective Conservancy Board
for the rivers, and by means of the Local Authority in every district of the Water-
shed ; subject to appeal to the Local Government Board. Defeat of the measure,
though supported by the Government recommendation that the leading feature of
that scheme be adopted as the basis of general legislation.
Difficulty of establishing sewage-farms in this and similar districts.
Possibility of failure of all remedies yet tried. Outline of scheme for such an
emergency.
On the Valuation of Commercial Crude Anthracene.
By Dr. Pavt and A. D. Cowntey, FCS.
On several Homologues of Oxaluric Acid. By W.H. Prue.
The anhydrides of the dibasic acids add themselves to urea, and ,to sulpho-
carbamide to form acids which are homologous with oxaluric acid. Thus, by
heating a mixture of succinic anhydride and urea in the proportion of their mole-
cular weights to 130° C., the succino-carbaminic acid is produced, as expressed
by the equation
CH,—CO NH, CH,—CO—NH—CO—NH,
(Ne a
CH,—CO NH, CH,—COOH.
This acid, crystallized from water, forms pearly scales which fuse at 203-204° C,
It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, and bisulphide of carbon, but soluble
in glacial acetic acid and boiling water, as also in concentrated sulphuric acid.
The salts of the alkalies and alkaline earths are easily soluble ; those of lead and
silver form white precipitates.
If sulpho-carbamide be substituted for urea in the above reaction, the succino-
sulphocarbaminic acid is formed. This acid resembles the preceding in all its
P peariice. It forms a crystalline powder, which fuses at 2105-211°C, Its
ormula is
CH,—CO—NH—CO—NH,
CH,—COOH {
“ie anhydride does not combine with urea; carbonic acid is liberated, and
873. . 5 a
66 REPORT—1873.
citraconamide produced. However, citraconic anhydride treated with sulpho-
carbamide yields the citraconsulpho-carbaminic acid :
/CO—NH—CO—NH,
\COOrL
This body has similar properties to those of the foregoing acids. It fuses at
222-223°C. No such combination could be obtained between lactide and urea, or
between lactide and sulphocarbamide. In the first case lactamide and carbonic
acid were produced; in the second, lactamide and oxysulphide of carbon.
On Horn Silver. By W. Cuanpirr Rozzrts, F.C.S.
On the Constitution of some Silicates. By Professor Scuararix, Prague.
On Artificial Magnetite. By Joun Spruumr, F.C.S.
The object of this communication was to point out an error in the statement of
a chemical reaction occurring in several standard works of reference, and, in the
second place, to indicate the formation of crystallized magnetic oxide of iron
(magnetite) in the ordinary process of manufacturing aniline from nitrobenzol by
the reducing action of metallic iron.
Reference was made to Reimann’s ‘ Aniline and its Derivatives,’ and to Wagner’s
‘Chemical Technology,’ where the action of iron upon nitrobenzol in the presence
of acid (Béchamp’s process) is stated to give ferric oxide or a “hydrated oxide
of iron.” The author pointed to the fact that the ordinary residual product in this
operation was black, and could be so far purified by washing and elutriation from
the excess of iron usually remaining in admixture as to give a fine black pigment,
which appeared under the microscope as minute octahedra, and was strongly
magnetic. Chemical analysis showed this to consist almost entirely of magnetic
oxide of iron, with such impurities as were inherent to the process or previously
existed in the cast iron. The physical properties of this form of oxide were
further described, and its analogy to the native varieties of magnetic ore (Cornish
as Dannemora) shown by the following analysis of the substance dried at
110° C. :—
INGTTIC OFIGO . ssscsslecere age .... 67:00
Herrons oxide! <....... «2 ee einen ates 80°05
(OTTO UICC Be acc ch oinpss Aicehu ly trrssisis’ ashe 1:25
ell 2 Reine ae geymereerili Fonerialie ee 8 ‘78
Phosphoriciacideiaey. sce eats vice 62
Sulphur and manganese .......... traces
99°68
Metallic iron (total)..........604 ~ 10°27
On a form of Gas-generator. By C. J. Woopwarp, B.Sc.
What are required in a gas-generator are a ready means of bringing the acid
into contact with the zinc, marble, &c., and, what is of even greater importance, a
ready means of remoying it when the supply of gas is no longer wanted. The
generator devised by Dobereiner is theoretically perfect; but, owing to slight leakage,
it will not remain in action for any length of time.
Two forms of generator were described. The tirst consists of a stoneware vessel
somewhat similar to a Woulfe’s bottle. To one of the tubulures is fastened a glass
cylinder containing the zinc, marble, &c.; to the other tubulure is attached a tube
through which a plug of wood passes loosely. To bring the apparatus into action
s
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 67
the wooden plunger is depressed, when, from displacement, the acid rises and is
thus brought into contact with the zinc. When the plug is down the supply of gas is
self-regulating, just as in the apparatus of Dobereiner. The other form of generator,
and the one which the author generally uses, is made from a wide-mouthed bottle
containing acid. Into the mouth of this bottle fits a glass cylinder containing the
materials for generating the gas. At the shoulder of the bottle is a hole admitting
a small india-rubber tube, on which is placed a pinch-tap.
Supposing the apparatus is wanted in action, the pinch-tap is opened and air
forced into the bottle by means of the mouth. The pressure of air forces acid up
the cylinder, when immediately the gas is given off. ‘The apparatus is put out of
action in a moment by opening the pinch-tap, when the confined air escapes and
the acid falls. Instead of using the mouth to compress the air, a small india-
rubber ball may be used.
New Derivatives from Codeine and Morphine. By 0. R. A. Wrieut, D.Sc.
Lond., Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Mary’s Hospital, London.
Since the last Meeting of the Association the following further results have been
obtained, partly in conjunction with Mr. E. L. Mayer, of Glasgow.
Some of the polymerides of morphine corresponding to the di-, tri-, and tetra-
codeine described in last year’s paper are obtainable by the action of sulphuric acid
diluted with its own bulk of water on morphine at 100°. Although dicodeine is
readily obtainable from codeine in this way, dimorphine does not appear to result in
any appreciable quantity ; trimorphine and tetramorphine, on the other hand, are
readily producible, the physical properties of these two bases and their derivatives
corresponding exactly with those of tricodeine and tetracodeine respectively. The
derivatives of the four series of polymerides may be thus characterized :—
Mono-series (non-polymerized). Bases crystalline ; salts crystalline.
Di-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and soluble in ether ; salts crystalline.
Tri-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and soluble in ether; salts amorphous,
Tetra-series (polymerized). Bases amorphous and insoluble in ether; salts
amorphous.
On account of their physical properties, the bases hitherto provisionally termed
“apomorphine,” “ deoxycodeine,” and “deoxymorphine”’ are viewed as being
derivatives of (hypothetical) dimorphine or of dicodeine respectively. ;
Trimorphine, when administered subcutaneously to cats, produces excitement
and salivation, with slight hypnotesia, but no vomiting; tetramorphine, on the
other hand, is a most energetic emetic, its action being (so far as cats are con-
cerned) much more marked than even that of “ apomorphine.” : ‘
Trimorphine is acted on by hydrochloric acid, producing a chlorinated base ; in
this respect trimorphine is not analogous to tricodeine, which only loses the
elements of water by this treatment; thus,
Tricodeine........ (oe =6H, 0+ (G,—6H, 0),
Trimorphine...... M,+2HCl1=2H, 0+(M,+2HCl—2H, 0).
The occurrence of this reaction proves that the base termed trimorphine (and
hence also by analogy tricodeine) is actually the ¢reble polymeride of morphine—
a conclusion hitherto only deduced from the physical properties of the series of
polymerides. Ted
Tetramorphine, like tetracodeine, is not acted on by hydrochloric acid.
The so-called “sulphomorphide” of Arppe and of Laurent and Gerhardt,
snpposed by the latter to be a kind of amide, is found to be nothing but the
sulphate of tetramorphine; its formation is accompanied by the production of
minute quantities of ‘‘ apomorphine.” ; ‘ E
The action of hydrochloric acid on morphine appears to give rise, first, to
chlorinated bases derived from non-polymerized morphine—a mixture of sub-
stances of compositions (M+HCl), (M+HClI—H, 0), and (M+ 2HCl—2H, 0)
being produced,—and secondly, by the further alteration of these just formed
substances, to “apomorphine ” and a chlorinated tetra-base (Mra OD ee
68 REPORT—1873.
The action of hydrochloric acid on codeine is in some respects analogous to, in
others different from, that on morphine; the first products formed are derived
from non-polymerized codeine, and are (C-+HCl) and (C+ 2HCl—2H, 0), the
latter being the ‘ chlorocodide ” of Matthiessen and the author. As “chlorocodide”
regenerates ordinary codeine by the action of water in sealed tubes, the production
of this base, preceded by that of (C+HCl), proves, first, that these substances
(and hence by analogy the corresponding morphine derivatives) really belong to the
mono-series, and, secondly, that monocodeine has the formula C,, H,, N, O,, and not
(as usually supposed) the half of this, viz. C,, H,, NO, (and hence by analogy that
monomorphine is C,,H,,N,0,, and not C,,H,,NO;). | og.
In just the same way the first action of hydrobromic acid on codeine is found to
give rise to (C+HBr), (C+2HBr—2H, 0) or “ bromocodide” being subsequently
roduced.
a "The further action of hydrochloric acid on ‘ chlorocodide ” has been shown by
Matthiessen and the author to consist in the elimination of methyl as chloride, and
the abstraction of the elements of water, forming ‘‘ apomorphine,” the reaction
taking place at 140-150° in sealed tubes. When the action is allowed to take place
at 100°, however, it follows a slightly different course; methyl chloride is formed
and water is eliminated, but the resulting substance is not “ apomorphine,” but a
body which may be regarded as standing intermediate between dimorphine and
“apomorphine” (tetrapodimorphine); its physical characters are those of a di-
derivative, and it much resembles apomorphine in all respects save composition and
physiological action; the recrystallized pure hydrochloride gave numbers leading
to the formula (M.—2H, O), “apomorphine” being (M,—4H20); and hence the name
diapodimorphine is given to this substance. Simultaneously with diapodimorphine,
a base isomeric therewith, but belonging to the tetra-series, is produced ; this, being
indicated by the formula (M,—4H, O), may be termed tetrapotetramorphine.
The alteration in the physiological action (on cats) of the morphine polymerides
produced by successive abstraction of the elements of water is well exemplified by
the following Table. The last-mentioned base, octapotetramorphine, is obtained as
the final product of the joint action of concentrated zinc chloride and hydrochloric
acid on morphine; its formation is preceded by that of “apomorphine,” the base
(M+HCl —II, 0), and a tetra-base (M,+HCl1—4H, O), the one or the other being
formed according to the temperature employed and other circumstances.
Di-Series,
Name of base. Relation to morphine. Physiological action. Observer.
Dimorphine (hypothetical).. M, ? 2
= Produces profuse
Diapodimorphine .......... M,—2H, 0 { salivation butno} Dr. J, G. Blackley.
vomiting (cats).
Moderately -pow-
Tetrapodimorphine(apomor-| 7 erfulemetic(cats).{ Drs. Gee and
ain) ofa sas CP pint M,—4H, 0 Very powerful Stocker.
emetic (man).
Tetra-Series.
a4 i :
Tetramorphine......... .... M, %% Ne Tse Dr. Stocker.
Diapotetramorphine,....... M,—2H,0 emer ial Serge ”
1 (cats and dogs).
Produces profuse
salivation but no
vomiting (cats).
Produces neither
salivation nor
vomiting (cats).
Tetrapotetramorphine ...... M,—4H,0 Dr. Blackley,
Octapotetramorphine ...... M,—8H,0
”
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 69
It hence appears that the emetic action (on cats) of di-derivatives becomes much
increased as the abstraction of the elements of water goes on, whilst the oppo-
site holds in the case of the tetra-derivatives. Isomerides in different series may
or may not have the same kind of physiological action; thus diapodimorphine
and its isomeride tetrapotetramorphine are not far apart in their effects, whilst
tetrapodimorphine and its isomeride octapotetramorphine are very dissimilar—just
as morphine, trimorphine, and tetramorphine, or codeine, dicodeine, tricodeine, and
tetracodeine are diflerent in physiological action.
The differences in chemical reactions-between the four series of polymerides and
their derivatives are as well marked as are their physiological properties; thus
when either “apomorphine,” diapomorphine, or “ deoxymorphine ” (all of which
are di-derivatives) is dissolved in caustic potash solution, a liquid is obtained which
rapidly absorbs oxygen from the air: on acidifying this liquid with hydrochloric
acid and agitating with ether, a substance is dissolved out which communicates to
the ether a magnificent purple tint. This colouring-matter is possessed of the some-
what remarkable property of giving solutions of very different colours and shades
with various solvents, the same quantity being dissolved to the same bulk in each
case: thus alkalies dissolve it, forming a bright green liquid; water containing
ammoniacal salts, a beautiful blue ; whilst alcohol, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon,
ether, and benzene dissolve it, forming liquids of shades varying trom violet-blue
to red-purple, but differing in each case. The pure substance is indicated by the
formula C,,H,,N,0O,. It is insoluble in acids, and forms an indigo-blue powder
exhibiting traces of crystallization.
Only di-derivatives are capable of giving rise to this colouring-matter ; mono-,
tri-, and tetra-derivatives of morphine and codeine do not yield a trace of it, provided
the substances used are perfectly free from all admixture of di-derivatives.
Again, the action of heat (150°-180°) on the hydrochlorides of monomorphine de-
rivatives causes them to decompose; and on distilling with potash the resulting
substance, a mixture of methylamine and pyridine is obtained. On subjecting tetra-~
morphine derivatives to the same treatment, methylamine only is produced ; whilst
“ apomorphine ” (the only di-derivative available in sufficient quantity for the ex-
periment) yields xo volatile base at all by this treatment.
It would hence seem probable that the relations of the nitrogen to the other ele-
ments present are different in the different series of polymerides. Experiments are
contemplated with a view to estimating the different amounts of “ Intrinsic Chemi-
eal Energy ” present in equal weights of isomerides in the different series. (Vide
“ Report on Essential Oils.”
The derivatives of morphine and codeine (upwards of forty in number) that have
been obtained during the last few yearsmay, with only one ortwo inconsiderable excep-
tions, be all regarded as derived from one or other of the polymerides, M, M,, M,, My,
or G, C,, C,, Cy, by addition or subtraction of hydrogen, addition of the elements of
hydrochloric (hydrobromic or hydriodic) acid, and elimination of the elements of
water ; all consequently are expressible by the general formule
(C+Hp)z+mHX—nH, O,
or
(M+Hp)c+mHX—nH, O,
where
p has values varying from 0 to 8 ;
v=l, 2, 3, or 4, giving rise to the mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-series respectively ;
m varies from 0 to 4;
n varies from 0 to 12; and
X stands for either Cl, Br, or I.
Thus the base provisionally termed bromotetracodeine may be written
{(C—H),+2HBr}, deoxymorphine as {(M+H,),—4H, O},
and so on. Tables giving the composition of these derivatives, formulated and
arranged on this principle, are given in the ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ 1873,
70 REPORT—1873.
p. 228, and the ‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxvii. p. 287, or in the ‘Berichte der Deut.
Chem. Ges,,’ vol. v. p. 1111, and vol. vi. p. 268.
The author again desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macfarlane and Co., of
Edinburgh, for their great kindness and liberality in presenting him with the alka-
loids necessary for these researches,
GEOLOGY.
Address by Joun Putturrs, M.A., D.C.L. Oxon., LLD. Cambridge and
Dublin, P.BRS., F.GLS.
More than half the life of an octogenarian separates us from the birthday of the
British Association in Yorkshire ; and few of those who then helped to inaugurate
a new scientific power can be here to-day to estimate the work which it accom-
plished, and judge of the plans which it proposes to follow in future. Would that
we might still have with us the wise leading of Harcourt, and the intrepid adyo-
cacy of Sedgwick, names dear to Geology and always to be honoured in York-
shire !
The natural sciences in general, and Geology in particular, have derived from the
British Association some at least of the advantages so boldly claimed at its origin :
some impediments have been removed from their path ; society looks with approba-
tion on their efforts; their progress is hailed among national triumphs, though
achieved for the most part by voluntary labour; and the results of their discoveries
are written in the prosperous annals of our native industry.
In most cases scientific truth is established before that practical application is
posi! which constitutes a commercial revolution and is welcomed with applause
y the community. What a change has happened within forty, nay, twenty years,
in the ironworks of this country! But long before the foundations of furnaces were
laid at Middlesborough, the ferruginous bands in the Yorkshire cliffs had been
often explored by geologists, and waited only for the railway to yield millions of tons
of ore. The occurrence of good ironstone in the Liassic strata of England is a source
of profit as far to the south as Oxfordshire ; Northamptonshire yields it in abundance
at the base of the Oolites, and Lincolnshire above them; while on the Yorkshire
coast, in addition, we have smaller beds in the midst of the Oolites, through nearly
the whele range, associated with poor and thin coal.
To determine the extent of the British coal-fields, and the probable duration of
the treasures which they yield, and to discover, if possible, other fields quite un-
dreamed of by practical colliers, are problems which geology has been invited to
solve ; and much progress has been made in these important inquiries by private re-
search and the ad of a public Commission. The questions most interesting to the
community—the extent to which known coal-fields spread beneath superior strata,
and the situation of other fields having no outcrop to the surface—can often be an-
swered on purely geological grounds, within not very wide limits of probability.
If, for example, we ask how far to the eastward the known coal-strata may extend
under the Vale of York, a reasonable answer is furnished by Mr. Hull and the Govern-
ment Commission. The whole great coal deposit, extending from Bradford to
Nottingham, passes under the Magnesian Limestone, and may be found for at least
a few miles in breadth within attainable depths. It passes under a part of the
Vale of York, probably south of the city. But before attempting to give a practical
value to this opinion, it may be well to remember that, fully tried, the experiment
would be too costly for individual enterprise, while if successful it would benefit
more than a county, and that not only a large outlay must be provided for it, but
arrangements made for persevering through several years in the face of many diffi-
culties and perhaps eventual disappointment. Still, sooner or later, the trial must
be made; and geology must direct the operation.
Considerations of this kind invest with more than momentary interest the great
t
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 71
undertaking to which Mr. Godwin-Austen called attention in his address to the
Geological Section at Brighton. Not to dig gypsum, not to open a new supply of
salt, not to discover coal in Sussex, but to find out what is below the Wealden,
and thus contribute to solve a great practical problem for London and all the south
of England, have geologists undertaken the deep boring near Hastings. What is
below the Wealden? Do the oolitie rocks continue beneath it with their usual
characters and thickness? or do they suffer that remarkable diminution which is
observed in their eastward declination through the midland counties? Do they
occur at all there? may they lie only in separate patches amidst older rocks? may
these older rocks, continued from Belgium, appear at once or at no great depth
below the Wealden, and bring with them, if not coal, some sure knowledge of the
way in which the great subterranean anticlinal passes from the Rhineland through
Belgium to Somerset, South Wales, and Ireland? Such an experiment must not
be allowed to come to a premature end.
Turning, however, from these topics, which involve industrial interests, to other
lines of geological research, we remark how firmly since 1831 the great facts of rock-
stratification, succession of life, earth-movement, and changes of oceanic areas have
been established and reduced to Jaws—laws, indeed, of phenomena at present, but
gradually acquiring the character of laws of causation.
Among the important discoveries by which our knowledge of the earth’s
structure and history has been greatly enlarged within forty years, place must be
given to the results of the labours of Sedgwick and Murchison, who established the
Cambro-Silurian systems, and thus penetrated into ancient time-relics very far
toward the shadowy limit of paleontological research. Stimulated by this success,
the early strata of the globe have been explored with unremitting industry in
every corner of the earth ; and thus the classification and the nomenclature which
were suggested in Wales and Cumberland are found to be applicable in Russia and
India, America and Australia, so as to serve as a basis for the general scale of
geological time, founded on organic remains of the successive ages,
This great principle, the gift of William Smith, is also employed with success in
a fuller study of the deposits which stand among the latest in our history and
involve a vast variety of phenomena, touching a long succession of life on the land,
changes of depth in the sea, and alterations of climate. Among these evidences of
physical revolution, which, if modern as geological events, are very ancient if
estimated in centuries, the earliest monuments of man find place—not buildings,
not inhabited caves or dwellings in dry earth-pits, not pottery or fabricated metal,
but mere stones shaped in rude fashion to constitute apparently the one tool and
one weapon with which, according to Prestwich, and Evans, and Lubbock, the
poor inhabitant of northern climes had to sustain and defend his life.
Nothing in my day has had such a decided influence on the public mind in
favour of geological research, nothing has so clearly brought out the purpose and
scope of our science, as these two great lines of inquiry, one directed to the
beginning, the other to the end of the accessible scale of earthly time; for thus has
it been made clear that our purpose can be nothing less than to discover the history
of the land, sea, and air, and the long sequence of life, and to marshal the results:
in a settled chronology—not, indeed, a scale of years to be measured by the
rotations or revolutions of planets, but a series of ages slowly succeeding one
another through an immensity of time.
There is no question of the truth of this history. The facts observed are found
in yariable combinations from time to time, and the interpretations of these facts
are modified in different directions; but the facts are all natural phenomena, and
the interpretations are all derived from real laws of those phenomena—some
certified by mathematical and mechanical research, others based on chemical:
discovery, others due to the scalpel of the anatomist, or the microscopic scrutiny of
the botanist. The grandest of early geological phenomena haye their representa-
tives, however feeble, in the changes which are now happening around us; the
forms of ancient life most surprising by their magnitude or singular adaptations can
be explained by analogous though often rare and abnormal productions of to-day.
Biology is the contemporary index of Paleontology, just as the events of the nine-
teenth century furnish explanations of the course of human history in the older times.
72 REPORT—1873.
To forget, in referring to this subject, the name of our great and veteran leader,
Sir Charles Lyell, would be difficult for any who have profited by the perusal of
his masterly works, is impossible for those who, like me, have been witnesses of that
life-long zeal and energy which carried him to explore distant regions and make
friends for English Geology in every quarter of the globe.
Keeping our attention on Pleistocene Geology, we may remark that the famous
cavern of Kirkdale, with the equally celebrated rock den of bears and hyzenas at
Torquay, receive no small help toward clearing up the history of mammalia in
Britain from the explorations now going on in the limestone cliffs not far from this
pines of meeting. In Kirkdale Cave no trace of human art appeared; Kent’s Hole
as given proofs of the presence of man from the earliest period characterized by
the remains of the great bear; and both there and in the Victoria Cave near
Settle, at much later periods, domestic occupation is fully established.
It will be readily conceded that for gathering good information regarding the
aborigines of our land the British Association has wisely appropriated some por-
tion of its funds; probably we shall agree in thinking that the additional data
which may be expected are worthy of further expenditure and the employment of
valuable labour. And this leads me to remark how real is the obligation of this
Association to some of its members who have directed these researches, and how
large a debt of gratitude is due to one in particular, who, not content with turning
every day his intelligent eyes on the remarkable phenomena disclosed by excava-
tion in the Torquay caverns, has with his own hands cleared and washed thousands
of bones and teeth, studied, labelled, and arranged them, and year by year has de-
lighted this Section with careful narratives of what he and Mr. Vivian, followin
the steps of MacKnery, have surely observed and recorded. Labour of this kin
the Association cannot purchase; nor would the generous spirit of my friend con-
sent to such a treaty. I may, however, use the privilege of my temporary office,
and suggest to you to consider whether the time is not come for the friends of the
Association, and especially the members of this Section, to unite in a general effort,
and present to Mr. Pengelly a substantial proof that they highly appreciate his disin-
terested labours in their service, and the ample store of new knowledge which he
has had so large a share in producing.
During the long course of geological time the climates of the earth have changed.
In many regions evidence of such change is furnished by the forms of contemporary
life. Warm climates have had their influence on the land, and favoured the growth
of abundant vegetations as far north as within the arctic circle; the sea has
nourished reef-making corals in Northern Europe during Paleozoic and Mesozoic
ages; crocodiles and turtles were swimming round the coasts of Britain, among
islands clothed with Zamie and haunted by marsupial quadrupeds. How have we
lost this primseval warmth? Does the earth contribute less heat from its interior
stores? does the atmosphere obstruct more of the solar rays or permit more free
radiation from the land and sea? has the sun lost through immensity of time a
sensible portion of his beneficent influence ? or, finally, is it only a question of the
elevation of mountains, the course of oceanic currents, and the distribution of land:
and sea?
The problems thus suggested are not of easy solution, though in each branch of
the subject some real progress is made. The globe is slowly changing its dimen-
sions by cooling; thus inequalities and movements of magnitude have arisen and
are still in progress on its surface: the effect of internal pressure, when not resulting
in mass-movement, is expressed in the molecular action of heat which Mallet applies
to the theory of volcanoes. The sun has no recuperative auxiliary known to
Thomson for replay his decaying radiation; the earth, under his influence, as
was shown by Herschel and Adhemar, is subject to periods of greater and less
warmth, alternately in the two hemispheres and generally over the whole surface ;
and finally, as Hopkins.has shown, by change of local physical conditions the
climate of northern zones might be greatly cooled in some regions and greatly
warmed in others,
One is almost frozen to silence in presence of the vast sheets of ice which some of
my friends (followers of Agassiz) believe themselves to have traced over the moun-
tains and vales of a great part of the United Kingdom, as well as over the kindred
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 73
regions of Scandinavia. One shudders at the thought of the innumerable icebergs
with their loads of rock, which floated in the once deeper North Sea, and above the
hills of the three Ridings of Yorkshire, and lifted countless blocks of Silurian stone
ae lower levels, to rest on the precipitous limestones round the sources of the
ibble.
Those who, with Professor Ramsay, adopt the glacial hypothesis in its full extent,
and are familiar with the descent of ice in Alpine valleys where it grinds and
polishes the hardest rocks and winds like a slow river round projecting cliffs, are
easily conducted to the further thought that such valleys have been excavated by
such ice-rubbers, and that even great lakes on the course of the rivers have been dug
out by ancient glaciers which once extended far beyond their actual limits. That
they did so extend is in several instances well ascertained and proved ; that they did
in the manner suggested plough out the valleys and lakes is a proposition which
cannot be accepted until we possess more knowledge than has yet been attained
regarding the resistance offered by ice to a crushing force, its tensile strength, the
measure of its resistance to shearing, and other data required for a just estimate of
the problem. At present it would appear that, under a column of its own substance
1000 ft. high, ice would not retain its solidity ; if so, it could not propagate a greater
pressure in any direction. This question of the excavating effect of glaciers is
distinctly a mechanical problem, requiring a knowledge of certain data; and till
these are supplied, calculations and conjectures are equally vain.
A distinguishing feature of modern geology is the great development of the doc-
trine that the earth contains in its burial-vaults, in chronological order, forms of
life characteristic of the several successive periods when stratified rocks were depo-
sited in the sea, This idea has been so thoroughly worked upon in all countries,
that we are warranted to believe in something like one universal order of appear-
ance in time, not only of large groups but even of many genera and species. The
Tnilobitic ages, the Ammonitic, Megalosaurian, and Paleeotherian periods are familiar
to every geologist. What closed the career of the several races of plants and ani-
mals on the land and in the sea, is a question easily answered for particular parts of
the earth’s surface by reference to “ physical change ;” for this is a main cause of the
Reece or absence, and in general of the unequal distribution of life. But what
rought the succession of different races in something like a constant order, not in
one tract only, but, one may say, generally in oceanic areas over a large portion of
the globe ?
Life unfolds itself, in every living thing, from an obscure, often undistinguishable
cell germ, in which resides a potential of both physical and organic change—a
change which, whether continual or interrupted, gradual or critical, culminates in
the production of similar germs, capable under favourable conditions of assuming
the energy of life.
How true to their prototypes are all the forms with which we are familiar, how
correctly they follow the family pattern for centuries, and even thousands of years,
is known to all students of ancient art and explorers of ancient catacombs. But
much more than this is known. Very small differences separate the elephant of
India from the mammoth of Yorkshire, the Waldhetmia of the Australian shore
from the Terebratula of the Cotswold oolite, the dragonfly of our rivers from the
. Tibellula of the Lias, and even the Rhynchonelle and Lingule of the modern sea
from the old species which swarm in the Paleozoic rocks.
But concurrently with this apparent perpetuity of similar forms and ways of life,
another general idea comes into notice. No two plants are more than alike; no two
men have more than the family resemblance; the offspring is not in all respects an
exact copy of the parent. A general reference to some earlier type, accompanied
by special diversity in every case (“descent with modification”), is recognized in
the case of every living being.
Similitude, not identity, is the effect of natural agencies in the continuation of
life-forms, the small differences from identity being due to limited physical con-
ditions, in harmony with the general law that organic structures are adapted to the
exigencies of being. Moreover the structures are adaptable to new conditions; if
the conditions change, the structures change also, but not suddenly; the plant or
animal may survive in presence of slowly altered circumstances, but must perish
74 REPORT—1873.
under critical inversions. These adaptations, so necessary to the preservation of a
race, are they restricted within narrow limits? or is it possible that in the course of
long-enduring time, step by step and grain by grain, one form of life can be
changed and has been changed to another, and adapted to fulfil quite different
functions? Is it thus that the innumerable forms of plants and animals have been
“developed ” in the course of ages upon ages from a few original types ?
This question of development might be safely left to the prudent researches of
Physiology and Anatomy, were it not the case that Paleeontology furnishes a vast
range of evidence on the real succession in time of organic structures, which on the
whole indicate more and more variety and adaptation, and in certain aspects a
growing advance in the energies of life. Thus at first only invertebrate animals
appear in the catalogues of the inhabitants of the sea; then fishes are added, and
reptiles and the higher vertebrata succeed ; man comes at last, to contemplate and
in some degree to govern the whole.
The various hypothetical threads by which many good naturalists hoped to
unite the countless facts of biological change into an harmonious system have
culminated in Darwinism, which tales for its basis the facts already stated, and
proposes to explain the analogies of organic structures by reference to a common
origin, and their differences to small, mostly congenital, modifications which are
integrated in particular directions by external physical conditions, involying a
“ struggle for existence.’ Geology is interested in the question of development, and
in the particular exposition of it by the great naturalist whose name it bears, be-
cause it alone possesses the history of the development 7 time, and it is to incon-
ceivably long periods of time, and to the accumulated effect of small but almost
infinitely numerous changes in certain directions, that the full effect of the transfor-
mations is attributed.
For us, therefore, at present it is to collect with fidelity the evidence which our
researches must certainly yield, to trace the relation of forms to time generally and
physical conditions locally, to determine the life-periods of species, genera, and
families in different regions, to consider the cases of temporary interruption and
occasional recurrence of races, and how far by uniting the results obtained in dif-
ferent regions the alleged “imperfection of the geological record ” can be remedied.
The share which the British Association has taken in this great work of actually
reconstructing the broken forms of ancient life, of repeopling the old land and older
sea, of mentally reviving, one may almost say, the long-forgotten past,is considerable,
and might with advantage be increased. We ask, and wisely, from time to time, for
the combined labour of naturalists and geologists in the preparation of reports on
particular classes or families of fossil plants and animals, their true structure and
affinities, and their distribution in geological time and geographical space. Some
examples of this useful work will, I hope, be presented to this Meeting. Thus have
we obtained the aid of Agassiz and Owen, and have welcomed the labours of Forbes,
and Morris and Lycett, and Huxley, of Dawkins and Egerton, of Davidson, Duncan,
and Wright, of Williamson and Carruthers and Woodward, and many other emi-
nent persons, whose valuable results have for the most part appeared in other volumes
than our own.
Among these volumes let me in a special manner recall to your attention the price-
less gift to Geology which is annually offered by the Paleontographical Society, a
gift which might become even richer than it is, if the literary and scientific part of
our community were fortunate enough to know what a perpetual treasure they
might possess in return for a small annual tribute, The excellent example set and
the good work recorded in the Memoirs of the Society referred to have not been
without influence on foreign men of science. We shall soon haye such Memoirs
from France and Italy, Switzerland and Germany, America and Australia; and I
trust the effect of such generous rivalry will be to maintain and increase the
spirit of learned research and of original observation which it is our privilege and
our duty to foster, to stimulate, and to combine.
On all the matters, indeed, which have now been brought to your thoughts the
one duty of geologists is to collect more and more accurate information; the one
fault to be avoided is the supposition that our work is in any department complete.
We should speak modestly of what has been done ; for we have completed nothing,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 75
except the extinction of a crowd of errors, and the discovery of right methods of pro-
ceeding toward the acquisition of truth. We may speak hopefully of what is to be
accomplished ; for the right road is before us. We have taken some steps along it;
others will go beyond us and stand on higher levels. But it will be long
before any one can reach the height from which he may be able to survey the
whole field of research and collect the results of ages of labour,
fae pee Ob primaque ab origine mundi
Ad sua perpetuum deducere tempora carmen.
Additional Remains of Pleistocene Mammals in Yorkshire.
By the Rev. J. F. Buaxz.
The bones referred to were discovered in the recent working of an old marl-pit
at Bielbecks near North Cliff, whence mammalian remains have been previously
obtained. The first discovery was recorded by the Rev. W. V. Vernon Harcourt in
the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 1829. More remains were deposited in the York
Museum when the excavations were renewed about twenty years later ; and this last
summer many more have been exhumed. These latter were exhibited. The com-
lete list of the hitherto discovered bones is as follows :—(1) mentioned by Vernon
“ arcourt ; (2) in York Museum ; (8) recently found, and now also deposited in York
useum.
Mammoth. 3 teeth, lower jaw (1) (3); 3 teeth, upper jaw (3); 1 symphysis of lower
jaw (8); 2 tusk ends, and portions of tusk (8); atlas (3); axis (2); pelvic (2);
cervical vertebra (8); head of femur (3); broken ditto (1)(epiphyses); 2 shafts
of femur (3); 1 distal end of femur (3); 1 tibia (?) (8); 2 distal ends, ditto
(3) (a pair); 2 astragali (8) (2); 1 os semilunare (2); 1 cuboid? (3);
1 third metacarpal (3). :
Elephas antiquus. 1 molar, 1 ditto unused.
Rhinoceros. 2 teeth and jaw (1); 8 tibia (1) (8); 1 rib (1); vert. (2); distal end
of femur (?) (2).
Bos, 1 occipital bone (1) ; 2 horns (1); 2 vertebrae (1); 1 left radius (1); 1 ulna
(8); 1 distal end of femur (8); 8 iliac bones (3); 1 right tibia (3);
1 metacarpal (3); 1 metatarsal (1); 1 astragalus (1); 2 calcanea (1) (3);
3 phalangeal bones (3). (Some of these may be Bison.) ~
Stag. Small portions of horn (1) (8).
Red Deer. Metacarpal (3).
Horse. 1 distal end of femur (3); metatarsus, phalanges, and hoof in situ (2);
right scapula (2); 1 radius and ulna (joined) (2); ? vertebrae and (epiphy-
ses); 1 coronary (1); 1 metacarpal (1).
Bear. 1 tibia (8).
Lion? (Felis). Upper jaw with two molars (1); lower jaw, several molars, 6-inch
long symphysis (1); 1 head of femur (1); 1 radius (1); 3 metacarpals (1);
1 rib (1).
Wolf. Right lower jaw (2); ulna (2); radius (2); humerus (2).
Unknown. Ruminant? metacarpal; shaft of long bone; ditto of metacarpals, &c.
Duck, Ulna (2); clavicle (2); tibia (2).
The deposit in which these occur is covered with a bed of flint gravel; but no
human weapons have been found in it; all the associated shells are recent, and
belong to river or marsh species. The bones were mostly found in one spot, but
some of the mammoth at a little distance away. It is noteworthy that no Hippo-
potamus bones have yet been found. The age is probably later Pleistocene, though
there is little to indicate it in the fossils; but it is in all probability postglacial,
being a tranquil deposit; and there are glacial beds at nearly the same level in the
neighbourhood, so that if it had been preglacial it would probably have been carried
away.
76 REPORT—1873.
On some Evidence of Glacial Action in Tropical India in Paleozoic (or the
oldest Mesozoic) times. By W.T. Buanvorn, F.G.S., C.M.ZS.
The author in the year 1856, when describing some rocks in Orissa, suggested
that a very peculiar association of large boulders with fine shales might have been
due to the transport of the boulders by ground-ice. A similar deposit has been
traced throughout a very large areain Bengal and the Central Provinces in India,
and is always characteristic of the base of the Talchir group, the lowest member of
the great series of plant-bearing rocks, for which the name of Gondwana series has
recently been suggested. Quite recently Dr. Oldham, the Superintendent of the
Geological Survey of India, has found scored and striated blocks in this Talchir
boulder bed, the surface upon which the bed rests being also polished and
rooved,
othe theory (of boulders, sand, and clay slipping downwards on low slopes during
the gradual elevation of land above the sea) put forward by Mr. Mallet to account
for similar phenomena, and which was considered by General Portlock in 1857 to
explain the peculiar association of large boulders and fine silt, does not appear
satisfactory ; for, amongst other difficulties, it leaves the fact of many of the boulders
having come from a distance entirely unexplained. Mr. Blanford, whilst aware
of the apparent incongruity involved in invoking the aid of ice to explain pheno-
mena occurring in a tropical country, can suggest no other explanation of the
facts.
The exact age of the Talchir is still doubtful; but there can be but little doubt of
their being pre-Triassic.
On Archeediscus Karreri, a New Type of Carboniferous Foraminifera.
By Henry B. Brany, F.L.S., F.GS.
This paper contained a detailed description of certain minute unsymmetrical
lenticular fossils ~~ of an inch in diameter and 3; of an inch in thickness, from the
“Main Limestone ” of the Lower Carboniferous Limestone series of Lanarkshire,
and the Mountain Limestone of Great Orme’s Head, Caernarvonshire.
They were shown to be Foraminifera closely allied to Nwmmutlina, and differing
primarily from that genus in being composed of a non-septate tube coiled on itself in
varying directions, and thickened on the exterior (especially near the centre of the
disk) by the deposit of shell-substance, instead of the symmetrical, regularly coiled
spiral line of chambers characteristic of the more highly developed type. The par-
ticulars entered into concerning the minute structure of the type would be unin-
telligible without the figures by which the paper was illustrated *.
The generic term Archediscus was proposed for the new type.
On such of the Industries of Bradford as relate to its Geological Position.
By Joun Briee.
After briefly pointing out the geological position of Bradford, the author pro-
ceeded to notice the excellent quality of the building-materials of the district,
drawing special attention to the rough sandstone rocks which are technically
termed Grits. The extreme durability of this stone was pointed out, also the
appropriateness of its use for engine-beds, floors of dock-gates, and the base-
ments of large buildings. Its power of withstanding the injurious effects of
constant exposure to water was also mentioned. The laminated rocks which
underlie some parts of the town of Bradford were next dwelt upon, and their suit-
ability for roofing-slates, flags, and payving-stones, as well as for ordinary building
stones, was described.
The New Town Hall, and particularly the Statues of the Kings, which form its
chief architectural ornament, were instanced as examples of the finest sandstone
that can be used for public buildings. The author then spoke of the Calliard or
Gannister beds in the Grit and Coal series, pointing out their position as being the
* The paper is published in full in the ‘Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for October 1873.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 77
same, and containing the same fossils as the fireclay which is the usual seat of
the coal. The use of Calliard for producing the fine sand used in the moulding of
iron and brass was explained, as also the process by which the stone is reduced.
The manufacture of firebricks, sanitary tubes, and domestic pottery from the
fireclay of the Halifax coal-seam was explained, as also the process by which
sulphate of iron is made from the pyrites contained in the same seam. The author
proceeded at some length to describe the position and quality of the irregular
seams of coal which are found beneath the Rough Rock, and also pointed out the
peculiarities of the two seams of coal called the Halifax Hard and Soft beds,
which are usually classed as the lowest of the true Coal-measures. The line of
their outcrop was also pointed out.
The paper also contained a short description of the ancient bloomeries in the
district, and concluded with a notice of the seams of iron and coal found at
Bowling and Low Moor.
On the Discovery of a Species of Starfish in Devonian Beds of South
Devon. By A. CHAMPERNOWNE.
The only record hitherto, so far as I know, of the occurrence of Starfish in
British Devonian rocks, is that given by Mr. Etheridge in his list of Devonian
Fossils (Q. J. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 619), viz. Protaster, sp., and Paleaster, sp.,
from the Pilton beds of North Devon; therefore the discovery of a species in South-
Devon rocks may not be without interest.
The locality which yielded the few specimens in question is & small quarry at
Inglebourne House near Harbertonford (about three miles $.S.W. of Totnes), in
slates with one or two thin gritty layers, on one of which, forming part of the floor
of the quarry, were the impressions.
The dip is about 8.E. (20° east of south magnetic) at 15°, crossed by cleavage
at a higher angle towards the south.
Viewed in connexion with the Harbertonford limestone, and the slate-quarry at
Roster Bridge, the beds would appear to belong to the Upper South-Deyon series.
In the old quarries at Harbertonford the limestone and shale dip north at 10°,
the angle heightening to 26° close to the Vicarage ; and in the adjoining cutting
of the Kingsbridge road, the slates, rising to the south with undulations, are
apparently below the limestone. This would seem to produce the line of the lime-
stone to the north of the Harber at Woodcourt, and probably to the north of
Roster-Bridge slate-quarry (where Spirifers and other fossils are numerous), and
hence to trough some slates in the neighbourhood of Inglebourne which contain
the Starfish *, At Roster-Bridge quarry the cleavage is the predominant feature,
the bedding being at variance with the S.S.E. dip shown on the map north of
Dolling, half a mile to the west.
[The impression of the body-plates is unfortunately wanting in the specimens of
Starfish which were intrusted to my friend Mr. Lee ; but I venture to hope they
may be described by some more experienced paleontologist than myself, the object
ad this ihe being merely to record the fact of their occurrence, and to describe the
ocality.
Note by Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., on A. CoampERNowner’s Paper.
Two Devonian Starfishes have been noted+ by Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S., in the
Deyonian of North Devon, which he refers to the genera Protaster, sp., and Pale-
aster, sp., from Middle and Upper Devonian of Pilton tf.
Prof. Ferd. Roemer records four genera (namely, Aspidosoma Tischbeinianum,
* I revisited the spot in company with Mr. J. E. Lee and Mr. Paige-Browne, of
Inglebourne House, and owner of the quarry; and this was the view taken by the latter,
. who considered the roofing-slates of Roster-Bridge quarry deeper in the series than
the slates around his house, and the last nearly on the horizon of the limestone of
Harbertonford. Our search for Starfish, however, was fruitless.
+ See ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ 1867, vol. xxiii. pp. 619, 670.
{ Mr. E. Etheridge informs me that these Starfishes are both of Upper Devonian age,
and that the reference to Middle Devonian, on p. 670, op. cit., is a typographical error.
78 REPORT—1873.
Asterias asperula, A. spinosissima, Helianthaster rhenanus) from the Devonian of
Bundenbach bei Birkenfeld*.
Prof. Morris informs me he has no Imowledge of any other species from these
beds.
Fifteen genera and fifty species of Starfishes have been recorded from the Silurian.
Of these various forms the Helianthaster rhenanus, Birkenfeld Devonian, and the
Lepidaster Grayi, from the Wenlock Limestone, Dudley, offer the nearest analogy
with the fossil Starfish found by Mr. Champernowne in South Devon. All three
forms belong to the family of the Solasterie, or many-rayed sun stars.
Bearing in mind that the Asteriadz were preceded in point of time, as also in
point of development by the Crinoidea, the discovery of so many additional forms
of Paleozoic Starfishes, shows us how far we are from the beginning of this
group in time.
Only lately Dr. Henry Hicks, F.G.8., has discovered a new Crinoid in the Lower
Cambrian Rocks of St. David’s, carrying back the class to an extremely distant
point in paleeozoic time.
On the Geology of part of Craven. By J. R. Daxrns, M.A.
The type of millstone-grit prevalent in Derbyshire undergoes considerable
changes north of Bradfield; the second grit becomes merely a basement-bed to
the Rough Rock; the third grit loses its massive character; and other beds of
sandstone begin to show themselves in the shales overlying the Kinder-Scout
grit.
In the valleys of the Colne and Calder there are four separate sandstones he-
tween the Rough Rock and the Kinder-Scout grit.
In the basin of the Aire the series consists in descending order :—first, of the
Rough Rock, which maintains its usual marked character throughout ; secondly,
of a very variable basement-bed to the last, consisting, when well developed, of
valuable flagstones. These are extensively quarried at Nab, above Oxenhope Moor,
and also in an outlier at the Penistone quarries near Haworth. Below this bed
comes a series of variable sandstones and shales. There may be in places as many
as fifteen or sixteen distinct sandstones between the basement of the Rough Rock
and the Kinder-Scout grit.
But this set of beds may conveniently be divided into two by means of a conspi-
cuous grit, which is continuous with the third grit of Lancashire. This grit forms
the bold escarpment of Hallan hill and Earl crag. We may conveniently speak
of it as the middle grit. It generally has three grits between it and the base of
the Rough Rock; and these four beds are presumably the four grits of the Calder
and Colne valleys.
The general run of the rocks in the basin of the Aire is as follows :—The Rough
Rock runs in a nearly unbroken manner from the latitude of Penistone, and enters
the basin of the Aire above Oxenhope Moor: its basement flags form the Nab
escarpment. A large fault, crossing Thornton Moor in W.N.W. direction, throws
down the Coal-measures of Denholme on the north, from beneath which the
Rough Rock rises to form Black and Brow moors. Another W.N.W. fault throws
the beds up again near Cullingworth, so that Harden Moor, between Bingley and
Keighley, consists of an outlier of Rough Rock, while various members of the
third grit series form the flanks of the hill. West of the river Worth a dip slope
of Rough Rock forms Keighley Moor; but at Exley Head another W.N.W. fault
throws up the beds to the north, so that an outlier of Rough Rock forms the hill
on which is situated Keighley Tarn. Going N.W. from the tarn one passes suc-
cessively over the various members of the third grit series, The middle grit,
clearly marked by its massive character, rams down to the valley south of Hawk-_
cliff cottage ; it ascends on the north side of the Aire, somewhat broken by faults,
and forms Brunthwaite and White crags, and the escarpment of Addingham Moor.
It is this rock which forms the Brimham rocks near Pateley Bridge. Below the
* Paleontographica, Bd. ix. (1862-64) pp. 143-152, pls. 23-29.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 79
middle grit there is no conspicuous rock south of the Aire; but north of that river
several beds of sandstone appear, one of which becomes important further north
as the hard siliceous “ homestone” grit with gannister, which forms the top of
Great Whernside. The Kinder-Scout grit is brought in south of the Aire by a
W.N.W. fault containing galena. North of the Aire it rises up regularly from
beneath the overlying beds at Kildwick. Near Cononley the beds are repeated
by a N.E. fault throwing down on the N.W. The Kinder-Scout grit is imme-
diately underlain by a variable set of sandstones with shale partings, usually called
Yoredale grit. Below these are found, at Skipton, shales and limestones. The
strike of the beds hitherto described is N.E. and 8.W.; but about the latitude of
Skipton the strike changes to H. and W., with a dip of 20° to the south along
Skipton Moor. The whole country, in fact, between the latitudes of Skipton and
Grassington has been much disturbed and thrown into a series of east and west
rolls. Thus a strong anticlinal ranges up the Skibeden valley from Skipton to
Bolton Abvey. A mass of mountain-limestone, forming Haw Park, is thus brought
up in the Skibeden valley between two ranges of millstone-grit hills, viz. the
Skipton Moor and Embsay Moor. The mountain-limestone here is a dark thin-
bedded limestone. It is much quarried for road material at Haw Bank and at
Thornton. The beds are much contorted along the south side of Skibeden. Two
limestones are seen on the north side above the mountain-limestone. On the south
side of the Skibeden anticlinal the Kinder-Scout grit strikes E. and W. along Skip-
ton and Draughton moors, and descends to the Wharfe north of Addingham. The
southerly dip carries it up the slopé of Langhar Moor, its base running below
Beamsley Beacon ; it then plunges down northward to Kex beck, where the beds
bend up again and rise northward to Hazlewood Moor and Bolton Park: here the
beds bend over northward and recross the Wharfe below Laund House. South of
this, as far as Bolton Abbey, limestones and shales of the Yoredale series are seen
along the river. These beds are cut off opposite Bolton Abbey by a N.E. fault
bringing in the upper beds. The Yoredale grits run along the slopes of Skipton
Moor to Fairfield Hall, and east of the Wharfe are found about Beamsley and
Storriths. They have not been everywhere identified north of Skibeden. A set
of bold crags marks the escarpment of the Kinder-Scout grit along Halton and
Embsay moors, Rilstone, Burnsall, and Thorpe fells. Beneath the western escarp-
ment of the Kinder-Scout grit the Yoredale grit is found, forming at intervals
promontories on the side of the fell. It has not been traced further east than the
northern extremity of Burnsall Fell. The Kinder-Scout grits lie in the shape of
a synclinal trough dipping east, and thus occupy the whole extent of Burnsall Fell
and Barden and Embsay moors. On the east of the Wharfe these grits rise up in
a sort of broken dome, with a quaquaversal dip to form the summit of Barden Fell
marked by the crags of Simon’s Seat, near which some pot-holes indicate the pre-
sence of limestone at no great depth. In Howgill and in Fell Plantation the beds
are dipping steeply to the N.W. into the valley; but north of Skyreholme beck
they dip steeply to the S.E., underlain by shales, from beneath which massive
white scar limestone rises regularly with a similar strike, as far as the Ordnance
Station, 1350 feet above sea-level, where the beds are cut off by the Craven fault.
The position of this fault is also shown by the abrupt termination of Fancarl crags,
and by disturbance of beds at Thruskell Well, Hebden, and by disturbed beds on
the banks of Wharfe near Lyth House; thence the fault runs by Skirethorns to
the cliffs which mark the line of the fault from Malham to Settle. East of the
river Dibb we have north of the Craven fault massive white limestone dipping
north at 19°, closely overlain by the grits of Grimwith Fell, the upper part of the
limestone containing a band of eee shales, limestones, and calcareous sandstones.
Between the Dibb and Grassington the millstone-grits seem to be separated from
the limestone by a great thickness of shales, with but poor limestone bands. At
Grassington the limestones swell out; and, with the exception of a band of hard
sandstones (the Dirt-Pot grits), there is solid limestone from the grits of Gras-
sington Moor to the Wharfe. Northwards the limestone gradually breaks up, and
finally takes on the Yoredale type.
80 REPORT—1873.
Observation on the Rate at which Stalagmite is heing accumulated im the
Ingleborough Cave*. By W. Boy Dawxtns, M.A., BRS. GS.
The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation of
stalagmite in caverns in this country, is that made by Mr. James Farrer in the
Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and published by Professor
Phillips in ‘The Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire ’ (second edition,
1855, pp. 34, 35). The stalagmite, called “the Jockey Cap,” rises from a crystal-
line pavement to a height of about 23 feet, and is the result of the deposit of
carbonate of lime.
For the sake of ensuring accuracy, three holes were bored at the base of the
stalagmite, and three gauges of brass wire (gilt) inserted, to mark the points where
the measurements were taken.
The following is an abstract of the Table of measurements :—
Increase | Rate of in-
ee 3) 1839. oF Be since | crease per
; : 1845. | annum.
in. in. in. in. in.
Roof to apex of Jockey Cap ............ STi bees oo 95°25 8:25 ‘2946
Roof to\tip of stalactite s........s.seecces| | cases | | seesee 10
Stalactite to apex of Jockey Cap ......) sseeee | veeeee 85:25
The only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general surface of the
solid limestone, of which the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year
1845 ; and this is so small as to be practically inappreciable. There is therefore
evidence that the “ Jockey Cap” is growing at the rate of :2946 of an inch per
annum, and that, if the present rate of growth be continued, it will finally arrive at
the roof in about 295 years. This comparatively short lapse of time will probably
be diminished by the growth of a pendent stalactite ane that is now being
formed in place of that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since been
accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the “ Jockey Cap” may be the
result, not of the continuous, but of the intermittent drip of water containing a
variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and, therefore, that the present rate of growth
is not a measure of its past or future condition. Allthe stalagmites and stalactites
in the Ingleborough Cave, at this rate, may not be older than the time of Edward
Il. From this it follows that the thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used
as an argument in support of the remote age of the strata which they cover in the
caverns, such as Kent’s Hole and Bruniquel. At the rate of a quarter of an inch
per annum, 20 feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1000 years.
Note on the Stump-Cross Caverns at Greenhow near Pately Bridge.
By J.-W. Etuts.
These caverns were discovered in 1860 by miners who were searching for lead,
and who cut into them at a depth of 9 fathoms from the surface. The paper gave
a description of the caverns, which are chiefly remarkable for the great beauty of
the stalactites which they contain.
The Round Boulder Hills of Craven. By W. GOMERSALL.
The author described some hills of Boulder-clay which lie between the rivers
Aire and Ribble; their elevation, above the base on which they stand, varies
from 100 to 300 feet. The hizhest hills are to the north and west of the group,
whilst they gradually diminish in size to the south and east. The author supposed
the Boulder-clay to have been brought by icebergs, and deposited in what was then
a bay of the sea.
* See Proc. of Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Feb. 1873.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 81
On the Probability of finding Coal in the Eastern Counties.
By the Rey. Joun Gunn.
This paper was cod niente to one read at the Brighton Meeting upon the
same subject, in which the author dwelt principally on the evidence of repeated
successive elevations and depressions in the Anglo-Belgian basin since the Car-
boniferous epoch ; and he thence inferred that similar depressions may be ex-
pected to have occurred during it, when the coal may have been deposited in
troughs and hollows, and have escaped subsequent denudations. The author dwelt
upon the westerly upheaval of the beds-which has brought the whole of the
Cretaceous rocks to the surface and has exposed the Kimmeridge clay near Lynn
and Hunstanton; he therefore thought that the Coal-measures, if present at all, of
which he felt very sanguine, would be reached at a less depth there than else-
where.
The author would not propose to press the boring in the west of Norfolk in
preference to that proposed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the south of Essex; but
when the latter is completed, he will have no doubt of raising the necessary
funds if the site which he proposes be approved by geologists,
On the Occurrence of Faults in the Permian Rocks of the lower portion of the
Vale of the Eden, Cumberland. By Professor Harxnuss, F.R.S., F.GLS.
The Permian rocks occupying the vale of the Eden have their southern limit
at Kirkby Stephen in Westmoreland; thence they extend, over the more level
country throuzh which the river flows, to near Carlisle.
The strike of these Permian rocks from Kirkby Stephen to near Armathwaite is
nearly N.N.W. and 8.8.E. They consist of :—first and lowest, light red-coloured
sandstones very false-bedded (Penrith sandstones); second, red clays having
gypsum frequently associated with them—and in one instance, near Hilton in
estmoreland, light drab shales with piant-remains (marl slate), and a limestone
at their base; the third member of the series is composed of fine-grained dark
red sandstones, very regularly bedded with red clays intercalated in them.
Had these Permian rocks followed their ordinary strike along the whole of
the yale of the Eden, the gypsiferous red clays would have crossed the river a
short distance above Armathwaite Bridge. They do not, however, occur in the
bed of the river near this spot, although rocks are here abundantly exposed—
the last spot where they have been recognized with their ordinary strike being
at Cross House near Ruckcroft, about three miles south of Armathwaite.
The area where they might have been expected to occur in the neighbour-
hood of Armathwaite, is occupied by the underlying Penrith sandstones; and these
spread themselves eastwards into the parish of Ainstable, into a district in which
the Upper Permian rocks (the Corby sandstones) would have been seen had the
range of these rocks been such as is exhibited in the vale of the Eden south of
Armathwaite.
The great development of the Penrith sandstones at Armathwaite and Ain-
stable, and the absence here of the gypsiferous clays and overlying Corby sand-
stones, the author regards as resulting from a fault having a nearly 8. W. and N.E,
course, with an upthrow on the N.W., side.
Still further down the Eden there are seen, in consequence of a cutting re-
cently made at Eden Brows on the Carlisle and Settle Railway, exposing the rocks,
strata of purplish white sandstones having interbedded grey shales. These sand-
stones and shales appertain to the Carboniferous formation; and their occurrence
here appears to result from another fault, which has also an upthrow on the N.W.
side. The position of these sandstones and shales in the Carboniferous series can-
not be well made out at Eden Brows, There are, however, exposures of Carboni-
ferous rocks (which seem to result from the influence of the same fault) a few miles
te the west ; and these Carboniferous rocks belong to the lower portion of the group.
Immediately north of Eden Brows the Permian rocks are again seen. As they
bat ua the east side of the river, in Fishgard Wood, they consist of the higher
. 6
82 REPORT—1873.
members (the Corby sandstones) ; and on the west side of the Eden the gypsiferous
red clays have been extensively worked. Another fault gives rise to the presence
of these strata, which have a strike nearly E. and W. This latter fault, having a
direction nearly parallel to the strike of the strata, can be well seen in Shalk beck
near Curthwaite Station, on the Maryport and Carlisle Railway, where it exhibits
a downthrow on the north side.
On the Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. David's. By Henry Hicxs, 2.G.S¢
The author mentioned that the object intended in the paper was to follow out
the succession of the rocks in the neighbourhood of St. David’s, commenced in pre-
vious papers communicated at various times to the British Association. By the
present paper the section was completed to the top of the Llandeilo series.
The author divided the Arenig group into an upper and lower series, and the
Llandeilo group also in the same manner, believing that in each case there was
sufficient evidence to enable him to do so.
The Lower Arenig Series, it was stated, occur as black slates and flags, about
1000 feet in thickness, and exposed at the north end of Ramsey Island and at
Whitesand Bay, resting conformably in the former place on Tremadoc rocks, but
separated from them in the latter by a fault. They are characterized by a large
number of species of dendroid Graptolites, as well as by numerous species of trilo-
bites entirely restricted to the series.
The Upper Arenig Series occur as fine-grained, soft, black shales, also about 1000
feet in thickness. They are found at the south end of Ramsey Island and at White-
sand Bay, where they rest conformably on the Lower Arenig series, and again on
the north coast of Pembrokeshire, where they support the Lower Llandeilo rocks
of Aberiddy Bay. The Graptolites of this series are totally distinct from those
found in the lower beds, as are also all the other fossils. Didymograptus bifidus,
geminus, and affinis are characteristic of this zone.
The Lower Llandeilo Series, the lowest rocks recognized by Sir R. Murchison in
the typical Llandeilo district, and hence called by him Lower Llandeilo, occur at
St. David’s as black slates and hard grey flaggy sandstones with siliceous schist and
beds of felspathic ash at the lower part, and as dark slates and flags, with nume-
rous calcareous bands in the upper. They are about 1500 feet in thickness, and are
chiefly found on the south coast of Aberiddy Bay, resting conformably on the upper
Arenig rocks. The most characteristic fossils of these beds are Didymograptus
Murchisoni, Diplograptus pristis, Asaphus tyrannus, Calymene cambrensis, and IMenus
perovals.
The Upper Llandeilo Series occur as black slates and flags several thousand
feet in thickness, forming several folds of strata in a direction north of Aberiddy
Bay, at which place they rest conformably on the Lower Llandeilo series. The ty-
pical fossils are Ogygia Buchit, Barrandia Cordayi, Calymene duplicata, Cheirwrus
Sedgwicku, Trinucleus fimbriatus, Ampyx nudus, and Lingula Ramsayt.
The author doubted whether any other spot hitherto examined in Britain could
show so continuous a section of these rocks ; still he believed that there was ample
evidence to prove, from researches made in other parts of Wales and Shropshire,
that the succession here made out was in most of its important details capable of.
being applied to many other districts.
On some Graptolites from the Upper Arenig Rocks of Ramsey Island, St. David's.
By Joun Horxinson, /.GS., FRALS.
At the Meeting of the British Association at Brighton last year the author had
announced the discovery of a considerable number of Graptolites in the Arenig
rocks of Ramsey Island and Whitesand Bay, near St. David’s, and had shown that
these rocks were more nearly allied by their Graptolites to the Quebec rocks of
Canada than to their British representatives, the Skiddaw slates of Cumberland and
the Arenig rocks of Shelve.
Since then a new series of fossiliferous beds had been discovered on Ramsey
Island; and the Graptolites collected in them had been intrusted to the author for
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 83
determination. Owing to their fragmentary condition the following species only
could ‘be determined :— on oD
Didymograptus affinis, Nich, Diplograptus dentatus, Brong. sp.
'— pifidus, Hall. (=D. pristiniformis, Hall): °
er geminus, His. sp. — mucronatus, Hall,”
patulus, Hail. Climacoeraptus scalaris, Linn. sp.
The evidence afforded by these species was considered to be decidedly in favour
of the view that these new Ramsey-Island beds were of Upper Arenig age, and ~
therefore higher than those previously known.
~ Comparing the Graptolites of the Skiddaw slates of Cumberland and the Arenig
rocks of Shelve with those of the Lower and ue Arenig rocks of Ramsey Island,
there appeared upon the whole to be a parallel succession of species in the Shelve
and Ramsey-Island rocks; while the Skiddaw series seemed to be more nearly re-
lated to the upper than to the lower Ramsey-Island beds; and it was inferred that
the Skiddaw slates, which have hitherto been considered our oldest graptolite-
ene rocks, are of more recent age than the lowest graptolitiferous rocks of St.
avid’s,
On the Occurrence of numerous Species of Graptolites in the Ludlow Rocks
of Shropshire. By Joun Horxinson, F.GS., /RALS-
Until recently only two species of Graptolites, Monogruptus (Graptolithus) priodon
and M. colonus, were believed to occur in the Ludlow rocks of Shropshire. In 1868
Dr. Nicholson added to these a new species of Ptilograptus, and mentioned the pre=
sence of an additional species of Monograptus. These had been collected by Mr,
Lightbody of Ludlow, who had also found a few other species in these rocks.
n the course of an excursion of the Geologists’ Association to the Silurian rocks
of Shropshire in July 1872, and during a subsequent visit which the author had
paid to Ludlow and its neighbourhood, several other species had been found, and
some information on the distribution of the species had been elicited.
While, however, the number of species known to occur in the Ludlow rocks has
been greatly augmented by these researches, one or two forms, hitherto supposed
to be characteristic of one or the other division of these rocks, had not been found in
them. Not a single specimen of Monograptus priodon had been seen in the Ludlow
rocks, all that were found being from the Wenlock shale; and not a single Grap-
tolite had been detected in the Upper Ludlow rocks, although two species, MZ. co-
lonusand M. priodon, had been stated to be of common occurrence in both the Lower
and Upper Ludlow. The Graptolites, with the exception of a species or two of the
Dendroidea, appeared to have died out for ever in the Aymestry limestone, in
which a few indeterminable fragments only have been found.
The following species had been determined :—
Rhabdophora.
Monograptus bohemicus, Bary’. Monograptus incurvus, sp. noy.
— capula, sp. noy. leintwardensis, sp. nov.
chimeera, Barr. — Nilssoni, Barr.
clavicula, sp. nov. — Salweyi, sp. nov.
— colonus, Barr. —— selva, sp, noy.
Dendroidea,
Ptilograptus anglicus, Nich, Ptilograptus (vel Dendrograp-
elegans, sp. noy. : tus) Nicholsoni, sp. noy.
These species were found to be restricted in their range in time, and to charac-
terize the same zones at distances wide apart. Some progress had been made to-
wards working out this interesting question ; but a more lengthened investigation
of the Lower Ludlow rocks in the Ludlow area was considered to be necessary
before any definite conclusion could be arrived at.
6*
Sk REPORT—1873.
On the Occwrrence in the Yoredale Rocks of Wensleydale of Fish and Am-
phibian Remains. By W, Horne,
The remains occurred in thin limestones above and contiguous to the main lime-
stone, Among the fossils were teeth of Cladodus and Plewrodus, and bones of the
limbs of a Labyrinthodont Amphibian.
On the British Paleozoic Arcade. By J. Logan Lonny, F.G.S.
In this paper the results of an examination of the described species of Lamelli-
branchiata attributed to the family Arcade, and occurring in British Paleozoic.
rocks, were given.
After proposing that the sinupallial genera which haye hitherto been included
in Arcadw should be removed from that family and constitute a separate group,
the author discussed the claims of the various generic distinctions which authors
had sought to establish, and thought the following genera might be admitted as
having representatives in the Paleozoic strata of the British Islands:—Arca (L.),
Cucullea (Lam.), Macrodon (Lycett), Nucula (Lam.), Ctenodonta (Salter), Cu-
cullella (M*Coy), Glyptarca (Hicks), Palearca (Hall. )—the species of Arcadze which
had been assigned by various authors to Byssoarca, Cleidophorus, Cypricarditis,
Cyrtodonta, Megambonia, Pullastra, Tellinomya, Vanuxemia, &e. being given to one
or other of the before-mentioned genera.
The following summary gives the number of species admitted in each genus, with
its stratigraphical range in the Paleozoic rocks :—
Areca, 9 species.........5 Ludlow, Carboniferous Limestone.
Cucullea, 10 species .,.. Middle Devonian, Upper Devonian, Carboniferous
Limestone.
Macrodon, 1 species ..., Permian.
Nucula, 1 species........ Permian.
Ctenodonta, 41 species.,.. Tremadoc, Llandeilo, Caradoc, Lower Llandovery,
Upper Llandovery, Wenlock, Ludlow, Lower De-
vonian, Middle Devonian, Upper Devonian, Car-
boniferous Limestone, Coal-measures,
Cucullella, 4 species...,.. Caradoc, Upper Llandovery, Ludlow.
Glyptarca, 2 species .... Tyremadoc.
Palearca, 14 species .... Tremadoc, Llandeilo, Caradoc, Upper Llandovery,
Ludlow,
Total 82 species, having the following distribution :—Tremadoe, 6; Llandeilo, 3 ;
Caradoc, 17; Lower Llandovery, 2; Upper Llandovery, 11; Wenlock, 2; Lud-
low, 7; Lower Devonian, 1; Middle Devonian, 2; Upper Devonian, 11; Carho-
niferous Limestone, 29; Coal-measures, 2; Permian, 2.
On a Hora and Bones found in a Cutting in a Street in Maidenhead, Berks.
By T. Morrat, M.D., F.GLS, ;
The horn and bones were found imbedded in flint gravel about six feet from the
surface, They appeared to be much mineralized. There are cuts upon the horn,
apparently made when it was fresh and for the purpose of separating it from the
skull. -The cuts seem to haye been made with an edged metallic tool.
On Geological Systems and Endemic Diseases. By T. Morrat, M.D., F.G.S.
The author stated that the results given in this confirmed what he had stated
in his former papers, viz. that goitre and anzmia are endemic on the Carboniferous
system, while they are absent on Cheshire or New Red Sandstone. He wished it
to be understood, however, that the observations were made only in the district in
which he resided,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 85
Referring to a suggestion made by Mr. Lebour, of the Geological Survey, in a
paper “On the Geological distribution of goitre in England and Wales,” that the
cause of goitre “is the metallic impurities in the water,” and a statement “that it
prevailed most where ferruginous water occurred,” the author states that iron
medicinally administered produces beneficial etfects, but when ferruginous water is
taken daily it produces a low state of health, and in that way might predispose to
the formation of goitre; but such water would not cause anemia. He observes
that it is very doubtful, however, if water containing iron is ever used as a potable
water or for culinary purposes, one grain per gallon rendering it unfit for making
an infusion of tea.
In the neighbourhood in which he lives such water is avoided. In the per-
formance of his duties as Medical Officer of Health, he had chemically examined
ten public wells in his district ; and he did not detect a trace of iron in one of them,
from which he concludes that goitre, which is very prevalent in the locality, can-
not be caused by ferruginous water.
As anemia is a state of the system in which oxide of iron is deficient in the
blood, and as goitre appears at a time of life and under conditions of the system
when a maximum quantity of nutritious food is required, he concludes that where
there is a deficiency of iron and phosphates, or nutritive salts in the food, these
forms of disease will prevail.
Ry chemical analysis he has shown that iron and the phosphates are deficient in
wheat grown upon the Carboniferous system compared with that grown upon the
New Red Sandstone. Soils, he observes, are formed by the disintegration of the rocks
or formations upon which they lie, and consequently they consist of the same in-
predients. The colouring-matter of the Cheshire sandstone is oxide of iron; and
the soil upon it is thoroughly impregnated with that oxide. The Carboniferous
system is not impregnated with it; oxide of iron is not so thoroughly diffused
throughout this system as it is in the New Red Sandstone; so, compared with
the latter, there is a deficiency of iron in the soil upon the former. :
To the above rule he states there are, however, exceptions, as soils do not
always consist of the disintegrated rocks upon which they rest. In a district with
which he is well acquainted the geological formation is Millstone-grit, yet the soil
upon it is as highly coloured with oxide of iron as that upon New Red Sandstone
at no great distance from it. In this district goitre and anemia are unknown.
He concludes that goitre and anemia do not occur in a district having a soil con-
taining a maximum quantity of oxide of iron and phosphates, no matter what the
system is upon which it rests.
On the Ammonitic Spiral in reference to the power of Flotation attributed to
the Animal. By Joun Puiturs, W.A., PRS., D.C.L. Oxvon., LL.D.
Cambr. and Dublin, Professor of Geology, Oxford.
The author, while considering the subject in connexion with the recent Nautilus
pompilius and Spirula and with many fossil genera, found a deficiency of data as
to the proportion of the supposed air-chambers to the whole volume of the shell
and the part of it occupied in life by the animal. To obtain such data he examined
the spiral structure by means of principal sections on the plane of volution, and
found that, omitting the earliest small volutions, the growth of the ammonite shell
was in many species uniform, so that the proportion of the last chamber to the sum
of all the preceding ones was nearly uniform; but among different species the
character of the spiral differed. In one group the breadths of the volutions measured
on a radius vector increased in geometrical proportion ; in another the increase was
in arithmetical proportion ; between these two forms all ammonitic spirals appeared
to be contained. ‘The author then showed how, in the former group, the power of
flotation, if it existed, would be uniform through life, but in the latter continual
increasing. In order to see the exact bearing of this on the question of flotation, 1t
would be necessary to determine some other points as to the thickness of shell and
number of septa.
_ With respect to the further function attributed to these animals, that cf
rising and falling at pleasure in the sea, the author showed, by measuring the
86 “REPORT—1873.
siphuncle, that such a power of adapting the specific gravity of the shell must
have been very limited; and he was disposed, on the whole, to believe that the
old Cephalopods, in rising and falling, trusted more to their strong arms than to
the filling and emptying of the pipe which connected the chambers, The subject
is under investigation,
On the Ammonitie Sepia in relation to Geological Time. By Joun Purnxzs,
MA., PRS, DCL, Owvon., LL.D. Cambridge and Dublin, Professor of
Geology, Oxford.
The author, viewing the Ammonitide as a family extending in time from the
Devonian to the Cretaceous period, proposed to examine into the genealogy of the
proper genus called Ammonites. He showed that from a supposed ancestral origin
in Goniatites, two lines of real or imaginary descent might be traced—one serugh
Ceratites of the Muschelkalk to the Cassianic ammonites, another through the
Arietes and other species of Lower Lias to the Upper Oolite and Cretaceous Se
In neither case is the genealogy proved between the Carboniferous and later
families ; but in each case the change of septal outline (or “ suture’’) is from simple
undulations to very complicated foliations. Such change, then, is only indicative of
successive time as it is characteristic of successive physiological change. Instead of
one development from Goniatites, the most convenient form of hypothesis, at present,
would be to assume separate systems of development, each limited in time to
different periods, but following the same course of physiological change. The
same order of change occurs in the embryonic, young, and old shell of each species,
(The author hopes to make a further communication,)
The Loess of Northern China, and its Relation to the Salt-basins of Central
Asia. By Baron von Ricurnoren, Ph.D. (Berlin).
Northern China is covered with a yellow earth which resembles the Loess of
the yalley of the Rhine in all essential properties. It is fine-grained and fusible,
yet so solid as to form vertical cliffs and bluffs several hundred feet high, and dis-
tinguished by the complete absence of planes of stratification as well as a marked
tendency to vertical cleavage. It resembles loam in composition (its chief ingre-
dients being an argillaceous and ferruginous basis which contains very fine sand
and carbonate of lime in varying proportions), but differs from that earth by
possessing a highly porous and tubular structure. The tubes, which are very thin
and usually incrusted with a fine calcareous film, occupy in general a vertical posi-
tion, and ramify like the roots of grass. ‘They cause the Loess to absorb water
like a sponge, and prevent the existence of) any lakes on its surface, or the issuing
of springs from the body of the formation, although these are copious where the ©
earth rests on rocks or stratified soil. The Loess encloses bones of land-animals
and an abundance of well-preserved shells of terrestrial mollusca, but no marine
or freshwater fossils. Calcareous concretions are always disseminated through it,
and mostly arranged in well-defined layers, in‘which, as a rule, the longer axis of
each nodule occupies a vertical position. ee
The Loess is peculiar to Northern China, no trace of it occurring in the southern
rovinces; it is observable on the side of Mongolia and Central Asia, just to the
imit of the headwaters of those rivers which flow towards the sea, covering
altogether an area of about 240,000 square miles.’ Within this area it spreads
alike over low and high ground, from the level of the sea to altitudes of 8000 feet,
its thickness varying from very little to upwards of 1500 feet. It smooths off the
irregularities of the surface, and; by connecting with each other the crests of
distant mountain-ranges, creates between them large trough-like basins with gent]
inclined slopes, the bottom of each’of which is made up of stratified earth whic
otherwise resembles “Loess in appearance and is strongly impregnated with
alkaline'salts.. The sides of each basin are furrowed by innumerable and infinitely
ramified pullies, which frequently attain the depth of 1500 feet. With the exception
of the great alluvial plain adjoining the lower Hwangho, human habitations and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 87
agriculture are confined in Northern China to the Loess, millions of people living
in caves dug in that earth.
As regards the mode of origin of the Loess of China, it can neither be a fresh-
water deposit, which Pumpelly supposed it to be, nor a marine formation, which
Kingsmill attempted to make it—not so much on account of the absence from it of
either freshwater or marine fossils and the want of stratification, as because lacus-
trine strata could not possibly be deposited on the crests of the highest mountain-
ranges and the most elevated portions of plateaux, while the theory of a marine
origin would force us to presuppose Eastern Asia to have been submerged
at least 8000 feet beneath the present sea-level in very recent. time, an assumption
against which there exists a great deal of direct evidence. The author next
attempted to prove that the Loess is a subaérial deposit, and drew attention to
the close similarity in the character of the surface between the Loess-basins of
Northern China and the salt-basins of the steppes of Central Asia. From Pamir
and the Karakorom to the headwaters of the large rivers ttowing towards the seas
which surround Asia on the north-east and south-east, a vast extent of country
(exhibiting differences of altitude as great as any which occur in Europe) is made
up of numerous basins without outward drainage, the surface of each of which slopes
gently down from the crests or declivities of the surrounding mountain-ranges
towards the lowest portion, which is filled with a salt lake or marsh. Each basin
exhibits now the surface of an accumulation of débris, which smooths off the
inequalities of the rocks below, but is unknown equally as to composition,
structure, and thickness, because no portion below the smooth surface is exposed
to view. Everywhere the soil is impregnated with salts, and therefore allows only
of the growth of a steppe vegetation. Neither the salt lakes nor the steppe
deposits have originated (as has been suggested) in the former submergence of the
whole area beneath the sea, but are of subaérial origin. The products of decom-
aaage of the mountain-ranges which constitute the skeleton of Central Asia, not
eing able to make their way to the sea, are deposited in the adjoining basins,
partly by rain-water, which washes them off the rocks and distributes them equally
over the gentle slopes, and partly by winds which carry large amounts of them
away and, in the present time, frequently obscure for many days the atmosphere
by the ingredients they carry in suspension, depositing them finally as fine dust
over the surface, The substances which are thus mechanically distributed over
the soil by either agency are retained there by the vegetation, and cause, in the
course of centuries, the gradual raising of the surface; while the soluble products of
decomposition are mainly collected in the central pool, where the evaporation of
the water causes the gradual concentration of the solution ; and at the same time
stratified soil, similar in composition to the soil of the steppes, is deposited. Ifnow
in any one basin the rains, in consequence of slight climatal changes, cause a
greater increase in the quantity of water than is lost by evaporation, the basin will
pradually be filled and the water finally seek an outlet at the lowest place of the
margin. With the gradual deepening of the channel the basin will be drained, and
the affluents converging towards its lowest portion will cut deep gullies into the
soil of the previous Steppe, thus exposing its nature, and at the same time carrying
off the salts with which it was impregnated.
A short sketch was then given of the evidence collected to show that the Loess-
basins of Northern China have formerly been basins without outward drainage, and
‘were provided, each of them, with a salt lake in its lowest portion, that they were
gradually drained, one by one, towards the sea, and that this process, consequent
on slow climatal changes, is still going on along the eastern limit of the salt-lake
plateaux. In the Loess of Northern China is therefore exhibited the nature of the
subaérial deposits which fill the salt basins of Central Asia; but, the salts being
extracted from it, it yields all the conditions required for agriculture and the exist-
ence of civilized man.
Baron von Richthofen finally wished it to be distinctly understood as his opinion
that Loess may have originated in different ways, and that he does not believe the
theory which he has advanced as to the origin of the Loess of Northern China to
be applicable in every case where Loess occurs.
28. : _ REPORT—1873.
Geology of the Country round Bradford, Yorkshire.
By Rk. Russery, CL, F.GS., A.M. Geological Survey*.
Lithological Description.
. The country which the author described lies between the river Wharfe and
Calder on the north and south, the towns of Leeds and Halifax on the east and
west, having Bradford in the centre.
_ The measures included within this area belong to the Carboniferous series,
together with a few patches of drift clay, and gravel, and the alluvial deposits in the
river-valleys.
The Carboniferous rocks may be divided as follows :—
feet,
Middle Coal-measures ......2+0.e005 & sidioys aha hgert 850
Lower Coal-measures ..........55 ebpragt nite cite 1226
Upper Grit, or Rough Rock, with flags at base,... 180
SSCS cere iriaee tates iis wlnusa" ciel Bicorehe'w ss onslsve td taietetniatohe 110
Middle Grit in several beds ........ececevaees .. 1400
Beginning with the lower beds, the author shortly described the lithological cha-
racter of each group in chronological order.
The lower partof the Middle Grits consists of shale alternating with bands of
sandstone. The upper portion is principally sandstone with thin bands of shale ; and
the lowest bed of this division is the thick and massive rock which forms Ilkley
Crags and Otley Chevin.
The flags at the base of the Upper Grit are fine-grained and regularly bedded ; but
they are not always present.
The Upper Grit itself isa coarse-grained massive sandstone, varying from 8&0 to
180 feet inthickness. It generally occurs in one bed; but northwards it lies in two
or three distinct beds.
The Lower Coal-measures contain five workable seams of coal, ten thin coals
which occasionally attain a thickness of 1 ft. 2 in. and 1 ft. 8 in., and several beds of
sandstone, the principal of which are known under the names of the Elland Flagstone
and the Oakenshaw rock. .
The five principal coals and two sandstones may be described thus :—
The Halifax Soft-bed coal maintains a very constant thickness of 1 ft. 4in., to 1 ft.
8 in. from Halifax northwards, but eastwards it diminshes to a band a few inches
thick. °
The Halifax Hard-bed coal varies from 2 ft. 3 in. in the south to 1 ft, 4in. in the
north, and like the Soft Bed thins out eastwards to a thin band.
The Fireclay below the Gannister, on which the coal lies, is often worked along
with the coal, being from 3 to 6 ft. thick.
The Elland Flagstone includes a group of sandstones, which, being in general thin-
bedded and flagey, give the name to the rock. It forms large spreads on the higher
ground around Northowram ; and west and north of Bradford the 60-yards rock of
Thornton seems to unite with it and form the thick sandstone at Gaisby Hill.
The Better-bed coal is one of the most important and valuable coals in the
neighbourhood, attaining a thickness of 3 feet at Horton ; but the average thickness
is about 1 ft.8 in. ; much value is set on this coal by the Iron Companies in the
district.
The Black-bed coal is of a softer nature and inferior quality, 2 ft. 4in. to 2 ft. 6 in.
thick at Low Moor; but at Farnley and Beeston the lower part of the seam is
converted into an impure stone coal. The value of this coal is enhanced by the
jronstone-bearing shale which overlies it. The layers of ironstone are imbedded in
a carbonaceous shale ; and the average thickness of good ironstone will be about 5
or 6 inches, that portion of it known as the “ middle balls” being the richest in
metallic iron.
The Oakenshaw rock is a well-marked and distinct sandstone over the whole
* See ‘Tron,’ Nos. 39 & 40, vol. xi.. New Series, pp. 458 & 491; also Geological Surrey
Memoir on the Yorkshire Coalfield.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 89
district from Mirfield to Hunsworth, coarse in grain, thick, and in many cases false-
bedded.
The Beeston-bed coal is the representative of an interesting series of coals, which
occur in the south as the Shertcliffe-bed coal and two coal bands, and then as the
Churwell Thick and Thin coals, and finally as the Beeston bed, uniting the qualities
as well as the thickness in one seam.
The Middle Coal-measures contain eleven principal coal seams and two sandstone
rocks, which are worthy of notice.
The Blocking coal, the horizon of which indicates the division between the Lower
and Middle Coal-measures, is a coal which has been most extensively worked over
a great portion of this area ; it varies in thickness from 1 ft. Sin. to 1 ft. 8in., and
is of a very good quality.
The Three-quarters or Middleton 11-yards coal is a constant coal, but it is thin
and of an inferior quality within our present limits.
The Cromwell or Middleton Main coal is a valuable coal, and is generally a soft
coal, but at Birstall part of the seam is converted into Cannel coal. The thickness
is from 1 ft. 73 in. to 4 ft. 6 in.
The Green-Lane or Middleton Little coal, near Dewsbury, is only about 9 inches
or 1 foot thick ; but northwards it improves both in quality and thickness, being as
much as 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. in the district around Morley, and contains a band of semi-
anthracitic coal which is used as a steam coal.
The Brown-metal coals, three in number, continue constant, though the manner
of their occurrence is varied.
At Dewsbury we have the series complete, while at White Lee the two upper
beds unite and form the 2-yards coal, a parting of about 1 ft. 6 in. intervening be-
tween the two seams. These two coals are again separated at Bruntcliffe by about
28 feet of shales, while the lowest seam is represented by a band of black shale.
The Birstall Rock is contained in the measures which lie between these coals
and the Flockton Thin coal. It is a very irregular sandstone, but is largely
deyeloped at Batley Carr, Carlinghow, and Birstall, where it attains a thickness of
100 feet. Much good building-stone is obtained from this rock. i
The Flockton Thin or Adwalton Black bed is about 3 feet thick, and contains a
layer of clay from 2 to 4 inches thick a few inches from the top of the seam. The
seam is very regular, and the quality of an average kind; and it is used as a soft
coal for gas-making.
The Adwalton Stone coal: the upper portion of this seam is a good cannel coal 6
to 10 inches thick, the total thickness of the bed being from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in,
The roof shale of this coal is recognizable throughout the whole of the Yorkshire
coal-field, being a black shale containing ironstone nodules which are one mass of
Anthracosia, and is locally known in this district as the “ Cockle-shell bed.”
The Joan coal varies from 2 ft. 3 in. to 1 ft. in thickness, but has not been much
worked, though it is of good quality.
The measures which lie between this coal and the Haigh-Moor coals contain the
sandstone known as the Thornhill rock. This sandstone is regular and uniform in
occurrence and thickness, and will compare in this respect with the sandstones of the
Lower Coal-measures. Good and durable building-stone is obtained from it.
The Low and Top Haigh-Moor coals are separated from each other at Pildacre
by about 30 feet of shales; northwards the Low coal becomes deteriorated and the
Top coal continues as the Haigh-Moor coal of the country to the north and north-
west.
The Warren-house or Gawthorpe coal is only present over a very small area near
Chidswell, and is from 7 to 8 feet thick.
The Lie of the Measures,
By the aid of certain natural lines which occur within this area, such as the lines of
faults and features of the country, we are enabled the more easily to describe the lie
of these beds.
Beginning with the country on the south-west of the fault from Clifton Common
through Bailiff Bridge to Denholme Clough, the Rough rock stretches awa
westwards from under the Coal-measures, while between the top line of that mek
90 REPORT—1873.
and the fault we have measures as high as the Crow coal, the coals above the
Elland Flagstone putting in a little way west of the fault. This area is broken up
by a number of smaller faults. The Bailiff-Bridge fault begins at Clifton Common,
Antes to 62 yards at Norwood Green, and to 150 or 200 yards at Denholme
ough.
On the north-east side of the Bailifi-Bridge fault and south of the Bradford
southerly and Harper-Gate faults to the river Calder, there is a tract of country
which is crossed by a number of large faults running nearly north-east and south-
west and north-west and south-east, and a set of smaller faults the direction of which
is approximately east and west. Between the Bradford southerly and Tong faults
and one of these north-east and south-west faults, viz. the Birkenshaw fault, all the
beds crop out from the Better-bed to the Middleton Main coal which caps the top
of Westgate Hill. On the downcast or south-east side of this fault we have mea-
sures up to the base of the Thornhill rock; and this is again thrown down on the
south-east by the Bruntcliffe fault, the amount of throw being about 80 yards; and
the Haigh-Moor coal is brought in at Soothill by the Upper-Batley fault, but is
thrown out again at Hanging Heaton on the upcast side of the Staincliffe fault, once
more occurring over the Thornhill rock at Pildacre Hill east of Dewsbury.
On the north side of the Bradford southerly and Harper-Gate faults, the country
is also intersected by many faults, which would require too much space to describe
in any detail; but between these faults and the top line of the Upper Grit from
Wilsden to Thackley we have the beds from the Better-bed coal to the Halifax
Soft coal, while measures nearly as high as the Shertcliffe bed occur in the trian-
gular space between the Egypt, Fairweather-Green and Leventhorpe-Mill faults,
and in the trough between the Bradford northerly and the Throstle-nest faults, ex~-
tending from Chellon Dean to Fagley.
The Upper Grit, rising from under the northern edge of the Coal-measures,
stretches away over the high ground to Yeadon and Rumbles moors, surmounted
at Baildon Common and Rawdon by outliers of the Lower Coal-measures, while the
Middle Grits, consisting of alternating bands of sandstone and shale, run along the
lower slopes of the valleys.
The outlier at Baildon contains beds up to the base of the flagstone group, which
lie in regular succession over the Rough rock at Baildon Bank, and are brought
against the grit on the north by the continuation of the Row fault.
The Rawdon outlier is connected with the main portion of the coal-field by the
extension to the north-east of the belt between the Bradford northerly and southerly
faults, the beds cropping out on the east and west sides of this belt above the Upper
Grit, and bounded on the north by a fault running westward through Rawdon
Common.
The Middle Grits rise to the surface north of Yeadon and Rumbles moors, form
the magnificent on from Addingham Crag by Ilkley Crags and Otley
Chevin to Bramhope Bank, giving a grandeur to this portion of the Wharte valley
which, in scenery of this kind, is hardly to be surpassed.
Boulder-beds.—These deposits consist of Boulder-clay and gravels—the gravels
being of two kinds, those found on the high grounds, and those found in the
valleys—together with a stiffish clay containing fragments of local stones and which
is probably lacustrine in its origin.
The Boulder-clay is composed of blackish, bluish, and yellowish clay containing
fragments and blocks of sandstone, grit, limestone, and shale, the blocks of limestone
being in many cases scratched, polished, and angular, though in other cases they
are well rounded as well as striated; but it is hardly possible to separate the one
from the other. The drift in the Aire basin contains no fragments which may not
have come from the rocks within the watershed—with one exception so far as the
author is aware ; and that is in the valley at and just south of Bradford, where he
found a few pebbles of trap and ash rock as far up towards the watershed between
the Aire and Calder as Rooley and Great Horton, and one block of coarse granite
sae of the drift clay on the east side of Bowling Lane between Bowling House and
e Oaks.
The normal condition of the Boulder-clay in the valleys of the Aire and Wharfe
being as previously described, would lead us to infer that it has been formed by
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 91
some cause acting locally, though it might probably he due to a universal ice-
sheet.
The fact of these beds being thickest in the main valleys and extending into the
tributary valleys, the high land being usually free from them, shows the general
contour of the country to have been much the same in preglacial times as it is now.
The long ridges of gravel which extend in a somewhat broken and curved line
from Burley Moor to Hawkesworth, are composed of limestone gravel, forming a
bank about 60 yards wide and 10 to 20 feet high, being at the north end 1150 feet
and at the south 600 feet above the sea-level, thus running across the ground
irrespective of contour, and seem to be undoubted Eskers,
The mounds of gravel which occur in the valley of the Aire at Bingley are
composed of limestone gravel and boulders, the greatest proportion of which are
well-rounded pebbles with faint traces of striz upon them; this would point to re-
arranged drift, or drift which was subjected to tides and currents during deposition.
This is further exemplified by the stratification being both up and down the valley,
and might have been formed when the land stood 300 or 400 feet below its present
level, the valley of the Aire being then an inlet of the sea up which the tide ebbed
and flowed, and by its action formed these mounds from previously existing material.
River Deposits Gravel occurs at Exley Hall and Kirklees Park, 150 feet above
the present river, and is supposed to be of river formation.
The river-terraces consist of sand, gravel, and clay, and occur in many places
along the course of the main rivers, as at Thornhill Lees in the valley of the
Calder, Calverley in the valley of the Aire, and in the valley of the Wharfe almost
continuously from Burley to Poole.
The recent alluvium is composed of fine loamy clay, sand, and gravel. Man
large trees have been found imbedded in this alluvium in the vailey of the Calder,
some of them being from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and 60 feet in length.
On the Occurrence of Elephant-remains in the Basement Beds of the Red
Crag. By J. E, Taynor, V.LS., F.GS.
The author exhibited a tooth from the basement bed of the Red Crag, where
Mastodon and other early Pliocene or late Miocene mammalia are met with. It had
been contended that the elephant-teeth did not come from this bed; but the author
denied this from personal experience. The tooth in question was very peculiar, from
the width between the ridges, and its singular resemblance to the Mastodon type.
On the Correspondence between some Areas of apparent Upheaval and the
Thickening of subjacent Beds. By W.Toruny, F.G.S., Geological Survey of
England.
The author first referred to some known facts as to the thinning of strata in
certain directions, and he drew attention to the coincidence between the direction
of this thinning and the direction of the general dip. The south-easterly attenua-
tion of the Oolites of Central England (long since proved by Prof. Hull) and the
thinning-out of the Lower Cretaceous rocks under London, were the cases most
fully dwelt upon. Illustrations were also drawn from the Carboniferous rocks of
Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and the Lower Cretaceous rocks on the west of the
Paris basin.
It was shown, as regards the areas described, that the rise of the beds is in that
direction in which the underlying beds obtained their greatest thickness. It has
hitherto been assumed that the rise and dip of strata is due to movements of the
earth’s crust; but the author pointed out that, in the instances alluded to, this is
an erroneous conclusion. Only a small portion of the apparent upheaval could be
due to this cause, whilst in some cases it seemed that the whole of it could be ex-
plained by the thickening of subjacent beds. The author concluded by pointing
out the important bearing of these facts upon some current geological theories, re-
ferring especially to the supposed connexion between the “upheaval” of the Weald
and the existing valley-systems of that area,
92 REPORT—1873.
On the Whin Sill of Northumberland.
By W. Torrey, F.G.S., and G. A. Lesovr, F.G.S.
_ This paper gave the results of work by the authors during the progress of the
Geological Survey, and it was communicated to the Section by permission of the
Director-General of the Survey.
The Whinstone or Basalt of the north of England occurs in two forms, either as
dykes cutting through the rocks, or as beds lying amongst them. The intrusive
character of the former is undisputed; but there has always been considerable un-
certainty as to the character of the latter. The authors affirmed that in Northum-
berland there could be no doubt whatever that the sheet or sheets of basalt known
as the “ Whin Sill” were intrusive, and that the trap had been forced through the
rocks long after their deposition and consolidation. The evidence of this was
found in the altered nature of the rocks above the whin, especially when they
consist of shales, and in the fact that the whin does not lie at one uniform level
amongst the sedimentary strata, but frequently comes up in bosses, cutting through
the rocks, and shifting its relative position amongst them to the extent of 1000 feet
or more in short distances.
An account of the literature of the subject was given; and reference was parti-
cularly made to a paper by Sir W. C. Trevelyan, published in 1823 in the ‘ Werne-
rian Transactions,’ in which the intrusive nature of the basalt of North Northum-
berland was clearly shown. F
A note by Mr. S. Allport, F.G.S., was appended to the paper, giving an account
of the microscopic structure of the basalt, showing it to be precisely similar in
character to the intrusive sheets of trap which occur in the coal-field of the midland
counties,
Note on the Occurrence of Thanet Sand and of Crag in the S.W. part of Suffolk
(Sudbury). By W. Wuiraxer, B.A. (Lond.), of the Geological Survey.
The author had observed near Sudbury some sections proving the existence of
Thanet Sand in that district. None had previously been observed on the northern
outcrop of the London basin. The sand is fine and loamy, just like that of West
Kent. The author also noticed the occurrence of Crag at Sudbury, at many miles
from, and at a higher level than, any previously known.
On some Specimens of Dithyrocaris from the Carboniferous Limestone Series,
East Kilbride, and from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire ; with
. Notes on their Geological Position fe. By Hrxry Woopwarp, F.2.S.,
F.G.S., and Rosert Eruerines, jun., F£.G.S.
The authors described nine specimens of Phyllopodous Crustaceans, eight of
which are from the Carboniferous series of East Kilbride, and the remaining form
from the Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire. They are all referable to the
genus Dithyrocaris; and the authors described four new species, namely :—
Dithyrocaris granulata, W.& E. Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride,
. ovalis, W. & E. Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride.
glabra, W. & E, Carboniferous Limestone series, East Kilbride.
striata, W. §& E. Old Red Sandstone, Lanark.
The other examples are referred to Dr. Scouler’s Dithyrocaris tricornis and D,
testudinea, both of which were also obtained from the Carboniferous Limestone
series of East Kilbride.
With regard to D. tricornis, one of the authors (Mr. Woodward) had made the
‘interesting discovery that the carapace in Dr. Scouler’s specimen was folded
-together, and that Dr. Scouler had mistaken the true anterior border of the cara-
-pace—the three spines, on which the specific diagnosis was founded, being really at
the posterior end of the carapace—the body-segments having been twisted out of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 93
as constantly happens in Cerativearis papilio, Salter, from the Upper Silurian of
esmahagow (see ‘Siluria,’ 4th edit. 1867, p. 236, Fossils (66), fig. 1, and footnote
thereon). The maxille, which are preserved in situ in Dr. Scouler’s specimen,
indicate the true anterior end of the carapace.
New Facts bearing on the Inquiry concerning Forms intermediate between Birds
and Reptiles. By Henry Woopwaro, F.R.S., F.G.S., of the British
Museum.
In this paper the author drew attention to the great hiatus existing at the present
day between Birds and Reptiles, and referred to the researches of Prof. Huxley and
others in order to show that both the Ornithic and Reptilian types were super-
structures raised on the same ground-plan, and that the Chelonia, Ichthyosauria,
Plesiosauria, Pterosauria, and Lacertilia differ fully as much from one another as
they do from the class Aves.
0 associate all these forms together under one great Class, the Savropstpa, as
proposed by Prof. Huxley, is therefore fully justified by the common structural
affinities which they present.
Among existing birds the Zatite or Struthious birds come nearer to Reptilia than
any other group ; and their wide distribution attests their great antiquity, whilst
their fossil forms occur as low down as the Eocene. The author pointed out that
the Pterosauria only presented an adaptive modification of Avian structures, but
did not help to bridge over the gap which exists between these two divisions.
He cited the remarkable Mesozoic bird (the Archeopteryzx) as affording a more
generalized type of structure than any other known genus of Aves, the tail being
et of twenty free vertebra, and the digits of the wings being armed with
claws.
Two birds had also been described by Prof. O.C. Marsh from the Cretaceous
shales of Kansas, remarkable for possessing numerous teeth in both jaws, implanted
in distinct sockets, and also biconcave vertebre.
Lastly, Prof. Owen had just described a new and remarkable bird from the Lon-
don Clay of Sheppey, the Odontopteryx toliapicus, having very prominent denticu-
lations of the alveolar margins of the jaws, which, although not true teeth, no
doubt subserved the function of those prehensile organs.
From the extreme rarity of all terrestrial-animal remains preserved in a fossil
state, it may be justly concluded that many more such archaic birds with reptilian
modifications actually existed in the Mesozoic epoch, although they may never be
discovered by geologists.
The author then referred to the instances of fossil Reptilia which show remark-
able ornithic modifications—as, for example, the singular Compsognathus longipes
from Solenhofen, a lizard which, from its peculiar conformation, must have hopped
or walked in an erect position, after the manner of a bird, to which its long neck,
small head, short and diminutive anterior limbs gave it an extraordinary resem-
blance.
From the researches of Mantell, Owen, Phillips, Huxley, and Hulke in England,
Cope, Leidy, and other anatomists in America, it would appear that the huge
Dinosauria, the Iguanodon, Megalosaurus, &c., had also diminutive fore limbs and
~ largely developed hind limbs, whilst from the form of the pelvic bones and the
anchylosis of the sacral vertebre, there can be little doubt they walked in an almost
erect position—a conclusion which the bipedal tracks discovered by Mr. S. H.
Beckles tend to confirm.
The author then described a remarkable lizard, the Chlamydosaurus Kingii from
Australia, which habitually runs upon its hind legs, a mode of progression which
its disproportionately short fore limbs at once suggest as its natural position; and
as its habits are known to have been observed by Mr. Gerard Krefft and other
naturalists, it affords a most valuable living illustration of a Mesozoic type ap-
proaching birds on the Reptilian side, as the Struthious Birds approach reptiles on
the Avian side.
Some singular tracks from Solenhofen were referred to, which must haye been
94, REPORT—1873.
made by a bipedal reptile, like Compsognathus, or by a reptilian-like bird, such
as Archeopteryx, having a long rat-like tail. aiNes :
Mr. Woodward thinks the bipedal tracks on the Connecticut sandstones are to,
be satisfactorily explained by the conclusion which we are now justified in forming,
that they were left by Avian-like Reptiles, although we have not as yet discovered
their fossil remains.
BIOLOGY.
Address by Guorcr J. Attman, V.D., LLD., PRS. PRS.E., M.R.LA.,
LLS., President of the Section.
For some years it has been the practice at the Meetings of this Association for the
special Presidents to open the work of their respective Sections with an Address,
which is supposed to differ, in the greater generality of its subject, from the ordi-
nary communications to the Sections. Finding that during the present Meeting
this duty would devolve on myself, I thought over the available topics, and con-
cluded that a few words on the Present Aspect of Biology and thn Method of
Biological Study would best satisfy the conditions imposed.
T shall endeavour to be as little technical as my subject will allow; and though
I know that there are here present many to whom I cannot expect to convey any
truths with which they are not already familiar, yet in an Address of this kind
the speaker has no right to take for granted any large amount of scientific know-
ledge in his audience. Indeed one of the chief advantages which result from
these Meetings of the British Association consists in the stimulus they give
to inquiry, in the opportunity they afford to many of becoming acquainted for
the first time with the established truths of science, and the initiation among
them of new lines of thought.
And this is undoubtedly no small gain; for how many are there who, though
they may have reaped all the advantages which our established educational systems
can bestow, are yet sadly deficient in a knowledge of the world of life which
surrounds them. It is a fair and wonderful world, this earth on which we have
our dwelling-place ; and yet how many wander over it unheedingly! by how many
have its lessons of wisdom never been read! how many have never spared a
thought on the beauty of its forms, the harmony of its relations, the deep meaning
of its laws!
And with all this there is assuredly implanted in man an undying love of such
Imowledge. From his unshaken faith in causation he yearns to deduce the
unknown from the known, to look beyond what is at hand and obvious to what is
remote and unseen,
Conception of Biology and Function of the Scientific Method.
Under the head of Biology are included all those departments of scientific
research which have as their object the investigation of the living beings, the
lants and the animals, which tenant the surface of our earth, or have tenanted it -
in past time.
t admits of being studied under two grand heads—Morphology, which treats of
Form, and Physiology, which treats of Function ; and besides these there are
certain departments of biological study to which both Morphology and Physiology
contribute, such as Classification, Distribution, and that department of research
which is concerned with the origin and causes of living and extinct forms.
By the aid of observation and experiment we obtain the elements which are to
be combined and developed into a science of living beings; and it is the function of
the scientific method to indicate the mode in which the combinations are to be
effected, and the path which the development must pursue. Without it the
results gained would be but a confused assemblage of isolated facts and dis-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 95
connected phenomena; but, aided by a philosophic method, the observed facts
become scientific propositions, what was apparently insignificant becomes full of
meaning, and we get glimpses of the consummate laws which govern the whole.
I shall leaye the consideration of Biology in its purely physiological aspect to
the President of the Physiological Subsection, and shall here confine myself to
those departments which are more or less controlled by morphological laws,
Importance of Anatomy.
The first step in our morphological study of living beings is to obtain an
accurate and adequate knowledge of the forms of the individual objects which
vesent themselves to us in our contemplation of the animal and vegetable
inedoms. For such knowledge, however, much more is needed than an acquaint-
ance with their external figure. We must subject them to a searching scrutiny ;
we must make ourselves familiar with their anatomy, which inyolves not only a
knowledge of the forms and disposition of their organs, internal as well as external,
but of their histology or the microscopic structure of the tissues of which these
organs are composed. Histology is nothing more than anatomy carried to its
extreme term, to that point where it meets with the morphological unit, the ulti-
mate element of form, and the simplest combinations of this out of which all the
organs in the living body are built up.
Among the higher animals Anatomy, in the ordinary sense of the word, is
sufficiently distinct from Histology to admit of separate study; but in the lower
animals and in plants the two become confounded at so many points as to render
their separate study often impracticable.
Now the great prominence given to Anatomy is one of the points which most
eminently distinguish the modern schools of Biology.
Development. ;
Another order of morphological facts of no less importance than those ob-
tained from anatomical study is derived from that of the changes of form which
the individual experiences during the course of its life. We know that every
organized being commences existence as a simple sphere of protoplasm, and that
from this condition of extreme generalization all but the very lowest pass through
phases of higher and higher specialization, acquiring new parts and differentiating
' new tissues. The sum of these changes constitute the development of the
organism ; and no series of facts is more full of significance in their bearing on
biological science than that which is derived from the philosophic study of
Development,
Classification an Expression of Affinities.
Hitherto we have been considering the individual organism without any direct
reference to others; but the requirements of the biological method can be
satisfied only by a comparison of the various organisms one with the other. Now
the grounds of such comparison may be various ; but what we are at present con-
cerned with will be found in anatomical structure and in developmental: changes ;
and in each of these directions facts of the highest order and of great significance
become apparent.
By a carefully instituted comparison of one organism with another, we discover
the resemblances as well as the differences between them. If these resemblances be
strong and occur in important points of structure or development, we assert that
there is an affinity between the compared organisms, and we assume that the
closeness of the affinity varies directly with the closeness of the resemblance.
Tt is on the determination of these affinities that all philosophic classification
of animals and plants must be based. A philosophic classification of organized
beings aims at theing a succinct statement of the affinities between the objects so
classified, these affinities being at the same time so set forth as to have their
various degrees of closeness and remoteness indicated in the classification.
Affinities have long been recognized as the grounds of a natural biological
classification ; but it is only quite lately that a new significance has been given to
them by the assumption that they may indicate something more than simple
96 : REPORT—1873.
agreement with a common plan—that they may be derived by inheritance from a
common ancestral form, and that they therefore afford evidence of a true blood-
relationship between the organisms presenting them.
The recognition of this relationship is the basis of what is known as the Descent
Theory. No one doubts that the resemblances we notice among the members of
such small groups as those we name species are derived by inheritance from a
common ancestor; and the Descent Theory is simply the extension to the larger
groups of this same idea of relationship.
If this be a true principle, then biological classification becomes an exposition
of family relationship—a genealogical tree in which the stem and branches indi-
cate various degrees of kinship and direct and collateral lines of descent. It
is this conception which takes classification out of the domain of the purely
morphological.
Affinity determined by the study of Anatomy and Development.
From what has just been said, it follows that it is mainly by a comparison of
organisms in their anatomical and developmental characters that their affinities
are discoverable. The structure of an organism will, in by far the greater number
of cases, be sufficient to indicate its true affinity ; but it sometimes happens that
certain members of a group depart in their structure so widely from the characters
of the type to which they belong, that without some other evidence of their affi-
nities no one would think of assigning them to it. This evidence is afforded by
development.
An example or two will serve to make the subject clear; and we shall first take
one from a case where, without a knowledge of anatomical structure, we should
easily go astray in our attempts to assign to the forms under examination their
true place in the classification.
If we search our coasts at low water we shall be sure to meet with certain
plant-like animals spreading over the rocks or rooted to the fronds of sea-weeds,
all of which present so close a resemblance to one another as to have led to their
being brought together by the zoologists of a few years ago into a single group,
to which, under the name of “ Polypes,” a definite place was assigned in the
classification of the animal kingdom. They are all composite animals, consisting
of an association of buds or zooids which remain organically united to one another
and give to the whole assemblage the appearance, in many cases, of a little .
branching tree. Every bud carries a delicate transparent cup, within which is
contained the principal part of the animal, and from which this has the power of
spontaneously pene itself; and when thus protruded it will be seen to pre-
sent a beautiful crown of tentacles surrounding a mouth, through which’ food is
taken into a stomach. As long as no danger threatens, the little animal will
continue displayed with its beautiful coronal of tentacles expanded ; but touch it
eyer so lightly, and it will instantly close up its tentacles, retract its whole body,
and take refuge in the recesses of its protecting cup.
So far, then, there is a complete agreement between the animals which have
been thus associated under the designation of Polypes; and in all that concerns
their external form no one point can be adduced in opposition to the justice of
this association. When, however, we pass below the surface and bring the micro-
scope and dissecting-needle to bear on their internal organization, we find that
among the animals thus formed so apparently alike we have two totally distinct
types of structure :—that while in one the mouth leads into a simple excavation of
the body on which devolves the whole of the functions which represent digestion,
in the other there is a complete alimentary tract entirely shut off from the proper
cavity of the body and consisting of distinctly differentiated cesophagus, stomach,
and intestine; while in the one the muscular system consists of an indistinct
layer of fibres intimately united in its whole extent with the body-walls, in the
other there are distinctly differentiated free bundles of muscles for the purpose of
effecting special motions in the economy of the animal; while in the one no dif-
ferentiated nervous system can be detected, in the other there is a distinct nervous
ganglion with nervous filaments. In fact the two forms are shown, by a study of
their anatomical structure, to belong to two entirely different primary divisions
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 97
of the animal kingdom; for while the one has a close affinity with the little
freshwater Hydra, and is therefore referred to the Hydroida among the sub-
kingdom Ccelenterata, the other is referable to the group of the Polyzoa, has its
immediate affinities with the Ascidians, and belongs to the great division of the
Molluscoida.
We shall next take an example in which the study of development, rather than
of anatomy, affords the clue to the true affinities of the organism.
Attached to the abdomen of various crabs may often be seen certain soft fleshy
sacs, to which the name of Sacculina has been given. They hold their place by
means of a branching root-like extension, which penetrates the abdomen of the
crab and winds itself round its intestine or dives into its liver, within which its
fibres ramify like the roots of a tree.
Now the question at once presents itself, What position in the animal kingdom
are we to assign to this immovably-rooted sac, destitute of mouth and of almost
every other organ with which we are in the habit of associating the structure of
an animal ?
Anatomy will here be powerless in helping us to arrive at a conclusion ; for the
dissecting-knife shows us little more than a closed sac filled with eggs, and fixed
by its tenacious roots in the viscera of its victim. Let us see, however, what we
learn from development. If some of the eggs with which the Sacculina is filled
be placed in conditions suited to their development, they give origin to a form as
different as can well be imagined from the Sacculina. It is an active, somewhat
oval-shaped little creature, covered with a broad dorsal shield or carapace, and
furnished with two pairs of strong swimming-feet, which carry long bristles, and
also with a pair of anterior limbs or antenne. It is, in fact, identical with a form
known to zoologists by the name of “ Nauplius,” and which has been proved to
be one of the young states of the Barnacle and of other lower Crustacea ; while
even some of the higher Crustacea have been observed to pass through a similar
stage.
‘After a short time the Nauplius of our Sacculina changes its form; the carapace
folds down on each side and assumes the shape of a little bivalve shell, while six
new pairs of swimming-feet are developed. The little animal continues its active
natatory life, and in this stage it is again identical in all essential points with one
of the young stages of the Barnacle.
In the mean time a remarkable change takes place in the two antenne ; they
become curiously branched and conyerted into prehensile organs. The young
Sacculina now looks out for the crab on which it is to spend parasitically the rest
of its life; it loses its bivalve shell; the prehensile antenne take hold of its
victim, and Soagewe the soft skin of its abdomen, in order to seek within it the
nutriment which is there so plentifully present ; locomotion is gone for ever, and
the active and symmetrical Nauplius becomes converted into the inert and shape-
less Sacculina.
The nearest affinities of Sacculina are thus undoubtedly with the Barnacles,
which have been proved, both on anatomical and developmental grounds, to belong
to the great division of the Crustacea.
A philosophical classification cannot form a single rectilineal series.
A comparison of animals with one another having thus resulted in establishing
their affinities, we may arrange them into groups, some more nearly, others more
remotely related to one another. The various degrees and directions of affinity
will be expressed in every philosophical arrangement; and as these affinities ex-
tend in various directions, it becomes at once apparent that no arrangement of
organized beings in a straight line, ascending like the steps of a ladder from lower
to higher forms, can give a true idea of the relations of such beings to one another.
These relations, on the contrary, can be expressed only by a ramified and complex
figure, which we have already compared to that of a genealogical tree.
The following diagram will approximately express the aflinities of the leading
groups of the animal kingdom :— ‘i
1873.
“I
98 REPORT—1873.
(Verreprata. )
Amphioxys.
aS
( Mouwvsca. )
Conchifera.
\ |
X
Ne
Tunicata.
(Ecumyopermara. ) (Arrnropopa. ) (Morzuscoma. )
Asteridee. Crustacea, Polyzoa.
Bs) ae
Annelida.
(Vermes. ) Ca:ceNTERATA, )
Platoidea. Hydroida.
oes /
Infusoria. Rhiz6poda.
(Protozoa. )
Homology.
In the comparison of organized beings with one another, certain relations of
great interest and significance become apparent between various organs. These
are known by the name of Homologies; and organs are said to be homologous
with one another when they can be proved to be constructed on the same funda-
mental plan, no matter how different they may be in form and in the functions
which they may be destined to execute. Organs not constructed on the same fun-
damental plan may yet execute similar functions; and then, whether they do or
do not resemble one another in form, they are said to be merely analogous; and
some of the most important steps in modern Biology have resulted from attention
to the distinction between Homology and Analogy, a distinction which was entirely
disregarded by the earlier schools.
The nature of Homology and its distinction from Analogy will be best under-
stood by a few examples.
Compare the wing of a bird with that of an insect; there is a resemblance be-
tween them in external form; there is also an identity of function, both organs
being constructed for the purposes of flight: and yet they are in no respect homo-
logous; for they are formed on two distinct plans, which have nothing whatever in
common. The relation between them is simply that of analogy.
On the other hand, no finer illustrations of Homology can be adduced than
those which are afforded by a comparison with one another of the anterior limbs of
the various members of the Vertebrata. Let us compare, for example, the anterior
limb of man with the wing of a bird. Here we have two organs between which
the ordinary observer would fail to recognize any resemblance—organs, too, whose
functions are entirely different, one being formed for prehension, and the other for
flight. When, however, they are compared in the light which a philosophic ana-
tomy is capable of throwing on them, we find between the two a parallelism which
points to one fundamental type on which they are both constructed.
There is, first, the shoulder-girdle, or system of bones by which in each case the
limb is connected with the rest of the skeleton. Now this part of the skeleton in
man is very different in form from the same part in the bird; and yet a comparison
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 99
of the two shows us that the difference mainly consists in the fact that the coracoid,
which in man is a mere process of the scapula, is in the bird developed as an inde-
pendent bone, and in the further fact that the two clavicles in man are in the bird
united into a single V-shaped bone or “furcula.” Then, if we compare the arm,
forearm, wrist, and hand in the human skeleton with the various parts which
follow one another in the same order in the skeleten of the bird’s wing, we shall
find between the two series a correspondence which the adaptation to special func-
tions may in some regions mask, but never to such an extent as to render the
fundamental unity of plan undiscoverable by the method of the higher anatomy.
As far as regards the arm and forearm, these in the bird are nearly repetitions of
their condition in the human skeleton ; but the parts which follow appear at first
sight so different in the two cases as to have but little relation to one another; and
yet a common type can be traced with great distinctness through the two. Thus
the wrist is present in the bird’s wing as well as in the anterior limb of man; but
while in man it is composed of eight small irregularly shaped bones, arranged in
two rows, in the wing it has become greatly modified, the two rows being reduced
to one, and the eight bones to two. Lastly, the hand is also represented in the
wing, where it constitutes a very important part of the organ of flight, but where
it has undergone such great modification as to be recognizable only after a critical
comparison ; for the five metacarpal bones of the human hand are reduced to two,
consolidated with one another at their proximal and distal ends; and then the five
fingers of the hand are in the wing reduced to three, which represent the middle
finger, fore finger, and thumb. The fore finger in the bird consists of only one
phalanx, the middle of two, and the thumb forms a small stylet-like bone spring-
ing from the proximal end of the united metacarpals.
the case now adduced we have an example of the way in which the same
organ in two different animals may become very differently modified in form, so as
to fit it for the performance of two entirely different functions, and yet retain suffi-
cient conformity to a common plan to indicate a fundamental unity of structure.
Let us take another example; and this I shall adduce from the Vegetable King-
dom, which is full of beautiful instances of the relations with which we are now
occupied.
There are the parts known as tendrils, thread-like organs, usually rolling them-
selves into spirals, and destined, by twining round some fixed support, to sustain
climbing plants in their efforts to raise themselves from the ground. We shall
take two examples of these beautiful appendages, and endeavour to determine
their homological significance.
There is the genus Smilax, one species of which adorns the hedges of the south
of Europe, where it takes the place of the Bryony and TYamus of our English
country lanes. From the point where the stalks of its leaves spring from the stem
there is given off a pair of tendrils, by means of which the Smilax clings to the
surrounding vegetation in an inextricable entanglement of flexile branches and
bright glossy green foliage.
With the tendrils of the Smilax let us compare those of the Lathyrus aphaca, a
little vetch occasionally met with in waste places and the margins of corn-fields.
The leaves are represented by arrow-shaped leaf-like appendages, which are placed
opposite to one another in pairs upon the stem; but instead of each of these
carrying two tendrils at its origin, like the leaves of the Smilax, a single tendril
springs from the middle point between every pair.
The tendrils in the two cases, though similar in appearance and in function,
differ thus in number and arrangement ; and the questions occur :—Are they homo-
logous with one another, or are they only analogous? and if they are only analo-
gous, can we trace between them and any other organ homologous relations ?
To enable us to decide this point, we must bear in mind that a leaf, when typi-
cally developed, consists of three portions—the lamina or blade, the petiole or leaf-
stalk, and a pair of foliaceous appendages or stipules placed at the base of the leaf-
stalk. Now this typical leaf affords the key to the homologies of the tendrils in
the two cases under examination.
Take the Smilaz. In this case there are no stipules of the ordinary form; but
the two tendrils hold exactly the position of-the stipules in our type sir, and must
f
100 REPORT—1873.
be regarded as representing them. We have only to imagine these stipules so
modified in their form as to become reduced to two long spiral threads, and we shall
at once have the tendrils of the Smilax. On the other hand, let the stipules in our
type remain as leaf-like organs, and let the rest of the leaf (the lamina and petiole)
lose its normal character and become changed into a spiral thread, and we shall
then have the stipules of our type leaf retained in the two opposite leaf-like organs
of the Lathyrus, while the remainder of the type leaf will present itself in the con-
dition of the Lathyrus-tendril which springs from the central point between them.
The tendrils of the Smz/ax and of the Lathyrus aphaca are thus not homologous
with one another, but only analogous; while those of the Smzlax are homologous
with a pair of stipules, and those of the Lathyrus homologous with the lamina and
petiole of a leaf.
Besides the homology discoverable between the organs of different animals and
plants, a similar relation can be traced between organs in the same animal or
plant, as, for example, that between the different segments of the vertebral column
(which can be shown to repeat one another homologically), and that between the
parts composing the various verticils of the flower and leaves in the plant.
The existence of homological relations such as have been just illustrated admits
of an easy explanation by the application of the doctrine of Descent, according to
which the two organs compared would originate from a common ancestral form,
In accordance with this hypothesis, Homology would mean an identity of genesis
in two organs, as Analogy would mean an identity of function.
Distribution and Evolution.
Another very important department of biological science is that of the distribu-
tion of organized beings. ‘This may be either Distribution in Space (Geographical
Distribution) or Distribution in Time (Paleontological Distribution). Both of these
have of late years acquired increased significance ; for we have begun to get more
distinct glimpses of the laws by which they are controlled, of the origin of Faunas
and Floras, and of the causes which regulate the sequence of life upon the earth.
Time, however. will not allow to enter upon this subject as fully as its interest and
importance would deserve; and a few words on paleontological distribution is all
that I can now venture on.
The distribution of organized beings in time has lately come before us ina new
light, by the application to it of the hypothesis of Evolution. According to this
hypothesis, the higher groups of organized beings now existing on the earth’s sur-
face have come down to us, with gradually increasing complexity of structure, by a
continuous descent from forms of extreme simplicity which constituted the earliest
life of our planet.
In almost every group of the animal kingdom the members which compose it
admit of being arranged in a continuous series, passing down from more specialized
or higher to more generalized or lower forms ; and if we have any record of ex-
tinct members of the group, the series may be carried on through these. Now,
while the Descent hypothesis obliges us to regard the various terms of the series
as descended from one another, the most generalized forms will be found among
the extinct ones; and the further back in time we go the simpler do the forms
become.
By a comparison of the forms so arranged we obtain, as it were, the law of the
series, and can thus form a conception of the missing terms, and continue the
series backwards through time, even where no record of the lost forms can be
found, until from simpler to still simpler terms we at last arrive at the conception
of a term so generalized that we may regard it as the primordial stock, the ances-
tral form from which all the others have been derived by descent.
This root form is thus not actually observed, but is rather obtained by a process
of deduction, and is therefore hypothetical. We shall strengthen, however, its
claims to acceptance by the application of another principle. The study of En-
bryology shows that the higher animals, in the course of their development, pass
through transitory phases which have much in common with the permanent con-
dition of lower members of the type to which they belong, and therefore with ite
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 10]
extinct representatives. We are thus enabled to lay down the further principle,
that the individual, in the course of its own development from the egg to the fully
formed state, recapitulates within that short period of time the various forms which
its ancestry presented in consecutive epochs of the world’s history; so that if we
knew all the stages of its individual development, we should have a key to the
long line of its descent. Through the hypothesis of Evolution, paleontology and
embryology are thus brought into mutual bearing on one another.
Let us take an example in which these two principles seem to be illustrated.
In rocks of the Silurian age there exist in great profusion the remarkable fossils
known as Graptolites. These consist of a series of little cups or cells arranged
along the sides a common tube; and the whole fossil presents so close a resem-
blance to one of the Sertularian hydroids which inhabit the waters of our present
seas as to justify the suspicion that the Graptolites constitute an ancient and long
since extinct group of the Hydroida. It is not, however, with the proper cells, or
hydrothecz, of the Sertularians that the cells of the Graptolite most closely agree,
but rather with the little receptacles which in certain Sertularine belonging to the
family of the Plumularidé we find associated with the hydrothecs, and which are
known as “ nematophores.” A comparison of structure, then, shows that the Grap-
tolite may, with considerable probability, be regarded as representing a Plumu-
laria in which the hydrothecz had never been developed, and in which their place
had been taken by the nematophores.
Now it can be shown that the nematophores of the living Plumularide are filled
with masses of protoplasm which have the power of throwing out pseudopodia, or
long processes of their substance, and that they thus resemble the Rhizopoda,
whose soft parts consist entirely of a similar protoplasm, and which stand among
the Protozoa, or lowest group of the animal kingdom. If we suppose the hydro-
thecze suppressed in a Plumularian, we should thus nearly convert it into a colony
of Rhizopoda, from which it would differ only in the somewhat higher morpho-
logical differentiation of its ccenosarc, or common living bond by which the indi-
viduals of the colony are organically connected. And just such a colony would,
under this view, a Graptolite be, waiting only for the development of hydrothecs
to raise it into the condition of a Plumularian.
Bringing, now, the Evolution hypothesis to bear upon the question, it would
follow that the Graptolite may be viewed as an ancestral form of the Sertularian
hydroids, a form having the most intimate relations with the Rhizopoda, that
hydranths and hydrothece became developed in its descendants, and that the
Rhizopodal Graptolite became thus converted in the lapse of ages into the hy-
droidal Sertularian. é
This hypothesis would be strengthened if we found it agreeing with the pheno-
mena of individual development. Now such Plumularide as have been followed
in their development from the one to the adult state do actually present well-
developed metamorphoses before they show a trace of hydrothecz, thus passing in
the course of their embryological development through the condition of a Grapto-
lite, and recapitulating within a few days stages which it took incalculable ages to
bring about in the paleontological development of the tribe.
I have thus dwelt at some length on the doctrine of Evolution because it has
given a new direction to biological study, and must powerfully influence all future
researches. Evolution is the highest expression of the fundamental principles
established by Mr. Darwin, and depends on the two admitted faculties of living
beings—heredity, or the transmission of characters from the parent to the offspring,
and. adaptivity, or the capacity of having these characters more or less modified
in the offspring by external agencies or, it may be, by spontaneous tendency to
variation.
The hypothesis of Evolution may not, it is true, be yet established on so sure a
basis as to command instantaneous acceptance ; and for a generalization of such
vast significance no one can be blamed in demanding a broad and indisputable
foundation of facts. Whether, however, we do or do not accept it as a necessary
deduction from established facts, it is at all events certain that it embraces a greater
number of phenomena and suggests a more satisfactory explanation of them than
any other hypothesis which has yet been proposed.
102 REPORT—1873.
With all our admiration, however, for the doctrine of Evolution, as one of the
most fertile and comprehensive of philosophic hypotheses, we cannot shut our eyes
to the difficulties which lie in the way of accepting it to the full extent which has
been sometimes claimed for it. It must be borne in mind that though among
some of the higher Vertebrata we can trace back for some distance in geological
time a continuous series of forms which may safely be regarded as derived from
one another by gradual modification (as has been done, for example, so success-
fully by Prof. Huxley in the case of the Horse), yet the instances are very few in
which such a sequence has been actually established; while the first appearance
on the earth’s crust of the various classes presents itself in forms which by no
means belong to the lowest or most generalized of their living representatives. On
this fact, however, I do not lay much stress; for it will admit of explanation by
referring it to the deficiency of the geological record, and then demanding a lapse
of time (of enormous length, it is true) during which the necessary modifications
would be in progress before the earliest phase of which we have any knowledge
could have been reached.
Again, we must not lose sight of the hypothetical nature of those primordial
forms in which we regard the branches of our genealogical tree as taking their
origin ; and while the doctrine of the recapitulation of ancestral forms has much
probability, and harmonizes with the other aspects of the Evolution doctrine into
a beautifully symmetrical system, it is one for which a sufficient number of actually
observed facts have not yet been adduced to remove it altogether from the region
of hypothesis.
Even the case of the Graptolites already adduced is an illustration rather than a
proof; for the difficulty of determining the true nature of such obscure fossils is so
Se that we may be altogether mistaken in our views of their structure and
affinities,
To me, however, one of the chief difficulties in the way of the doctrine of evolu-
tion, when carried to the extreme length for which some of its advocates contend,
appears to be the unbroken continuity of inherited life which it necessarily requires
through a period of time whose vastness is such that the mind of man is utterly
incapable of comprehending it. Vast periods, it is true, are necessary in order to
render the phenomena of evolution possible ; but the vastness which the antiquity
of life, as shown by its remains in the oldest fossiliferous strata, requires us to give
to these periods may be even greater than is compatible with continuity.
We have no reason to suppose that the reproductive faculty in organized beings
is endowed with unlimited power of extension ; and yet, to go no further back than
the Silurian period (though the seas which bore the Eozoon were probably as far
anterior to those of the Silurian as these are anterior to our own), the hypothesis of
evolution, when carried to the extreme length of which it seems susceptible,
requires that in that same Silurian period the ancestors of the present living forms
must have existed, and that their life had continued by inheritance through all the
ramifications of a single genealogical tree down to our own time—the branches of
the tree, it is true, here and there falling away, with the extinction of whole genera
and families and tribes, but still some always remaining to carry on the life of the
base through a period of time to all intents and purposes infinite. It is true that
in a few cases a continuous series of forms, regularly passing from lower to higher
degrees of specialization, and very probably connected with one another by direct
descent, may be followed through long geological periods—as, for example, the gra-
duated series, already alluded to, which may be traced between certain mammals of
the Kocene and others living in our own time, as well as the very low forms which
have come down to us, apparently unmodified, from the epoch of the Chalk; but
incalculably great as are these periods, they are but as the swing of the pendulum
in a millennium, when compared with the time which has elapsed since the first
animalization of our globe.
Is the faculty of reproduction so wonderfully tenacious as all this, that through
periods of inconceivable duration, and exposed to influences the most intense and
the most varied, it has still come down to us in an unbroken stream? Have the
strongest, which had survived in the struggle for existence, necessarily handed
down to the strongest which should follow them the power of continuing, as a per-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 103
etual heirloom, the life which they had themselves inherited? Or have there
here many total extinctions and many renewals of life—a succession of genealo-
gical trees, the earlier ones becoming old and decayed and dying out, and their
place taken by new ones which have no kinship with the others? Or, finally, is
the doctrine of evolution only a working hypothesis, which, like certain algebraic
fictions, may yet be of inestimable value as an instrument of research P For as the
higher calculus becomes to the physical inquirer a power by which he unfolds the
laws of the inorganic world, so may the hypothesis of evolution, though only an hy-
pothesis, furnish the biologist with a key to the order and hidden forces of the world
of life ; and what Leibnitz, and Newton, and Hamilton have been to the physicist,
is it not that which Darwin has been to the biologist ?
But even accepting as a great truth the doctrine of evolution, let us not attribute
to it more than it can justly claim. No valid evidence has yet been adduced to
lead us to believe that inorganic matter has become transformed into living other-
wise than through the agency of a preexisting organism; and there remains a
residual phenomenon still entirely unaccounted for. No physical hypothesis,
founded on any indisputable fact, has yet explained the origin of the primordial
Peppa, and, above all, of its marvellous properties, which render evolution
ossible.
' Accepting, then, the doctrine of evolution in all freedom, and with all its legiti-
mate consequences, there remains, I say, a great residuum unexplained by physical
theories. Natural selection, the struggle for existence, the survival of the fittest,
will explain much, but they will not explain all. They may offer a beautiful and
conyincing theory of the present order and fitness of the organic universe, as the
laws of attraction do of the inorganic ; but the properties with which the primordial
protoplasm is endowed (its heredity and its adaptivity) remain unexplained by
them ; for these properties are their cause, and not their effect,
For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the physical forces
which surround us, until we are at last compelled to rest upon an independent voli-
tion, a far-seeing intelligent design. Science may yet discover, even among the
laws of physics, the cause it looks for; it may be that even now we have glimpses
of it—that those forces among which recent physical research has demonstrated so
grand a unity (light, heat, electricity, magnetism), when manifesting themselves
through the organizable protoplasm, become converted into the phenomena of life—
and that the poet has unconsciously enunciated a great scientific truth when he
tells us of
* Gay lizards glittering on the walls
Of ruined shrines, busy and bright,
As though they were alive with light.”
But all this is only carrying us one step back in the grand generalization. All
science is but the intercalation of causes, each more comprehensive than that
which it endeavours to explain, between the great primal cause and the ultimate
effect.
I have thus endeavoured to sketch for you, in a few broad outlines, the leading
aspects of biological science, and to indicate the directions which biological studies
must take. Our science is one of grand and solemn import; for it embraces man
himself, and is the exponent of the laws which he must obey. Its subject is vast ;
for it is life, and life stretches back into the illimitable past, and forward into the
illimitable future. Life, too,is everywhere. Over all this wide earth of ours, from
the equator to the poles, there is scarcely a spot which has not its animal or its
vegetable denizens—dwellers on the mountain and on the plain, in the lake and on
the prairie, in the arid desert and the swampy fen—from the tropical forest, with its
strange forms and gorgeous colours and myriad voices, to the ice-fields of polar
latitudes and those silent seas which lie beneath them, where living things un-
Imown to warmer climes congregate in unimaginable multitudes. There is life all
over the solid earth; there is life throughout the vast ocean, from its surface down
to its great depths, deeper still than the lead of sounding-line has reached.
And it is with these living hosts, unbounded in their variety, infinite in their
numbers, that the student of biology must make himself acquainted. Itis no light
104. REPORT—1873.
task which lies before him—no mere pastime on which he may enter with trivial
purpose, as though it were but the amusement of an hour; it is a great and solemn
mission, to which he must devote himself with earnest mind and with loving heart,
remembering the noble words of Bacon :— : an
“Knowledge is not a couch whereon to rest a searching and restless spirit ; nor
a terrace for a wandering and variable mind to walk up and down with a fair
prospect; nor a tower of state for a proud mind to raise itself upon ; nor a fort or
commanding ground for strife and contention ; nor a shop for profit and sale; but
a rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator and the relief of man’s estate.”
Botany.
On Parasitic Alge. By W. AncuEr.
On a Tree-Aloe from South-East Africa. By T. Barnus.
On the Plants collected in Bermuda by Mr. H. N. Moseley.
By Professor. Tutserron Dynr, B.A.
On the Crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of certain Plants*,
By Professor Gurrriver, F.R.S.
The author, remarking how much microscopists have of late been interested by
the diverse appearances on the surface of certain seeds, expresses his opinion that
the value of observations of this kind might be much increased if they were carried
a little deeper into the texture of the seed-coat and pericarp. In one or other of these
parts he finds short prismatic crystals,apparently of oxalate of lime, constantly present
in many plants, and as constantly absent from the same parts of other plants; and,
as regards the frequent and true remark that such crystals occur in numberless plants,
he submits that this is no answer to the rational question as to the orders or species
which are or are not characterized by certain saline crystals in the testa or other
part of the plant. Illustrative drawings were exhibited of the crystals in Geranium
and Ribes ; and of the crystals in Ulmus and Compositie engravings had been pub-
lished in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ July 1873, and ‘Science
Gossip,’ May 1873. In the present paper he describes the crystals in Tiliaceze, Ace-
racez, Geraniaceze, Grossulariaceze, Composite, Primulacez, and Dioscoreacez.
The crystals occur regularly studded in plainly defined cells and, though, very
variable in size, have an average diameter of about 5,',5 of an inch, and in form
are square, oblong, lozenge-shaped, commonly belong to one or other of the pris-
matic systems, but often are merely granular or otherwise irregular like certain starch-
granules, though easily distinguishable therefrom by the iodine test. The author,
in conclusion, expressed the hope that both neophytes and experts would pay more
attention to this branch of phytotomy, especially as such observations, and the
minute structure of plants generally, have been and still are sadly neglected in
even the most comprehensive books of descriptive. botany and micrography.
On the Mosses of the West Riding of Yorkshire. By Cuartes P, Hopxrrx,
President of Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society;t.
The list of West-Riding Mosses at the end of this paper, numbering nearly 300,
chiefly made up from the author’s own observations and those of his friends, was
* Printed in extenso with additions and a plate in the ‘ Monthly Microscopical Journal ’
for December 1873.
+ Published in extenso in the ‘Journal of Botany,’ New Series, vol. ti. p. 527 ef seq.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 105
prefaced by a short introduction, descriptive of the principal geological features of
the district. He then showed the course of the various riversheds, and the work
which has been done in each. The Wharfe, Upper Aire, and Calder are the best
worked for mosses, the others haying been scarcely touched upon yet.
Many rarities have already been found; and when the other more southern dis-
tricts haye been thoroughly examined, the author was of opinion that the list of
Mosses would be largely increased. He then described a few of the principal new
and rarer species, and concluded by recommending the West-Riding botanists to
direct their studies to the Mosses. 2 ee
On the Subalpine Vegetation of Kilimanjaro, E. Africa*.
By Dr. J. D. Hooxrr, C.B., F.B.S.
Remarks on Plants collected by the Voyager Dampier.
By Professor Lawson, M.A.
__
On a Course of Practical Instruction in Botany. By Professor Lawson, M.A.
_—_—_—————
On the Vegetation of Bermuda. By H. N. Mosetzy,
On some of the Changes going on in the South-African Vegetation through the
Introduction of the Merino Sheep. By Joun Suaw.
The author commenced by referring to the fact that civilization and Merino
sheep had introduced one obnoxious plant (the Xanthiwm spinosum) into the
sheep-walks of South Africa. As its achenes get into the wool and seriously
injure its value, the Government have legislated for its compulsory destruction.
In the Orange-River Free State, where there was no legislation on the weed until
lately, wool had become so filled with these that its value was deteriorated nearly
50 percent. Sheep also, in consequence of the overstocking of farms in the inland
districts of the Cape, are doing very serious injury directly by eating down the
better and more agreeable plants, giving range to poisonous and bitter ones, and
even so changing the climate as to make the country better suited to the plants of
the neighbouring regions, which march into the sheep-walks to aid the sheep in
thrusting out and extirpating the indigenous flora.
After sketching the distribution of plants in South Africa, the author went on
to particularize the character of the prairie-like midlands of the Cape, with their
luxuriant grass and vegetation. Since sheep have been introduced the grass has
fast disappeared, the ground (by the hurried march of the sheep for food amongst
a Sakic bush) has become beaten and hardened, and the seasonable rains which
do come are accordingly allowed to run off the surface without soaking into the
ground to the extent formerly the case. The country is thus drying up, the foun-
tains becoming smaller and smaller, and the prospect is very clear that the midland
regions will turn into a semi-desert. Indeed the plants of the singular regions
known as the Karoo, in the south-west of the Cape peek from its position is
locked in to the north and south by mountains, and is favoured little by rain), are
travelling northwards rapidly and occupying this now similar dry tract of country.
The herbage is essentially a Karoo one already. It contains most prominently
Karoo plants, such as the Chrysocomas and the Elytropappi.
The author further referred to the great increase of poisonous and bitter herbage.
It is dangerous to have stock in many farms, which formerly were free from any in-
jurious herbs. Long stretches of the colony are abundantly occupied by Melice, which
are eaten by the oxen and cause intoxication, to the serious hindrance of transport.
* Printed in extenso in the Journal of the Linnean Society.
1873.
106 REPORT—1873.
On Fern-stems and Petioles of the Coal-measures,
By Professor W. C. Wrrxzamson, F.2.S.
The author described the structure of several stems of Calamites and Lycopodia-
ceous plants from the Coal-measures, in which a thick vascular zone intervened
between a central pith and an outer bark, and which zone increased in thickness
by successive additions made to its external surface through the genetic agency of
the innermost layer of the bark. Adopting these plants as typical representatives
of a condition wholly unknown amongst living Cryptogams, he called attention to
a series of stems from the Coal-measures which bore the appearance of being the
petioles and rhizomes of ferns. One of these, to which he had previously assigned
the provisional name of Edrarylon, he now showed to be an undoubted fern, since
he has obtained it with leaflets attached to it. This plant proves to be one of the
species of Pecopteris in which the rachis and petiole is covered with minute tubercles,
as in some recent Cyatheas. After examining a series of other stems, including the
Stauropteris of Binney and the Zygopteris Lacatti recently described by M. Renault,
he examined the Palmacites carbonigenus of Corda, and which latter has generally
been regarded as a palm. The author rejected this view, and came to the conclu-
sion that the plant was a fern allied to the Marattiacez of the present day. In none
of the above plants was the slightest trace of the exogenous growth so common
amongst the Lycopods and Calamites to be found. But the author thought it pro-
bable that the Heterangium Grievii, recently described by himself in a memoir
now being printed by the Royal Society, and in which a very feeble attempt at the
development of such a growth was observable, might prove to be a fern. But even
in that case the instance was such an isolated one, so far as our present knowledge
extends, and the growth was so feebly developed, that it merely appeared like one
of those exceptions which prove the rule. It only indicated the absence in nature
of those sharply defined boundary lines which the systematist is ever seeking to
establish, but within which nature refuses to be restrained.
On the Flora of the Environs of Bradford, By Dr, Wix1s.
Zoouoay,
On some Recent Resulis with the Towing-net on the South Coast of Ireland.
By Professor Arrmay, FES.
1, Mitraria
Only asingle specimen was obtained of the little Mitraria which formed the
subject of the present communication; and neither its structure nor development was
made out as completely as could have been wished. From the Mediterranean species
described in a former communication (British Association Report for 1872), it differs
in some points of structure and in the mode of annulation of the developing woim.
It possesses the usual Mitraria-form—that of a hemispherical dome, having its
base encircled by a band of long vibratile cilia. In the side of the dome, a little
above the ciliated band, is the mouth, which leads into a rather wide pharynx
clothed with a ciliated epithelium. The pharynx runs through the dome parallel
to its base, and opens into a capacious stomach, which continues in the same direc-
tion until it joins the intestine. This then turns down abruptly at right angles to
the previous portion of the alimentary canal, and then projects for a short distance
beyond the base of the dome, carrying with it, hernia-like, the walls of the base.
The true body-walls of the future worm, of which the Mtraria is the larva, seem
as yet confined to the intestinal segment of the alimentary canal. They already
present the commencement of annulation, which, however, exists only on the
dorsal and ventral sides; while two broad bands of very distinct fibres may be seen,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 107
one on the right and the other on the left side, extending transversely from the
dorsal to the ventral surface.
The ciliated band which runs round the base of the dome possesses a rather
complex structure. It consists of two concentric rings—an outer one composed of
i oval, distinctly nucleated cells; and an inner one of a granular structure and
yellowish colour, in which no distinct cells could be demonstrated, The cilia form
two concentric wreaths borne by the underside of the band—an outer wreath con-
sisting of very long cilia, and borne by the inner edge of the outer portion of the
band; and an inner wreath of much shorter cilia, borne by the inner edge of the
inner portion. The band, with its cilia, is interrupted for a very short space at the
aboral side of the dome. There is probably at this spot an entrance into a water-
vascular system. No such system, however, was observed in the specimen, though
the author had described in another species of Mitraria a system of sinuses which
appear to exist in the walls of the dome, and which he regarded as representing a
water-vascular system (Brit. Assoc. Report for 1872).
Occupying the very summit of the dome is a large, somewhat quadrilateral
ganglion, from which two distinct filaments are sent down, one on each side of the
alimentary canal; but he was not able to follow these filaments to their destina-
tion. The bilateral symmetry of the ganglion suggests its formation out of two
lateral halves. Though its very superficial position gives it the appearance of
being a mere thickening of the walls, the view here taken of its being a nervous
ganglion seems to be the only one consistent with its relations to the surrounding
parts,
On each side of the pharynx, a little behind the mouth, is a small oval ganglion-
like body, from which a filament runs to the ciliated band. Some delicate filaments
may also be seen lying between the pharynx and the walls of the dome on which
they seem to be distributed; but the author could not trace them to any distinct
ganglionic centre,
The great apical ganglion carries two very obvious black ocelliform spots, and,
besides these, two clear vesicles enclosing each a clear spherical corpuscle. The
two vesicles may probably be regarded as auditory capsules,
The further development of this larval form has not been observed. It probably
consists chiefly in the continued prolongation of the alimentary canal beyond the
base of the hemispherical dome, the completion of the annulation by its extension
to the right and left sides, and the gradual contraction of the dome and final
absorption of the ciliated band.
2. Tornaria.
Two specimens of the larval form originally discovered by Johann Miiller, and
described by him under the name of Tornaria, were obtained ; but these unfortu-
nately perished before a sufficiently exhaustive examination of them could be
made. On the whole, their structure agrees closely with what has been pointed
out by Alex. Agassiz, in his valuable and elaborate memoir on Zornaria and
Balanoglossus, The species appears to be different from those hitherto described,
The gills had not begun to show themselves, and there were but traces of the
“appets” described in other species as appended to the posterior extremity of the
stomach,
The author believed that he could distinguish a minute ganglion on each side of
the cesophagus ; filaments were sent off from it to the neighbouring parts, and the
two were connected to one another by a subcesophageal commissure. The water-
vascular chamber was very distinct, but the so-called heart was not observed ;
while within the body-cavity, lying close to the dorsal pore and over the canal by
which the great water-sac communicates with the external medium, was a small,
closed, rather thick-walled vesicle, containing numerous oval corpuscles, Of the
nature of this vesicle the author could not offer any opinion.
_ The cushion-like body which occupies the summit of the larva, exactly as in
Mitraria, and supports the two ocelliform yer was very distinct; and so also was
the contractile chord which extends from this to the walls of the water-sac. The
author, however, could not here, any more than in Miraria, regard the cushion-like
body as a mere thickening of the walls; he believed it to he a er and
108 REPORT—1873.
thought he could trace two fine filaments proceeding from it and running down, one
towards the right and the other towards the left side of the alimentary canal; but
he was not able to follow them for any distance, and he does not regard their
existence as confirmed. The extremely superficial situation of this body, which
makes it resemble a mere thickness of the walls, is paralleled by that of the great
ventral nerve-mass in Sagitta.
The contractile chord which runs to the water-sac is probably attached to a
capsular covering of the ganglion, rather than directly to the ganglion itself. This
chord, though showing strong contractions by which the summit of the larva is
drawn down towards the water-sac, is of a homogeneous structure, presenting no
appearance of distinct fibrille or of other contractile elements.
The author instituted a comparison between Tornaria and Mitraria. We have
“in both the external transparent pyramidal or dome-shaped body, with a lateral
oral orifice and a basal anal orifice, enclosing an alimentary canal which is divisible
into three regions, and takes a partly horizontal and partly vertical direction in its
course from one orifice to the other*; we have in both, near the base of the body,
‘the circular band which carries long vibratile cilia, accompanied by a row of pig-
ment spots, and in both the cushion-like ganglion-carrying ocelli.
From Mitraria, Tornaria chiefly differs in the presence of the thick sinuous and
convoluted bands which give it so close a resemblance to certain Echinoderm
larvee, and which are entirely absent from Mttraria, and in its water-vascular
system, with the contractile chord which extends from this to the apical ganglion.
If a water-vascular system is present in Mitraria, it consists there of a system of
sinuses excavated in the walls of the dome, but without any representative of the
great central sac, In Mitraria the great apical ganglion carries not only the two
ocelli, but also two capsules, probably auditory; these capsules do not exist in
Tornaria. In Mitraria the two nerve-chords which the apical ganglion sends down
one on each side of the alimentary canal are very distinct; in Zornaria, if they
exist at all, they are by no means obvious. Finally, the ciliary circlet is simple in
Tornaria, while in Mitraria it is double.
According to Alexander Agassiz’s account of the development of Tornaria into
Balanoglossus, the great transverse circlet of cilia becomes, by the elongation of the
body, gradually pushed backwards, so as to form the anal ciliated ring of the young
worm. In Mtraria the great ciliary circlet remains unchanged in position, and is
probably ultimately absorbed, the worm during its development acquiring a new anal
wreath of cilia,
3. Ametrangia hemispherica (nov. gen. et sp.).
Among the most abundant products of the towing-net was a little hydroid
Medusa, remarkable for the want of symmetry in the distribution of its gastro-
vascular canals, It is of a hemispherical form, with the base about half an inch in
diameter, and proyided with very numerous (more than 100) marginal tentacles,
which are very extensile, and may at one time be seen floating to a length of three
or four inches, and at another coiled into a close spiral against the margin of the
umbrella. Each tentacle originates in a bulbous base with a distinct ocellus. No
lithocysts are visible on the margin. The velum is of moderate width.
The manwprium forms a small projection from the summit of the umbrella, and
terminates in four rather indistinct lips. From the base of the manubrium three
rather wide offsets are sent off at equal intervals into the walls of the umbrella.
These gradually contract in diameter, and then, as three narrow tubes of uniform
diameter, run towards the margin, where they open into the circular canal. ‘The
symmetry of the radiating canals is confined to these three primary trunks. From
their wide proximal ends each sends off branches, some of which may be traced to
the margin, where, like the three primary canals, they enter the circular canal ; while
others can be followed for various distances in the umbrella-walls, in which they
terminate by blind extremities without ever reaching the margin. These branches
are very irregular in the number sent off from each primary canal as well as in
their length and directions.
* In the species of Mitraria described by J. Miller and by Mecznikoff, both oral and
anal orifices are basal, and the alimentary canal presents a U-shaped curvature.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 109
The generative elements are formed in oyal sporosacs, developed one on each of
the three primary canals at the spot where the wider base passes into its narrower
continuation. The ova may be seen within them in yarious stages of development ;
they increase considerably in size before the commencement of segmentation, always
showing up to that period a large and distinct germinal vesicle with germinal spot,
and with a distinct nucleolus in the interior of the germinal spot, The development
of the ovum proceeds within the sporosac to the segmentation of the vitellus and
the formation of the planula, which now breaks through the outer walls of the
sporosac and remains bor some time adhering to their external surface. The planula
differs remarkably from the typical hydroid planula. It remains of a nearly sphe-
vical form, never acquiring cilia, and possesses little or no power of locomotion.
The gastric cavity, however, is fully formed, The author was unable to follow the
ova in their further development.
The little Medusa now described departs in several important points from the
typical hydroid Medusa. From this it differs in the ternary disposition of the pri-
mary radiating canals, and in the irregular non-symmetrical arrangement of those
which are subsequently formed. Among the very many specimens examined, the
author never found any in which the canals had become regular in their disposi-
tion, even in those which had discharged the contents of their sporosacs, and had
evidently attained the term of their existence. It differs also from the typical
Medusa in the form and non-ciliated condition of the planula; and still further in
the fact that while the generative elements are borne on sporosacs, developed on
the radiating canals, the marginal bodies are ocelli and not lithocysts.
4, Circe invertens (nov. sp.).
Among the hydroid Meduse captured in the towing-net were two or three spe-
cimens of a species referable to the genus Circe of Mertens. It measures about
half an inch in its vertical diameter and about a quarter of an inch transversely. It
is cylindrical from its base upwards for about two thirds of its height, and then
contracts abruptly and arches dome-like towards the truncated summit, which is
surmounted by a solid cone of the gelatinous umbrella substance. From the
summit of the umbrella-cavity, a solid somewhat fusiform extension of the roof
hangs down in the axis of its cavity for about two thirds of its depth, and at its free
end carries the manubrium, which extends nearly to the codonostome, The margin
of the umbrella carried eighty very short and but slightly extensile tentacles, which
were connected at their bases by a yery narrow membranous extension of the
margin, ‘with rather irregular free edge. Lithocysts are situated at irregular
intervals upon the margin. There are about sixteen of them ; they consist each of
a minute spherical vesicle with a single large spherical concretion. There are no
ocelli, There is a moderately wide velum.
The radiating canals are eight in number. They spring from the base of the
manubrium, run up the sides of the solid process which hangs from the summit of
the umbrella, pass from this to the walls of the umbrella, and then run down to-
wards the margin in order to open into the circular canal. ‘
‘The generative elements are borne in pendent sporosacs, which spring from the
radiating canals close to the summit of the umbrella-cavity. :
The motion of the Medusa takes place by means of sudden jerks, reminding us of
the way in which certain Diphyide dart through the water. ’
The Medusa possesses also a very singular habit of partial inversion. This takes
lace along the line which separates the dome-like portion of the umbrella-cavity
from the lower cylindrical portion, and consists in the withdrawal of this dome-like
summit and the lower portion of the cavity. When thus inverted, the little animal
presents a drum-shaped form, with the manubrium hanging far out of the
codonostome.
Alexander Agassiz considers the genus Circe of Mertens synonymous with
Trachynema, Gegenbaur, and points out that the name of Circe has been already
used for a genus of Mollusca. He further removes it from among the true hydroid
Medusee, and, regarding it as closely allied to the 4yinide, places it along with
those in the Huplostome, Agassiz, a suborder of the Discophora.
110 REPORT—1873.
The author, however, could not see sufficient grounds for the removal of Mertens’s
genus from the true Hydroida, with which the Medusa now described agrees in all
essential points, including the form and disposition of the gastrovascular and
generative systems and the structure of the marginal lithocysts. Neither could he
agree with Alexander Agassiz in identifying it with Trachynema. The greatly
developed solid peduncle by which the manubrium in Cerce is suspended from the
summit of the umbrella-cavity (in a way, however, which has its parallel in Zima
among others), is of itself a character of generic importance by which Circe must be
kept apart from Zrachynema, It is true that Gegenbaur’s Trachynema has the
character of a young form; and until we have further evidence of its adult state its
affinities cannot be regarded as established.
Gegenbaur believes that he has established the direct development of T'rachy-
nema from the egg without the intervention of a hydriform trophosome ; but
unfortunately we have no data by which to compare in this respect Circe with
Trachynema. K ;
Tt must be admitted, too, that in the imperfect contractility of the marginal ten-
tacles and in the somewhat greater firmness of the umbrella-walls the little medusa
described in the present communication possesses characters which look towards the
A‘ginide ; but these are by no means sufficiently strong to justify its separation from
the ordinary hydroid Meduse.
5. Tomopteris.
A few young specimens of this beautiful little worm were obtained ; and the
author was enabled to confirm the statements of Grube and of Keferstein, who
describe in it a double ventral nerve-chord, though other observers have failed to
discover this part of the nervous system, and throw doubt upon its existence. In
adult specimens examined some years previously by the author no ventral chord
could be detected.
The ventral portion of the nervous system consists of two flat ribbon-shaped
chords, which are given off from the inferior side of the nerve-ring which surrounds
the pharynx just behind the mouth. These run parallel to one another, separated
by a narrow interval; they lie on the ventral walls of the animal, and may be
traced through the narrow tail-like termination of the body as far as its extremity.
They present no ganglionic swellings ; but opposite to every pair of feet each sends
off a filament which passes to the foot of its own side, in which it is distributed.
Dr. Anton Dohrn has just informed the author that he, too, has distinctly seen
the ventral chord of Tomopteris.
On the Distribution of the Antelopes in Southern and Western Asia.
By W. T. Branrorp.
On the Fauna of Persia. By W.T. Buanvorn, F.G.S., C.ILZS.
Persia being situated on the limit of the region occupied by the Palzarctic fauna,
presents in different parts of the country several peculiarities, in consequence of
types belonging to the Indian and desert faune being largely intermixed with each
other, and with those pees to the Palearctic province.
In the extreme north the animals are identical with those of the neighbouring
parts of Europe and Asia, the steppe fauna of Southern Russia being met with in
the open parts of the country ; whilst the dense forests of the shores of the Caspian
are chiefly inhabited by the same animals as occur in the woods of South-eastern
Europe and Asia Minor, mixed, however, with a few Asiatic types, as the tiger, the
common pheasant, and a crotaline snake (Halys). Throughout the greater portion
of the Persian territory the fauna is of the desert type, marked by the prevalence of
such forms as Equus hemionus, Gazella, Gerbillus, Buteo ferox, Gyps fulvus, Buca-
netes githagineus, Pterocles, and Houbara, Eremias, Psammophis, Eryx, &c. ; whilstin
the south the purely Paleearctic forms either disappear entirely, or are represented by
winter migrants only, and several Indian forms make their appearance, e. g. Gazella
YRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. lll
bennett, Sciurus palmarum, Athene brama, Coracias indica, Pratincola caprata,
Passer (Gymnoris) flavicollis, P. indicus, Ortygornis pondiceriana, Acanthodactylus
cantoris, and Calotes versicolor. Several of these extend as far west as the head of
the Persian Gulf, but they rarely occur above elevations of 3000 feet above the sea.
With the above are associated some animals hitherto only found in Baluchistan and
Sind, and a few forms previously only known from North-eastern Africa or Arabia,
The whole of Persia may thus be divided into three principal regions,—the forest
countries of Ghilan and Mazendaran on the Caspian, and Be the wooded slopes
on the eastern border of Mesopotamia, extending south to the neighbourhood of Shi-
rz, the fauna of which is essentially European; the plateau of Persia, which is
occupied by a mixture of Palwarctic and desert forms ; and Southern Persia with
Baluchistan, inhabited chiefly by Indian and desert types.
Some Remarks on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean,
By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, /.R.S.
After noticing the numerous writers on this subject, from Aristotle to modern
authors, Mr. Jeffreys remarked that the Mediterranean had long been debatable
ground with respect to the division of the European seas into zoological pro-
vinces. He referred to ‘ The Natural History of the European Seas,’ by the late
Professor Edward Forbes and Mr. Godwin-Austen, and said that he agreed with
the latter in his view that the Mediterranean is “a vast lateral expansion
of the Atlantic,” and not only in its physical aspects, but in most of its
natural-history productions; and he believed that the missing links would sooner
or later be discovered. The newest and most complete list of the Testaceous
Mollusca of the Mediterranean is that by the Marquis de Monterosato, which
gives 758 species. Mr. Jeffreys proposed to deduct 31 of these species for probable
varieties, and to add 39 species from the ‘ Porcupine’ and ‘Shearwater’ expe-
ditions, making altogether 766 Testaceous or shell-bearing species. The Nudi-
branchs and other naked or shell-less Mollusca described by Philippi (33 species),
as well as the Cephalopoda described and figured by Verany (43 species), being
added to the Testaceous species, there results a total number of 842 Mediterranean
species. Of these no less than 622 species inhabit also the North Atlantic, so that
only 222 species are at present supposed to be peculiar to the Mediterranean.
Lists of the 39 and 222 species are subjoined; and the author fully expected that
most if not all of those in the latter category would be hereafter found in the
North Atlantic, According to the author’s work on ‘ British Conchology,’ there
are 562 species in our own seas, exclusive of those dredged beyond the line of
soundings in the ‘ Lightning’ and ‘ Porcupine’ expeditions. One of the most
interesting results of the ‘ Porcupine’ expeditions consisted in the discovery at
considerable depths of living species of Mollusca which had been previously known
as fossils only and were regarded as extinct. Many of these species occur in the newer
Tertiary beds of Sicily, and a list of them is likewise subjoined. The author said
in conclusion :—“ We all profess to study the great book of Nature. But before we
study we must be able to read; and who can say that he has read a single page,
much less a whole chapter, of this mysterious volume? The sole knowledge we
possess of the decence Motives of the Mediterranean (those which inhabit depths
exceeding 500 fathoms) is derived from a few casts of the dredge mace in the
é Porcupine’ expedition of 1870. The space thus partially explored was not much
larger than this room, while the area of the Mediterranean contains many hundred
thousands of square miles. Let us therefore compare the extent of our researches
in this small nook or offset of the Atlantic with that of the work yet to be under-
taken throughout the almost boundless area of the mighty ocean ; and having made
the comparison let us reflect, and then humbly confess our ignorance.”
In replying to questions, Mr. Jeffreys said that the Suez Canal might hereafter
lead to an interchange of the Mollusca; but he was not satisfied that more than
oe ene (Ringicula auriculata) was common to the Mediterranean and the
Red Sea.
a
112 ; REPORT—18783.
Additions to the Marquis de Monterosato’s Catalgue of Mediterranean Shells.
From the ‘ Porcupine’ and ‘Shearwater’ expeditions.
CoNCHIFERA.
P. Pleuronectia levis, Jetfr. MS. A single valve only. Off Rasel Amoush, coast
of Tunis, 45 fathoms. ; 5
P. Mytilus incurvatus, Philippi (Modiola), Station 56a; 152f. Fossil at Piagga
in Sicily.
P. Nucula tumidula, Malm. St. 55; 1456 f. Atlantic also.
P. conveca, Jeflr. MS. 40-1456 f. Allied to. tenzis, but more convex and
square, with a straight cartilage-pit.
P. Solenella cuneata, Jettr. MS. St. 51; 1415 f. Very distinct from S. obtusa,
Sars.
P. Leda lucida, Lovén. St.55; 1456 f. Atlantic.
16 oblonga, Jeffry. MS. St, 55; 1456 f.
PR. subrotunda, Jefir. MS. St. 55; 1456 f.
P. Limopsis aurita, Brocchi. Adventure Bank, 92 f. Atlantic also.
N.B
Gouldia bipartita of Monterosato’s Catalogue has a conspicuous
external ligament, and is a true Astarte.
Specimens of Astarte triangularis, of the same size and apparently of the
same age, have the inside of the margin indifferently notched or quite
smooth; some are notched, while others twice the size are smooth, All
these specimens were dredged in the same spot.
S. Cardita incurva, Jeffr. MS. Fossil in Sicily (Monterosato) !
P. Lyonsia formosa, Jeffr, MS. St.55; 1456f. Atlantic also.
P, Neera obesa, Loy. St. 55; 1456 f.: Adventure Bank, 92 f. Atlantic also,
from Norway to the coast of Portugal.
P. Pecchiolia insculpta, Jefir. MS. Off Jijeli, 40-80 f.
P. Pholadomya Loveni, Jeffry, MS. St. 55; 1456 f. A fragment only, but
unmistakable, Atlantic also.
SOLENOCONCHIA,
P, Dentalium incertum, Ph., =D, agile, Sars, Adventure Bank, 92f, Atlantic also,
GASTROPODA,
. Tectura fulva, Miiller. Atlantic also.
. Propilidium scabrum, Jefir. MS, Adventure Bank, 92 f. Resembling the
young of Gadinia Garnoti, but having the internal septum of Propilidium.
. Trochus aerate Eichwald, = 7. ditropis, 8. Wood. Off Algesiras, 1-16 f.:
St. 50; Sif,
—— suturalis, Ph. St. 45; 207f.: off Rasel Amoush, 45 f. Atlantic also,
scabrosus, Jeflr. MS. St. 55; 1456 f.
Turbo Romettensis, Seguenza, MS. St.45; 207 f.
Rissoa subsoluta, Avadas. St, 50; 61f.: St.55; 1456 f. Adventure Bank, 92 f.
Atlantic also.
Cont analy Jeffry, MS, St.53; 112f.; Adventure Bank, 92f. Atlantic
also.
Odostomia flexuosa, Jefir. MS. St.50; 51 f.: St.55; 1456f. Adventure Bank,
92f. Atlantic also.
pulchra, Jeflr, MS., =O. canaliculata, Ph.? Adventure Bank, 92 f,
Tagh i ice acutecostata, Jeflr, MS, St. 45; 207f.: off Rasel Amoush,
hn Wm
Ae
—— (Chemmitzia) paucistriata, Jeffr. MS. Benzert Road, 40-65 f. Atlantic also.
» —— (Lulimella) prelonga, Jetty. MS, St. 50; 51f.: St. 55; 1450 f, Adven-
ture Bank, 92f. Atlantic also,
—— (Lulimella) unifasciata, Jeffr. MS., P = Lulima unifasciata, Forbes. Adyen-
ture Bank, 92 f.
Triforis aspera, Jeffry. MS, Adventure Bank, 92f. Atlantic also,
WHR WH OW
.
CEs sag
Wi ow oY
~
Fe eg rgieg
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1138
. Cerithiopsis horrida, Jeffry, MS. Off Rasel Amoush, 45f. Smyrna also
(M‘Andrew) !
. —— fibula, Jettr, MS. St. 45; 207 f.: Benzert Road, 40-65 f: off Rasel
Amoush, 45 f,: Adventure Bank, 92f. Canaries also (M‘Andrew) !
Defrancia tenera, Jeflr. MS. Off Rasel Amoush, 46 f. ‘
gibbera, Jefir. MS. St. 50; 51 f.: Adventure Bank, 92 f.
. Pleurotoma nodulosa, Jeffry. MS. St. 55; 1456 f.
Utriculus striatulus, Jetty, MS. St. 45; 207 f.
. Acteon globulinus, Forb. Adventure Bank, 92f. Aigean (Forbes), Atlantic also,
. Bulla subrotunda, Seffr. MS. Off Jijeli, 40-80 f. Atlantic also.
. Philine flecuosa, Sars, St. 45; 207f, Norwegian also,
39 species,
Mediterranean Species which have not yet been noticed as Atlantic,
M. Monterosato’s catalogue. P, ‘Porcupine’ expedition.
S, ‘Shearwater’ expedition.
BRACHIOPODA. M. Chiton rubicundus, O. G, Costa,
M. Argiope cordata, Risso, M ieee Pie ie mH
=N. Neapolitana, Scacchi. a we eh
M. Thecidinm Mediterraneum, Risso 4 ssa eg
aoe = Pie Xs : M. Patella ferruginea, Gmelin.
reg P. Propilidium scabrum, Jeff. MS.
Se See: M. Tinareanatl Adriatica, é G, Costa,
M. Pecten hyalinus, Poli. M. Huzardi, Payr.
P. Pleuronectia levis, Jeff. MS. M. solidula, O. G. Costa.
M. Pinna nobilis, Zinn. M. Fissurella costaria, Basterot.
M. Mytilus minimus, Pol. M. Schismope striatula, Ph.
ip. incurvatus, Dh. M. Cyclostrema exilissimum, Ph.
M. Lithodomus lithophagus, L. M. —— Jeflreysi, Monter. MS.
M. Crenella arenaria, Martin, MS. M. Trochus fanulum, Gm.
P. Nutula convexa, Jeffr. MS, M. —— Guttadauri, Ph.
P. Leda oblonga, Jeff. MS. M. Adansoni, Payr.
lid subrotunda, Jeffr. MS. M. —— Spratti, Forbes.
P. Solenella cuneata, Jeffr. MS. M. —— pyemeeus, Ph.
M. Montacuta semirubra, Donterosato. M. —— divaricatus, Z.
M. Scacchia ovata, Ph. M. —— unidentatus, Ph.
S. Cardita incurva, Jeff. ILS, P. biangulatus, Eich.
M. Cardium hians, Procchi. 1 seabrosus, Jeffr. MS.
M. —— erinaceus, L. M. Clanculus cruciatus,Z., =Monodonta
M oblongum, Chemnitz. _ Vieilloti, Pay.
M. Crassatella planata, Calcara, M. —— glomus, PA.
=Gouldia modesta, H, Adams, M. Jussieu, Payr.
M. Venus cygnus, Lamarck, M. Phasianella speciosa, Miihifeld.
M. eflossa, Bivona, M. Turbo sanguineus, LZ,
M. Tellina nitida, Poli. P. —— Romettensis, Sey. ALS.
M. Venerupis Lajonkairi, Payraudeau, MM. Fossarus costatus, Bre.
P. Pecchiolia insculpta, Jeff. MS. M. Ervilia Mediterranea, Monier,
M. Clavagella Melitensis, Broderip, M. Rissoa auriscalpium, LZ,
M. angulata, Ph. M, —— cingulata, Ph.
M, Teredo minima, De Blainville, M, —— Lancie, Cale., =R.Philippiana,
Jeffr., =Alvania tessellata,
SoLENOCONCHIA. x Schwart.
. .— Caribea, D’Orbigny, = Al-
M. Dentalium rubescens, Deshayes, . y gy;
MG ails ovultn, PA. y yania subareolata, Monter,
’ - -—— aspera, Ph,
: é . — scabra, Ph,
GASTROPODA, M, —— mutabilis, Schw., = Canariensis,
M. Chiton olivaceus, Spengler, =C, Si- D’ Orb?
culus, Gray, M. —— tenera, Ph,
114
M.
M.
Rissoa rudis, Ph.
M. —— Maderensis, Jeffr. MS.
. — fusca, Ph.
contorta, Jeff.
. Jeffreysia inflata, Jeff. MS.
-Alleryana, Benoit, MS.
. — cylindrica, Jeffr.
. Ceecum Chiereghinianum, Brusina.
. Vermetus arenarius,
triqueter, Biv.
. —— glomeratus, Biv.
subcancellatus, Biv.
. Siliquaria anguina, L.
. Turritella subangulata, Bre.
. Scalaria Cantrainei, Weinkauff,
=S. muricata, Tiberi.
. —— frondicula, S. Wood.
hispidula, Monter. ILS.
pulcherrima, Monter. MS.
Monterosati, De Stefanis, MS.
. Odostomia polita, Liv., =Odonto-
stoma Sicula, Ph.
vitrea, Brus., =O. negiecta, Tib.,
=O. elegans, Monter.
. ——canaliculata, Ph., =O. interme-
dia, Brus.
obliquata, Ph.
. — tricincta, Jeff.
. —— internodula, S. Wood.
striatula,Z., =O.varicosa, Ford.,
=O. pallida, Ph.
. —— unifasciata (Eulima), Ford.
acutecostata, Jeffr. MS.
. Eulima microstoma, Brus.
Jeffreysiana, Brus.
. Natica Dillwynii, Payr.
marmorata, H. Adams.
. — Guillemini, Payr.
. —— Josephinia, Rzsso, =N. olla (De
Serres), Ph.
. Solarium pseudoperspectivum, Bre.,
=S. discus, Ph.
. Gyriscus Jeffreysianus, 7%.
Architea catenulata, 4. Costa, =Cy-
clostoma delicatum, Ph. ?
. Xenophora Mediterranea, 7%.
. Sigaretus striatus, De Serv., =S. ha-
liotoideus, Ph.
. Cancellaria coronata, Sc.
. Cerithium conicum, De Bl, =C. Sar-
doum and C, Peloritanum, Can-
traine.
costatum, Da Costa, =C. am-
biguum, C. B. Adams, =C. La-
fondi, Michaud.
Pe cua De Bi., =C. lacteum,
h.
. Cerithiopsis horrida, Jeffr. IS.
. Triton Seguenzze, Aradas & Benoit,
=T. variegatus, Ph,
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
REPORT—1873.
Ranella reticulata, De Bi, =R. lan<
ceolata, Ph.
Typhis tetrapterus, Bronn.
Trophon pulchellus, Ph.
—— Syracusanus, LZ.
— craticulatus, Z., =T. Brocchii,
Monter.
Murex scalaroides, De Bl., =M. di-
stinctus (De Cristofori § Jan),
Ph
. Lachesis granulata, 77%,
lineolata, 7d.
Folineze (Delle Chiaje), Ph., =
L. areolata, Tb.
. Pisania picta, Se., = Buccinum Scac-
chianum, Ph.
leucozona, Ph.
. Cassidaria echinophora, Z.
- Doliopsis Cresseana, Monter.
. Nassa gibbosula, Z.
.-— granum, Lam. (Buccinum
erana).
. Columbella columbellaria, Se., =C.
Greci, Ph.
. Defrancia tenera, Jeffr. IS.
gibbera, Jeffr. ALS.
? hystrix (Jun), Bellard.
. Pleurotoma clathrata, De Serr, =
P. rude and P. granum, Ph.
multilineolata, Deshayes.
pusilla, Se,, =P. multilineolata,
var, P .
. —— teeniata, Desh.
— Kieneri, Maravigna, =P. pli-
cata, Ph., =RaphitomaPhilippii,
Weinkauff.
nodulosa, Jeffr. MS.
. Mitra zonata, Marryat, =M. Santan-
geli, Maravigna. ’
Mitra tricolor, Gmelin, =M.Savignyi,
Payr., =M. granum, orb.
Cyprea physis, Bre,
. Ovula carnea, Gm.
. —— Adriatica, G. B. Sowerby.
. Cylichna Jeffreysi, Weink.
. Utriculus striatulus, Jeffr. IS.
. Akera fragilis, Jeffr.
. Scaphander turgidulus, Forb., = Bulla
diaphana, Aradas, =8, gibbulus,
Jeffr.
. Philine vestita, Ph.
. Smaragdinella Algiree (Hanley),
M.
M.
M.
Weink.
Doridium Meckelii, Delle Ch.
coriaceum, Meckel, =P. aply-
sizforme, D. Ch.
Oxynoe olivacea, Rajinesque, = Bulla
Gargotte, Cale, =Lophocercus
Sieboldi, Krohn, =IcarusGravesi,
Forb,
ae
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIGNS. 115
M. Lobiger Serradifalci, Cale., =L, Phi- PTEROPODA.
lippii Krohn. : ae as:
M. Aplysia longicornis, Rang. i Capnbulis ee ee a ;
y virescens, Risso, =A. unguifera ~~ COR Sopher
and A. petalifera, Rang.
M. Umbrella Mediterranea, Zam. CEPHALOPODA.
M. Tylodina Rafinesquii, Ph, M. Argonauta Argo, L.
M. Gadinia Garnoti, Puyr. i
M. Melampus Firminii, Payr. 162 species.
To these may be added the following Nudibranchs and other shell-less Mollusca
which are not in Monterosato’s Catalog ue.
Ph, Philippi’s work on the Mollusca of the Two Sicilies.
Ph. Eolis limacina, Ph. Ph. Doris luteo-rosea, Rapp.
Ph. Scacchiana, Ph. Ph. verrucosa, LZ.
Ph. —— peregrina, Gm. Ph. elegans, Cantr.
Ph minima, Forski. Ph. —— Villafrancana, Risso.
Ph. Tritonia quadrilatera, Schultz. Ph. cerulea, Risso.
h. Tethys leporina, Z. Ph. —— Rappi, Centr.
Ph, Idalia crocea, Ph. Ph. pustulosa, Canty.
Phi ramosa, Canty. Ph. Gasteropteron Meckelii, Kosse.
Ph cirrigera, Ph. Ph. Diphyllidia lineata, Otto.
Ph. Doris Argo, lis Bh: pustulosa, Sc.
Ph. pseudo- argus, Rapp. Ph. Notarchus punctatus, DP.
Ph, —— limbata, Cuv. Ph. Elysia fusca, PA.
Ph tomentosa, Cuv. Ph. Neapolitana, D. Ch.
Ph albescens, Sch.
92
Ph, —— elegantula, Ph. 28 species.
And the following Cephalopods, which are also wanting in Monterosato’s
Catalogue.
V. Verany’s Mollusques Méditerranéens. le Partie, Céphalopodes.
Defillippii, Ver. ies
— Koellikerii, Ver. Totaly. a: « .. 222 species,
V. Eledone Aldrovandi, De Ch. V. Octopus macropus, Rrsso.
V. moschata, Leach. V. Salutii, Ver.
V. Histioteuthis Bonelliana, D’ Ord. Vv tetracirrhus, D. Ch.
V. Ruppelli, Ver. V. violaceus, D. Ch, (besides ten
V. Loligo Alessandrinii, Ver. doubtful species of Octopus).
Vi - gequipoda, Rapp. V. Onychoteuthis Lichtensteinii, Fér.
V. Berthelotit, Ver. V. Krohnii, Ver.
We Bianconi, Ver. V. —— margaritifera, Rapp.
V. —— Coindetii, Ver. V. —— Owenii, Ver.
V. —— Marmore, Ver. V. —— Veranyi, Rapp.
V. — Meneghinii, Ver. © V. sicula, Ar.
Ne Pille, Ver. V. Rossia dispar, Rapp.
V. Loligopsis Veranyi, Férussac. V. ee ge Rapp.
V. -— vermicularis, Kapp. 2 species.
V. gigana, Ver.
V. Octopus Alderii, Ver. Testaceous ........ 162
V. catenulatus, Fér. Nudibranchs ...... 28
V. —— Carena, Ver. Cephalopods ...... 382
Ve
Mis
116 REPORT—1873.
Fossil in Sicily and lately found by me living in the North Atlantic,
P. ‘Porcupine’ expeditions.
P. Terebratula sphenoidea, Ph. P. Trochus gemmulatus, Ph.
P. —— septata, Ph. P. —— reticulatus, Ph. (Solarium).
P. Rhynchonella Sicula, Sey. MS. P. Gen, ined. (fam. Trochidz) monocin-
P. Leda acuminata, Jeffr.. =L. Messa- gulatus, Seg. (Trochus).
nensis, Seg. ILS. P. Turbo glabratus, Ph. (Trochus), and
P. pusio, Ph. var., =Trochus filosus, Ph.
P. Limopsis minuta, Ph. (Pectunculus). P. Trachysma delicatum, Ph. (Cyclo-
P. Pecchiolia acutecostata, Ph. (Hip- stoma), =Architea catenulata,
pagus). «4. Costa?
P, eranulata, Seg. (Verticordia). P. Rissoa subsoluta, Ar.
P. Dentalium incertum, Ph. P. Odostomia plicatula, Bre. (Turbo),
P. Siphonodentalium, sp. zed. P. Solarium moniliferum, Bronn.
P. Fissurisepta papillosa, Seg. P. Mitra Marini, Lebass?.
iP; rostrata, Seq. BP: obesa, Foresti (not of Reeve),
P, Trochus minimus, Seg. MS. (Marga- P. Pedicularia Deshayesiana, Seg.
rita). 26 species,
P. —— Ottoi, Ph.
Pp suturalis, Ph.
On a Peach-colowred Bacterium. By KE. Ray Lanxester, MA.
Imbryological Observations bearing on the Genealogy of the Mollusca.
By HK, Ray Lanxusrrr, J.A.
On Birds obserucd in the West Riding of Yorkshire in former and recent years.
By T. Lister, Barnsley.
The numbers observed are given, and a few of the rarest are placed in connexion
with each family,
Order I. Raprores.
Family. Species. Rarest.
Falconidie, 15 Osprey, Peregrine Falcon, Kite, Red-footed Falcon, Hen
Harrier, Montagu’s Harrier, Goshawk, Common Buzzard,
Rough-legged Buzzard, Honey Buzzard, Marsh Har-
rier, Swallow-tailed Kite.
Strigidee. 8 Eagle Owl, Snowy Owl, Scops Eared Owl, American Mottled
Owl.
Order II, INsESSoREsS.
Laniide. 3 Red-backed Shrike, Woodchat,
Muscicapidee. 2 Pied Flycatcher (local).
Cinclide. 1
Turdide. 6
Sylviidee. 20 ~=Black Redstart, Firecrest, Reed Warbler, Nightingale (the
last sweet warbler in South Yorkshire yearly ; instances
as far north as York and Ripon),
Troglodytide. 1
Certhiide, 1
Sittidee, 1
Paride. 7 Crested Tit, Bearded Tit.
Ampelide. 1 Bohemian Waxwing (1873, and former instances).
Motacillide. 3
Family.
Anthide.
Alaudidee.
Emberizide.
Fringillidie.
Loxiide.
Sturnide.
Corvidee.
Picide.
Upupide.
Cuculida.
Alcedinidx,
Meropide.
Coraciide.
Hirundinide.
Cypselidee.
Caprimulgide.
Columbide.
Phasianid,
Tetraonidx,
Otididee.
Charadriids.
Scolopacidie.
Plataleide.
Ciconiide.
Ardeidee.
Rallidee.
Matias,
Colymbide.
Podicipide.
Alcide,
Pelecanidse,
Laride.
Procellaride,
Species.
=
A Ome Ole ROO eh OO LO bY OT NO bo
=
© Rr Nore
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 117
Rarest.
Snow-Bunting (in severe winters), Cirl Bunting (rare).
Siskin, Twite (in winter, from the Moorland Hills).
Crossbill (many instances).
Rose-coloured Pastor (several instances).
Raven (nearly extinct), Chough.
Black Woodpecker, Barred Woodpecker.
Hoopoe (near Barnsley, 1847; instances from other parts of
the Riding).
Bee-eater (1849).
Roller (several instances).
Order IIT. Rasones.
Turtledove (rare), Stockdove (local).
Black Grouse (a few naturalized), Red-legged Partridge.
Order IV. GRALLATORES.
Little Bustard (rare instance).
Cream-coloured Courser (2 or 3 instances), Dotterel, Oyster-
catcher, Turnstone.
Greenshank, Redshank, Little Stint, Grey Phalarope, Black
and Bar-tailed Godwit, Curlew, Whimbrel, Curlew Sand-
piper, Knot, Purple Sandpiper, Avocet, Wood Sandpiper,
Reeve (female of Ruff, near Barnsley, 1872). The last four
very rare instances, the rest occurring occasionally,
Spoonbill (supposed escape).
White Stork (3 or 4 instances).
Squacco Heron, Little Egret, Great and Little Bittern,
Purple Heron (the last three in recent years).
Spotted Crake, Little Crake (rare instance, recently).
Order V. NATATOREs,
Hooper (flocks, winter 1871-72), Garganey, Harlequin Duck,
Gadwall, Long-tailed Duck, Pink-footed Goose, Velvet and
Common Scoter (both as recently as winter of 1872-78),
All 5 Divers in recent years.
All the Grebes in recent years.
Puflin, Little Auk (caught near Barnsley, 1854, in my pos-
session ; many instances in West Riding).
Gannet, Cormorant.
Sandwich Tern, Roseate Tern, Glaucous Gull, Greater Shear-
water, Richardson’s Skua, Pomerine Skua.
Fork-tailed Petrel, Bulwer’s Petrel, Stormy Petrel (one
brought to me picked up in Barnsley, 1846; instances in
other parts of the West Riding).
This brief summary of birds observed in West and South Yorkshire is drawn up
from personal observation of myself and members of the West-Riding Naturalist
Societies, and the ‘Monthly Recorder,’ the organ of their communications. Many
species are recorded on the authority of our late neighbour, Charles Waterton of
Walton Hall, whose protection of all birds gaye him superior opportunities of
118 REPORT—1878.
studying them; their tameness in the absence of firearms brought them readilywithin
the range of the eye or-telescope. A list prepared in 1844 by Dr. Farrar, late of
Bradford, formerly of Barnsley, was placed in my hands, also an account of York-
shire birds, drawn up in the same year by Thomas Allis, of York, including notices
from Hugh Reid, Bird-stuffer, Doncaster ; Henry Denny, late Curator of the Philo-
sophical Hall, Leeds; William Eddison, Huddersfield ; John Heppenstall (father
and son), of Sheffield; A.H. Strickland; R. Leyland, Halifax ; 8. Gibson, Hebden
Bridge; and the Rey. F. O. Morris, who has observed in all the three Ridings of
York. The Rey. F. O. Morris and T. Allis are the only survivors of these pains- _
taking naturalists. From the above sources of information we may get an idea of
the birds noticed in the West Riding within the recollection of living observers
and in present times.
‘We may form an estimate of them thus. Taking the ‘ Zoologist’s’ List, compiled
from Yarrell, of resident birds, migrants, and occasional visitants—out of 29 raptorial
birds on that list, we have had 25 recorded; of 135 insessorial birds, 91; of 18 raso-
rial birds, 10 have been recorded: thus of 177 generally designated Land Birds, we
have had 124; of 64 grallatorial birds, 43; of 90 natatorial birds, 57 have been re-
corded: thus of 154 wading or swimming birds we have a total of 100.
Another mode of showing the comparative numbers strikes us. Take the List in
Mr. Harting’s excellent ‘Ornithological Handbook of Residents and Migrants,’
separated by him from the List of rare and accidental visitors to Great Britain,
The species there enumerated are :—of raptorial birds 20, of insessorial 105, of raso-
rial 12, of grallatorial 64, of natatorial 90—making totals of land birds 187, of
water birds 124, totals of both divisions 261. Here is shown a greater proportion
for the West Riding, 224 (including a few on the List of rare or accidental visitors)
having been recorded out of the 261 considered as British birds. This is a large
number considering the wanton extermination to which many of the feathered
tribes are doomed. It shows the capabilities this Riding possesses to gratify the
field ornithologist, which would be greatly increased if half the care were taken in
preserving our persecuted birds, after the manner of Waterton and other landowners
following to some extent in his steps, as there is excess of zeal manifested to capture
or destroy every rare bird that visits or resides within the limits of this extensive
Riding. Our county presents great variety in physical formation, from the Pennine
rance of Mountain-limestone and Millstone-grit west, over the Coal-formation with
undulating slopes, valleys, streams, canals, pools, fine woodlands, and noble parks,
over the Magnesian limestone to the Lias, Oolite, and Chalk clifis of the Hast and
North Riding, which (though not within the limits to which this paper is confined)
afford suitable breeding-haunts and places of resort to many birds hich frequently
favour the inland parts of Yorkshire with their presence,
On a new Insect belonging to the Family Ephemeride, with Notes on the
Natural History of that Family. By R. MacLacutan, F.LS.
The author gaye an account of a new species of the family recently received from
Canterbury, New Zealand, remarkable for its abdomen, which was very robust, and
the seventh to the ninth segments had broad, horny, acute, wing-like expansions
on each side, so that this part of the body resembled that of some Myriopod or
Crustacean. He proposed for it the name Oniseigaster Wakefieldi, after its captor,
Mr. C. M. Wakefield. Although the earlier stages were unknown, he considered
it probable that the abdominal formation was reproduced in the imago; and hence
the latter might be looked upon as a degraded form. A somewhat analogous ab-
dominal structure was to be seen in the immature condition of the American
Betisea obesa, as demonstrated by Walsh, though this latter possessed an enormous
thoracic development, forming a carapace under which the rudimentary wings were
concealed. And in connexion with this, the author alluded to the so-called
erustaceous genus Prosopistoma of Latreille, which the French entomologists
MM. Joly, father and son, had recently asserted, with much appearance of truth,
is the immature condition of an insect of this group, they having found decided
indications of tracheal respiration in it.
i i
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 119
ANATOMY AND Puysronoay.
Address to the Department of Anatomy and Physiology.
By Professor RurnErrorp, /.R.S.2.
In addressing you upon the subjects of anatomy and physiology, I would invite
your attention to some of the features which characterize these departments of
biology at this present time, and to some recent advances in physiology, the con-
sideration of which you will find to be possessed of deep interest and importance.
State of Anatomy.
Anatomy, dealing as it does merely with the structure of living things, is a far
simpler subject than physiology, whose province it is to ascertain and explain their
actions. It was not a difficult thing to handle such instruments as a knife and
forceps, and with their aid to ascertain the coarser structure of the body. Accord-
ingly, the naked-eye anatomy of man has been fully investigated ; and although the
same cannot be said of that of many of the lower animals, it is nevertheless, as far
as this kind of inquiry is concerned, a mere question of time as regards its comple-
tion. But minute or microscopic anatomy is in a different position. Requiring, as
it does, the microscope for its pursuit, it could not make satisfactory progress until
this instrument had been brought to some degree of perfection. Doubtless much
advantage is still to be derived from improvements in the construction of this
instrument; but probably most of the future advances in our knowledge of the
structure of the tissues and organs of the body may be expected to result from the
application of new methods of preparing the tissues for examination with such
microscopes as we now have at our disposal. This expectation naturally arises from
what has been accomplished in this direction during the last fifteen years. For
example, what valuable information has been gained regarding the structure of
such soft tissues as the brain and spinal cord by hardening them with such an agent
as chromic acid, in order that these tissues may be cut into thin slices for micro-
scopical study. How greatly has the employment of such pigments as carmine,
aniline, and logwood facilitated the microscopical recognition of certain elements of
the tissues. Whata deal we have learned regarding the structure of the capil-
laries and the origin of ag en eae by the effect which nitrate of silver has of
rendering distinctly visible the outlines of epithelial cells. What signal service
chloride of gold has rendered in tracing the distribution of nerves by the property
which it possesses of staining nerve-fibrils, and thereby greatly facilitating their
recognition amidst the textures. Moreover of what value osmic acid has been in
enabling us to study the structure of the retina. In the hands of Lockhart Clarke,
Recklinghausen, Cohnheim, Schultze, and others, these agents have furnished us
with information of infinite value; and those who would advance microscopical
anatomy may do so most rapidly by working in the directions indicated by these
investigators. In human microscopical anatomy, indeed, there only remain for
investigation things which are profoundly difficult—such as, for example, the struec-
ture of the brain, the peripheral terminations of nerves, the development of nerve-
tissue, and other subjects equally recondite. But in the field of comparative
anatomy there is far greater scope for the histological investigator. He has only
to avail himself of those reagents and methods which have recently proved so useful
in the microscopical anatomy of the vertebrates; he has only to apply those more
fully than has yet been done to the invertebrates, and he will scarcely fail to make
discoveries. For the lover of microscopical research there is, moreover, a wide field
of inquiry in the study of comparative embryoloey—that is to say, in the study of
the development of the lower animals. Since it has become clear that a knowledge
of the precise relations of living things one to another can only be arrived at by
watching the changes through which they pass in the course of their development,
research has been vigorously turned in this direction; and although an immense
mass of facts has long since been accumulated regarding this question, Parker’s
brilliant researches on the development of the skull give an indication of the great
things which we may yet anticipate from this kind of research, Speaking of micro-
120 REPORT—1873.
scopical study before this audience, I cannot but remember that in this country
more than in any other we have a number of learned gentlemen who, as amateurs,
eagerly pursue investigations in this department. I confess that I am always sorry
to witness the enthusiastic perseverance with which they apply themselves to the
prolonged study of markings upon diatoms, important though these be in many
respects, seeing that they might direct their efforts to subjects which would repay
them for their labours far more gratefully. I would venture to suggest to such
workers that it is now more than ever necessary to abandon all aims at haphazard
discoveries, and to approach microscopy by the only legitimate method, of under-
oing a thorough preliminary training in the various methods of microscopical
investigation by competent teachers, of whom there are now plenty throughout the
country.
State of Physiology.
With regard to physiology, the present standpoint is not so high as in the case
of anatomy. Physiology, resting as it does upon a tripod consisting of anatomy,
physics or mechanics, and chemistry, is many-sided. The most minute anatomy,
the most recondite physics, and the most complex chemistry have all to be taken
into account in the study of the physiology of living things; so that it is not sur-
prising that it should, in its development, lag behind the comparatively elementary
subject anatomy. Until not so very long ago anatomy and physiology were, in
most of our medical schools, taught by the same professor, who, although professing
to teach both subjects, was generally more of an anatomist than a physiologist.
This arrangement gave to physiology a bias which was eminently anatomical; and
this bias continued in many quarters, notwithstanding the separation of the physio-
logical from the anatomical tuition, I am aware that there are still some distin-
guished anatomists who intermingle physiological with anatomical teaching. Iam
not questioning the usefulness of the practice when carried to a moderate extent.
I wish merely to point out what appears to me to have been a result of the practice,
and I believe that the result was to give to physiology an anatomical tendency. It
was natural for the anatomist who dealt with visible structure to constantly refer
to this in explaining physiological action or function, The physiologist with the
anatomical tendency always tried to explain a difference in the action or function
of a part by a difference in its evident structure ; and when his microscope failed to
show any structural difference between the cells which form saliva and those which
produce pancreatic fluid, between the egg of a rabbit and that of a dog, he, bafiled
on the side of anatomy, was too ready to adopt the conclusion that, inasmuch as the
microscope reveals no difference in the structure, there is really no structural differ-
ence between them, and that the only way in which the difference in action can he
explained is by having recourse to the old hypothesis, that the metamorphoses of
matter and the actions of force are in the living world regulated by a metaphysical
entity termed a vital principle, and that dissimilar actions by similarly constructed
arts are only to be explained by referring them to the operations of this principle.
After alluding further to the hypothesis of the vital principle and its supposed
actions, and after stating that he did not follow the teaching of those who still
adhere to this doctrine, the author said that, viewed from the physical side, there
appears to be no reason for supposing that two particles of protoplasm, which pos-
sess a similar microscopic structure, must act in the same way; for the physicist
knows that molecular structure and action are beyond the ken of the microscopist,
and that within apparently homogeneous jelly-like particles of protoplasm there
may be differences of molecular composition and arrangement which determine
widely different properties. |
A great change is now taking place in physiological tuition in this country—a
superabundance of physiological anatomy and an almost entire absence of experi-
ment are no longer its characteristic features. The study of physics, too much
neglected, is happily now being more and more regarded as important in the pre-
liminary training of the physiologist as the study of anatomy and of chemistry ;
and I trust that the day is not far distant when in our medical schools the thorough
education of our students in mathematics and physics will be insisted upon as abso-
lutely essential elements in their preliminary education, Until this is done phy-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 121
siology will not advance in this country so rapidly as we could wish. I would not
in this place have alluded to a question concerning medical education, but for the
fact that the progress of physiology will always greatly depend upon the education
of medical men; for only those who are conversant with physics and chemistry, and
who, in addition, are acquainted with the phenomena of disease (that is to say with
abnormal physiological conditions) can handle physiology in all its branches. Phy-
siology owes not a little to a study of pathology—that is, of abnormal physiological
states. The study of a diseased condition has on several occasions given a clue to
the discovery of the function of an organ. Nothing was known regarding the
function of the spleen until the pathologist observed that an increase in the number
of white corpuscles in the blood is commonly associated with an enlargement of
this organ. eds arose the now accepted doctrine that the spleen is concerned in
the formation of blood-corpuscles. The key to our knowledge of the functions of
certain parts of the brain has also been supplied by a study of the diseased condi-
tions of that organ. The very singular fact that the right side of the body is
governed by the left, and not by the right, side of the brain, was ascertained by
observing that palsy of the right side of the body is associated with certain diseased
conditions of the left side of the brain; that the corpus striatum is concerned in
motion, while the optic thalamus is concerned in sensation, and that intellectual
operations are manifested specially through the cerebral hemispheres, are conclusions
which were indicated by the study of diseased conditions. Moreover, by the pur-
suit of the same line of inquiry, the key has been given to the discovery of many
other facts regarding the brain functions. Some years ago M. Broca made the
remarkable observation that, when a certain portion in the front part of the left
side of the brain becomes disorganized by disease, the person loses the power of
expressing his thoughts by words, either spoken or written. He can comprehend
what is said to him, his organs of articulate speech are not paralyzed, and he
retains his power of writing, for he can copy words when told to do so; but when
he is asked to give expression to his thoughts by speaking or by writing, or even
to tell his name, he is helpless. With a palsy of a portion of his brain, he has lost
his power of finding words; but although he has lost this power, his intelligent
perception of what passes around him and what is said to him is not lost. It is
true that this condition of aphasia, as it is termed, has been found to exist when
various parts of the brain have been diseased ; for example, it has been found to co-
exist with a diseased state of the posterior instead of the anterior part of the cere-
brum. This fact renders it very difficult as yet to assign a precise locality to the
faculty of speech. It is not, however, my intention to discuss this question, for my
object is merely to show how the study of disease has given a clue to the physio-
logist. Broca’s observation led to the thought that, after all, the dreams of the
phrenologists would be realized, in so far as they supposed that the various mental
operations are made manifest through certain definite territories of the brain.
It has until lately been supposed that the convolutions of the cerebrum are
entirely concerned in purely intellectual operations ; but this idea is now rendered
doubtful. It is probable, from recent researches, that in the cerebral conyolutions
(that is, in the part of the brain which was believed to minister merely to intel-
Jectual manifestations) there are nerve-centres for the production of voluntary
muscular movements in various parts of the body. It has always been taught that
the convolutions of the brain, unlike nerves in general, cannot be stimulated by
- means of electricity. This, although true as regards the brains of pigeons, fowls,
and perhaps other birds, has been shown by Fritsch and Hitzig to be untrue as
regards mammals. These observers removed the upper portion of the skull in the
dog, and stimulated small portions of the exposed surface of the cerebrum by means
of weak galvanic currents; and they found that when they stimulated certain
definite portions of the surface of the conyolutions in the anterior part of the
cerebrum, movements are produced in certain definite groups of muscles on the
opposite side of the body. By this new method of exploring the functions of the
conyolutions of the brain, these investigators showed that, in certain cerebral
conyvolutions, there are centres for the nerves presiding over the muscles of
the neck, the extensor and adductor muscles of the forearm, for the flexor and ro-
acy muscles of the arm, the muscles of the foot, and those of the face. They,
1873, 9
122 REPORT—1873.
moreover, removed the portion of the convolution on the left side of the cerebrum,
which they had ascertained to be the centre for certain movements of the right fore
limb, and they found that after the injury thus inflicted, the animal had only an
imperfect control over the movements of the part of the limb in question. Re-
cently, Dr, Hughlings Jackson, from the observation of various diseased conditions
in which peculiar movements occur in distinct groups of muscles, has adduced
evidence in support of the conclusion that in the cerebral convolutions are loca-
lized the centres for the production of various muscular movements. Within the
last few months these observations have been greatly extended by the elaborate
experiments of my late pupil and assistant, and now able colleague in King’s Col-
lege, Prof. Ferrier.
Adopting the method of Fritsch and Hitzig (but instead of using galvanic he
has employed Faradaic electricity, with which, strange to say, the investigators
just mentioned obtained no very definite results), he has explored the brain in the
fish, frog, dog, cat, rabbit, and guineapig, and lately in the monkey. The results
of this investigation are of great importance. He has explored the convolutions of
the cerebrum far more fully than the German experimenters, and has investigated
the cerebellum, corpora quadrigemina, and several other portions of the brain not
touched upon by them, There is perhaps no part of the brain whose function has
been more obscure than the cerebellum. Dr, Ferrier has discovered that this
ganglion is a great centre for the movements of the muscles of the eyeballs. He
has also very carefully mapped out in the dog, cat, &c. the various centres in the
convolutions of the cerebrum which are concerned in the production of movements
in the muscles of the eyelids, face, mouth, tongue, ear, neck, fore and hind feet,
and tail. He confirms the doctrine that the corpus striatum is concerned in
motion, while the optic thalamus is probably concerned in sensation, as are also the
hippocampus major and its neighbouring conyolutions. He has also found that in
the case of the higher brain of the monkey there is what is not found in the dog or
cat—to wit, a portion in the front part of the brain, whose stimulation produces
no muscular movement. What may be the function of this part, whether or not
it specially ministers to intellectual operations, remains to be seen. These re-
searches mark the commencement of a new era in our knowledge of brain function.
Of all the studies in comparative physiology there will be none more interesting,
and few so important, as tne in which the various centres will be mapped out in
the brains throughout the vertebrate series. A new, but this time a true, system
of phrenology will probably.be founded upon them: by this, however, I do not
mean that it will be possible to tell a man’s faculties by the configuration of his
skull; but merely this, that the various mental faculties will be assigned to definite
territories of the brain, as Gall and Spurzheim long ago maintained, although their
geography of the brain was erroneous.
T have alluded to this subject, not only because it affords an illustration of the
service which a sttdy ef diseased conditions has rendered to physiology, but also
because these investigations constitute the most important work which has been
accomplished in physiology for a very considerable time past. :
Revival of Physiology in England.
We may, I think, term this the renaissance period of English physiology. It
seems strange that the country of Harvey, John Hunter, Charles Bell, Marshall .
Hall, and John Reid sheuld not always have been in the front rank as regards
physiology. The neglect of physics must be admitted as a cause of this; it is also
to be attributed to the, until a few years ago, almost entire absence of experimental
teaching ; but it would be unjust not to attribute it, in great measure, to the limited
appliances possessed by our physiologists. It is to be remembered that physiology
could not be ig! cultivated without proper laboratories, with a supply of
expensive apparatus. ithout endowments from public or private resources, how
can such institutions be properly fitted up and maintained by men who can, for the
most part, only turn to physiological research in moments snatched from the
busy toil of a profession so laborious as that of medicine ? In defiance of these diffi-
culties we are now striving to hold our place in the physiological world. A new
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 123
system of physiological tuition is rapidly extending over the country. In the
London schools, in Edinburgh, Cambridge, Manchester, and elsewhere, earnest
efforts are being made to give a thoroughly practical aspect to the tuition of our
science; and, notwithstanding the imperfect results which must necessarily ensue in
the absence of suitable endowment, we can nevertheless point to the fact that the
effect of these efforts has been to awaken a love for physiological research in the
mind of many a student; and the results of this awakening are already apparent in
the archives of the Royal Societies, in the ‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’
and elsewhere. But physiological research is most expensive and laborious, and it
is, moreover, unremunerative. The labours of the physiologist are entirely philan-
thropic; all his researches do nothing but contribute to the increase of human
happiness by the prevention of disease and the amelioration of suffering; and I
would venture to suggest to those who are possessed of wealth and of a desire to
apply it for the benefit of society, that, in view of the wholly unselfish and philan-
thropie character of physiological labours, they could not do better than endow
laboratories for the prosecution of physiological research.
We anticipate great benefit to the community not only from an advance of
physiology, but from a diffusion of a knowledge of its leading facts amongst the
people. This is now being carried out in our schools on a scale which is annually
increasing. Thanks to the efforts of Huxley, the principles of physiology are now
presented in a singularly palatable form to the minds of the young, The instruc-
tion communicated does not consist of technical terms and numbers, but in the
elucidation of the principal events which happen within our bodies, together with
an explanation of the treatment which they must receive in order to be maintained
in health. Considering how much may he accomplished by these bodies of ours if
they be properly attended to and rightly used, it seems to be a most desirable thing
that the possessor of the body should know something about its mechanism, not
only because such knowledge affords him much material for suggestive thought—not
only because it is excellent mental training to endeayour to understand the why and
the wherefore of the bodily actions—but also because he may greatly profit from a
Imowledge of the conditions of health. A thorough adoption of hygienic measures
(in other words, of measures which are necessary to preserve individuals in the highest
state of health) cannot be hoped for until a knowledge of fundamental physiological
principles finds its way into every family. This country has taken the lead in the
attempt to diffuse a sound knowledge of physiological facts and principles among
the people, and we may fairly anticipate that this will contribute not a little to
enable her to maintain her high rank amongst nations; for every step which is
calculated to improve the physiological state of the individual must inevitably
contribute to make the nation successful in the general struggle for existence,
«
On the Movements of the Glands of Drosera*,
_ By Aurrep W, Brynert, LS.
The glands which fringe the margin of the leaf and cover the upperside of the leaf
of Drosera haye been shown by previous observers not to be hairs in the true sense
of the term, 7. e. mere cellular expansions of the epidermis, but to be integral parts
of the leaf, with a fibro-vascular bundle containing spiral threads (in other words,
‘a vein or nerve of the leaf) running through them, and even to be furnished with
stomata. The glands excrete at all times, when in a healthy condition, a white
viscous gluten, which quickly entraps any small insect that settles upon the leaf,
gradually holding it down more and more as it struggles, till escape is hopeless. The
glands soon begin to move towards the imprisoned insect ; but this movement is not
very conspicuous at first, and is yery much more decided after the insect has almost
completely ceased to struggle, thus appearing not to be due to any “contractile tissue”
in the leaf which is irritated by the movements of the insect, After the lapse of some
time the whole of the glands of the leaf, even those which are at a considerable
* Quart. Journ. Mier, Soe., Oct. 1878,
Q*
124 REPORT—1875.
distance from the insect, are found to be bending over towards it, and to be almost
in contact with it. After a time the insect is to all appearance digested, actually
supplying the tissue of the leaf with nourishment. Very nearly the same effect
was produced by substituting for the fly a piece of raw meat, the movements
of the glands being somewhat slower, but ultimately almost as complete, the
meat being apparently digested in the same manner. On other leaves were
placed a minute piece of wood and a small piece of worsted; and in neither of
these cases was the least change perceptible, after a considerable time, in the posi-
tion of the glands nor of the object itself.
On the Action of Alcohol on Warm-blooded Animals. By Dr. Binz, of Bonn.
Physiological Researches on the Nature of Cholera. By Dr. Lavprr Brunton.
The search after a true remedy for cholera, the author thought, had hitherto been
fruitless. The cause of the disease was now generally admitted to be a poison of
some sort which could be transmitted from one person to another; but there must
also be a proper soil for the development of the poison—in other words, the blood
and tissues must be in such a state that it can act upon them.
In the state of collapse there was constant vomiting and purging, and the intestinal
canal was speedily washed clean out, the stools consisting of the secretion alone ;
the blood stagnated in the great veins of the thorax and abdomen, and left the skin
shrunken, pale, and cold, the interior of the body being hotter even than in a state of
high fever. That blood which filled the small cutaneous veins being no longer
driven forward by fresh supplies from the arteries, became completely deoxidized
and black, imparting to the surface a livid hue. _It still retained its power to take up
oxygen and give off carbonic acid; but, notwithstanding this, it passed so slowly
through the pulmonary vessels that only about one third of the usual quantity of
carbonic acid was given off from the lungs; and little oxygen being taken in, there
was a distressing feeling of want of breath. At the same time the voice was hoarse,
low, and weak; but this seemed to be simply a consequence of the general exhaus-
tion of the patient.
The symptoms of cholera all arose from disturbance of the circulation and altera-
tion of the intestinal secretion ; and it might be thought that the only means of re-
moving those conditions would be to eliminate from the body that poison which was
producing these effects, and that so long as it was still circulating in the blood,
any remedy which was simply intended to counteract it would be administered
in vain. But the researches of Fraser and others on antagonism had shown that
the elimination of a poison was not required in order to prevent ita injurious or fatal
action ; the administration of an antidote would deprive it of its hurtful power ; and
as it was with other poisons so might it be with that of cholera. It occurred to Dr.
Brunton that if any poison should possess actions similar to those of cholera-poison,
an antidote to it might possibly prove to be a remedy for cholera. He therefore.
began to look for a drug which would produce the same changes in the circulation
which occurred in cholera. These were, he believed, first attributed by Dr. Parkes
to spasmodic contraction of the pulmonary vessels, which prevented the blood from
passing through them; and this opinion had found a warm supporter in Dr. George
Johnson. Most of the symptoms, though not all, could be explained on this
hypothesis.
Professor Schmiedeberg, in investigating the physiological action of a poisonous
mushroom the (Amanita muscaria or Agaricus muscarius), noticed that when
given to animals it caused great dyspnoea, and at the same time the arteries became
empty, so that when cut across hardly a drop of blood issued from them—the very
condition which existed in cholera. Administering atropia to the warm-blooded
animals suffering from these symptoms, Professor Schmiedeberg found that they at
once recovered. He had not thought at all, however, of contraction of the pulmo-
nary vessels as a cause of dyspncea. He attributed it rather to excitement of the
neryous centre in the medulla oblongata, which regulates the respiratory moye-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 125
ments; but as the effect of atropia itself is to excite the nervous centre, it ought,
according to his supposition, to have increased instead of removing the breathlessness.
When the idea that the dyspnoea was due to contraction of the pulmonary capil-
laries suggested itself to Dr. Brunton, he proceeded to test it by experiment.
He first gave a rabbit such a dose of chloral hydrate as to deprive it of all sensibi-
lity, then put a tube into the windpipe and connected it with a pair of bellows. He
was thus able to inflate the animal’s lungs at regular intervals and keep up respira-
tion artificially when the animal could no longer breathe itself. He next opened
the thoracic cavity so as to observe the slightest change in the lungs or heart. Ie
injected a little muscarin into the jugular vein, when the lungs which had been pri-
viously rosy became blanched, the right side of the heart swelled up, the veins
passing to it became enormously distended, and the left side of the heart almost
empty. Shortly afterwards he injected a little atropia into the jugular vein. At
once the effects of the muscarin disappeared, and every thing assumed its normal
appearance. From the want of muscarin he had not pursued his investigations, but
hoped shortly to do so.
Hitherto he had proceeded on the assumption that Drs. Parkes’s and Johnson's
theory of cholera was correct, and that the stoppage of the circulation in cholera was
due to contractions of the arterioles of the lungs, as it was in muscarin-poisoning. In
poisoning hy muscarin the great veins of the thorax and abdomen and the right side
of the heart seemed to be almost equally distended, and exactly the same condition
was found in persons who had died of cholera. But it was not certain that the right
side of the heart was always so much distended during life, even when the symptoms
of cholera were present in their most pronounced form. It would almost seem that
the veins dilated still more in cholera-collapse than they did in muscarin-poisoning.
Nitrite of amy] has the power of dilating the arterioles throughout the body, and in
those of the lungs also ; but it was found practically to be of no use in cholera. The
pulse might become a little stronger and the surface a little warmer, but the improve-
ment was so slight that it is hardly worth mentioning, and the patient felt no better
for the medicine either when inhaled or when injected subcutaneously. If the weak-
ness of the pulse depended only on contraction of the vessels in the lungs, this result
would be astonishing ; butif they supposed it to be caused by dilatation of the great
veins, it was just what they would expect. From these and other facts, Dr. Brunton
concluded that the veins were dilated, and that therefore some remedy must be em-
ployed which would make them contract. There were very few experiments on
the contractility of the veins; but in the condition of depression or shock following
severe injuries, in which the veins were much dilated, digitalis had been found
useful, and it might prove useful in cholera also. Atropia had been lately tried in
cholera by an American practitioner with considerable success, and it seemed
deserving of a more extensive trial.
It would not do, however, to consider the action of any proposed remedy for
cholera on the circulation alone, and to leave out of account its effect upon the in-
testinal secretion. He therefore set to work to discover the action of atropia upon
the intestinal secretion. Since the effect of cholera upon the intestine was the same
as that of division of its nerves, which was one cause of secretion, they were justified
in believing that if any drug could stop the secretion in Moreau’s experiment of
dividing the intestinal nerves it was likely to have a similar effect on cholera.
Now atropia had remarkable power to stop secretion from the salivating and sweat
glands when their nerves are irritated, rendering the mouth and skin quite dry.
What its effect on paralytic secretion in the salivating glands might be he did not
know; but thinking that it might arrest the flow of fluid into the intestine, he
repeated Moreau’s experiment and injected some solution of atropia into the vein
of the animal. On killing it some hours afterwards, he found that there was fluid
in that part of the intestine the nerves of which had been divided. The
dose, however, was not large; and he comforted himself with the hope that a large
dose might do, though a small one would not. He afterwards tested the power of
atropia to check the secretion induced by injection of sulphate of magnesia into the
intestine, both by injecting a mixture of sulphate of magnesia and atropia into the
intestine and by injecting sulphate of magnesia alone into the bowel, and a solution
of atropia into the veins. In both cases he used very large doses of atropia, but
126 REPORT—1873.
they had not the slightest effect upon the secretion. The result was dispgpointing ,
and rendered the use of atropia in cholera somewhat doubtful. It was, however,
difficult to foretell the effect of any drug under particular circumstances, and he
should therefore continue his experiments.
The points to which he wished to direct particular attention were these :—
(1) That, assuming Parkes’s and Johnson’s theory to be correct, and the impeded
circulation in cholera to be due to obstruction in the pulmonary vessels, atropia was
likely to prove beneficial to a certain extent; and since it had been empirically
found to be useful in the disease, it ought to receive a fair trial at the hands of the
medical profession.
(2) The fact that the right side of the heart was not dilated during life in cholera
patients, as well as the uselessness of nitrite of amyl, which dilated the pulmonary
vessels, showed that Parkes’s and Johnson’s theory was imperfect, and that one of
the most important pathological conditions in cholera-collapse consisted in an
active dilatation of the thoracic and abdominal veins. Any remedy, to be useful
in cholera, must have the power of counteracting this condition; and the adminis-
tration of digitalis in cholera-collapse might be useful.
3) The profuse secretion from the bowels in cholera was due to paralysis of some
of the intestinal nerves; and a remedy which will arrest it was still a desideratum,
On some Abnormal Eifects of Binocular Vision. By A. 8. Davis.
On the Action of Light on the Retina and other Tissues.
By Dr, Duwar and Dr. MacKunpnrtcx.
On the Motion of Protoplasm in the Fucaceous Alyce.
By Professor P, Martiy Duncan, PLS,
The Localization of Function inthe Brain. By Daviy Frrrmr, WD,
Professor of Forensic Medicine, King’s College, London.
In his paper on this subject, Dr. Ferrier alluded to the various theories at present
held in regard to the possibility of localizing specific functions in definite regions
of the brain—mentioning especially the various facts of disease, such as extensive
abscesses, which appear to negative the idea of localization; and, on the other hand,
those in favour of localization, such as the facts of aphasia, and the peculiar localized
and unilateral epileptic and clonic spasms, which the researches of Hughlings
Jackson seemed to connect with irritation of definite regions of the brain-centre.
The great difficulty had hitherto been the want of a method which would lead to
positive results, instead of the usual negative phenomena resulting from the ordi-
nary methods of investigating the functions of the brain by means of mechanical or
similar destruction of the brain-substance. The researches of Fritsch and Hitzig
and the theory of discharging lesions, advocated by Hughlings Jackson as the
cause of the different epilepsies, formed the starting-point of the investigations which
Dr. Ferrier communicated to the Association.
The results at which he arrived, from experimentation on the brains of rabbits,
cats, and dogs, have already been partly published in the West-Riding Lunatic
Asylum Report for 1873 ; but the experiments on monkeys and other animals, which
were likewise brought before the Association, as well as the further elucidation of
the experiments already published in the West-Riding Reports, are reserved for
the Royal Society, under whose auspices the late experiments have been con-
ducted. The following was the general scope of the paper The author, after a
general sketch of the surface and convolutions of the brain in animals experimented
on, pointed out on a series of diagrams the centres in the different convolutions,
stimulation of which caused certain and unvarying combined movements of the
paws and tail, of the facial muscles, and of the muscles concerned in articulation,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 127
The homologous parts were pointed out in the brains of the rat, guineapig,
rabbit, cat, dog, jackal, and monkey, and indicated in the human brain according to
the convolutional homology existing between it and the simian brain.
In particular the complex movements of the hands and feet were described,
and the situation of the centres of these various movements definitely localized.
In addition to these centres for movements, which the author described as °
evidently volitional, purposive, or expressive, other regions of the brain, the
posterior, were pointed out as probably the cerebral centres in connexion with some
of the special senses, such as sight, hearing, and smell. On the same plan as before,
the homologous parts and convolutions were indicated in the human brain.
Certain anterior regions at the frontal extremity of the cerebral hemispheres in
the monkey, and also the posterior or occipital lobes of the monkey’s brain, yielded
no results which could yet be laid hold of.
A comparison was instituted between the corresponding parts in the brains of
the lower animals and of man, and some speculations were offered as to the sig-
nification of the development of these parts in their relation to intelligence.
Several facts in relation to combined expressional movements, such as the mouth
and hand, were shown to be dependent on the close cerebral relation of the centres for
these movements, with powerful stimulation, one gradually radiating into the other.
The key to the psychological aspect of the facts presented by the experiment was
indicated to be the condition of aphasia, which is usually found associated with
disease of the posterior part of the inferior frontal convolution on the left side.
This region Dr. Ferrier showed, in the brain of the monkey, to be that part which
governed the movements concerned in articulation; and the homology was also
pointed out in the brains of the cat, dog, jackal, and other animals. Stimulation
of this region in cats and dogs frequently elicited vocal speech in the form of
mewing and barking ; and it was the homologue of this part in the brain of man,
" of which was followed by the loss of articulate speech and the memory
of words.
The two hemispheres of the brain, however, were shown to be symmetrical ; and,
in regard to the mouth, the action of the brain was also bilateral, and not, as usually
the case, crossed and unilateral.
The explanation adopted was that the loss of the power of voluntarily recalling
words was due to the fact of the left hemisphere being the leading side, just as in
most people the right hand is most commonly used. ‘The loss of speech was there-
fore due to the inability of the other side of the brain all at once to get at the
proper word, even though they existed, as shown by the fact that the individual
can recognize the word when mentioned.
The results of experiments on the hemispheres and optic lobes of fishes, frogs,
and. birds were also alluded to, but not entered into fully. The corpora striata were
shown to be motor, and the optic thalami evidently sensory.
Curious effects were described as resulting m rritation of the corpora
quadrigemina.
The cerebellum was shown to have a function not hitherto allotted to it, viz. the
coordination of the ocular muscles. In the rabbit the various lobules were
described as moving the eyes in different directions; and similar experiments
with similar results had been obtained in the case of cats, dogs, and monkeys.
The relation of the cerebellum as an oculo-motorial and general equilibrium
coordinating centre was slightly discussed, and their mutual interdependence
indicated.
These latter subjects, however, are under investigation, as well as many other
points in connexion with the cerebral hemispheres, and therefore the author con-
tented himself with only a general sketch of the results.
Heartand Brain. By J. Mutyer Forumrerty, W.D., M.R.C.P.
The qualities of endurance are rather cardiac than cerebral. Ability and deter-
mination bear no relation to each other; but the expressions “ faint-hearted”’ and
“ stout-hearted” fall in with some of our most modern physiological views. When
the blood-pressure on the brain is too great and the roots of the yagus (the restraining
128 REPORT—1873.
nerve) are flooded with blood, the inhibitory fibres are thrown into action and the
heart’s contractions lowered. In hypertrophy of the heart the overgrown organ is not
so readily reined in, and so apoplexy is commonly found along with this heart-change.
In other cases, again, the blood-supply of the brain is defective, and then the brain is
crippled. This was well seen in the case of a youth with congenital heart-disease,
‘ who came under the writer’s notice, where the horizontal posture, so as to fill the
head with blood, was necessary in order that the youth might learn or repeat his
pieces of poetry. In medical practice the intimate association of heart and brain
is well known, and in a large proportion of the cases of insanity distinct changes
in the circulatory system are found. Where there is great cerebral hyperzemia, the
ordeal bean of Calabar, which stimulates the inhibitory fibres of the vagus, and so
holds back the heart, is found to be the most effective agent in controlling the
violent mania of high cerebral vascularity. On the other hand, in cases of heart-
disease the character commonly becomes altered, the resolute person becoming
yacillating and capricious, the even-tempered person growing irritable and sus-
ae The effect of heart-disease on character is well seen in old Peter
eatherstone in Middlemarch; and the vacillation of that obstinate old man
betwixt his two wills shows how the brain halts and lacks its wonted determination
when its arterial blood-supply is defective. The sensations of a patient in the
great hospital of Vienna, whose heart stood still at intervals from the pressure of a
tumour on the inhibitory nerve (the vagus), were described. Such is a part of the
negative evidence of the relation of heart and brain; for the positive evidence we
must turn to the records of the sporting world. Eclipse, the famous racer, and
Master Magrath, the noted courser, two animals renowned for their tremendous
enduranee even more than for their speed, were both examined after death to see if
any thing could be found to explain their peculiar prowess. In each an unusually
large heart was found; and to this were attributed, and rightly so, their extra-
ordinary powers. Wemay say, then, without hesitation, thata brain can no more
give out efficient manifestations of force without a sufficient blood-supply, than an
army can fight or manceuyre effectively without a proper commissariat, or an
engine work up to its full power without a liberal supply of coal and water.
Finally, we may conclude that the waves of nerve-force, which resolve themselves
into either psychical resolution or sustained muscular effort, are dependent in their
turn upon a well-maintained succession of blood-waves supplied by a firm and
vigorous heart. ;
On the Physiological Action of Crystalline Aconitia and pseudo-Aconitia,
By Dr. Tuomas R. Fraser.
The experiments were made with the nitrates of crystalline aconitia and pseudo-
aconitia, prepared by Mr. Groves, F.C.8., who first separated aconitia in a erystal-
line form in 1864. Both alkaloids powerfully influence the cardiac contractions
and respiratory movements. Their toxic power is very great, entitling them
probably to be regarded as the most active poisons as yet known. A very re-
markable and exceptional difference of toxicity for different species of animals was
found to exist ; for while aconitia is for frogs about five times more powerful as a
toxic agent than pseudo-aconitia, the latter substance is for rabbits about twice as
powerful as the former. It was ascertained that this difference depends on aconitia
possessing a more energetic action on the heart, and a less energetic action on the
respiratory moyements, than pseudo-aconitia.
The Vocal Organs in Living Centenarians.
By Sir G. Duncan Ginn, Bart., M.D., LL.D.
The condition of the larynx and other vocal organs in persons who have reached
the age of 100 years is of especial interest when determined during life, and
presented some new facts necessitating a modification of the views generally enter-
tained. The author’s observations were founded upon an examination of nine
living centenarians, whom he had personally visited in various parts of the country.
Their nemes, residences, dates of examination, and authentic records of their births
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 129
were given, two being males and seven females; and although examined on but
one occasion, the results were satisfactory, and less difficulty was experienced than
was at first anticipated. The thyroid cartilage was more distinctly prominent in
the two males than the females; in all nine it was freely movable, and not hard
and unyielding, as is sometimes seen in persons of the age of 60 and 70.
On slight compression there was a resiliency that pointed to cartilaginous flexi-
bility, and lateral movements gave the sensation of cartilage gliding upon car-
tilage, showing absence of calcareous transformation in the articulating surfaces,
The hyotd bone, readily felt in all, gave no enlargement or other alteration of the
thyro-hyoid ligaments ; nor were the pulsations of the carotids unduly felt, as
occurs when their coats have become thickened by calcareous or other deposits.
The ericotd cartilage on rotation gave the cartilaginous gliding already mentioned,
and the rings of the trachea were compressible in any direction.
The laryngeal mirror had to be used with expedition, and revealed a vertical
epiglottis in all, with its leaf-like expansion and light yellow colour, being thin
towards the tip and sides, affording a ready view of the interior of the larynx.
The vocal cords mostly formed a triangular glottis ; they were longer in the males
and in one of the females than in the others, whilst their colour in the latter was
mostly of a greyish white: in one of the males it was yellow. The voice varied,
being mostly smooth, soft, clear, and melodious; in the female with the long cords
it was louder and more masculine than in the others, and so was it in one of the
males, being at the same time somewhat cracked in tone. The chest capacity was
fairly good in all, and the breathing of the most healthy character; the cartilages
of the ribs were not ossified in any, for the movement of the ribs and their car-
tilages was wholly unimpeded, thus resembling persons of 25 or 30. Every organ
in the body was normal, and the special senses as a rule were perfect. The con-
clusions arrived at were that there was an absence of those changes that are usually
looked upon as senile, such as calcification of the laryngeal cartilages or of the
coats of the blood-vessels, and ossification of the costal cartilages; and as all the
organs and tissues of the body had undergone comparatively little or no change,
persons over 95, or who reach the age of 100 years, must henceforth be considered
to be free from such changes as are believed usually to bring life to a close between
70 and 80. As relates, however, to the epiglottis, its vertical position (the normal
one) is common to all persons over the age of 70, as the author's researches have
proved in an examination of 5000 healthy persons of both sexes and all ages; but
the perfection of the cartilage is to be seen in centenarians.
Whate Corpuscles, their Nature and Origin in the Animal Organism.
By Dr. J. Goopman.
In the prosecution of his experiments upon the development of fibrin by the
action of water upon albuminous substance, the author discovered that sometimes
instead of fibrin thousands of corpuscles presented themselves *.
The development of corpuscles was ultimately discovered to be the result of the
employment of old eggs or of long-drawn serum, or, in other words, of albumen of
low vital power, that from fresh albumen developing fibrin, that from old albumen
corpuscles. A low temperature just above the freezing-point, even with fresh
eges, produced the same effect, and the substance thus formed was of lighter spe-
cific gravity than that which developed fibrin.
The exterior of the substance produced was discovered to form, generally under
the influence of cold, a coating of a dark and coagulum-like material, sometimes
enclosing well-formed fibrin, which, seen under the microscope by the reflected
solar ray, was found to be constituted entirely of corpuscles. Thus corpuscles
were seen to be produced in like manner with fibrin. hen separate these little
bodies always evinced a tendency to coalesce and unite together, and, like fibrin,
thus to manifest a force of attraction, particle for particle, but in a minor degree,
This power was greater or less in proportion to the degree of vital energy of the
albumen employed.
* See a paper upon the origin of Fibrin in the Animal Organism, Proceedings of
Sections, 1870, p. 139, and 1871, p. 72.
130 BEPoRt—1675.
It was also proved, by frequently repeated experiment, that corpuscles by
coalescing and uniting together develop fibrinous rods and other structures of this
material. The substance thus formed, when subjected to compression between
two plates of glass under the microscope, actually had its cohesive power over-
come, and became resolved into corpuscles; and when the pressure was removed
sometimes these again united, and developed fibrinous rods and other structures.
Moreover corpuscles were the last products witnessed during the decomposition and
disintegration of fibrin.
It was therefore rendered evident that corpuscles are identical in their nature
with fibrinous substance, corpuscles and fibrin being mutually convertible into
each other.
These two great coagulable and structure-forming components of the blood are
thus seen to derive their origin from like substances, conditions, and agencies—viz.
the subjection of albuminous material to the agency of water, both which ingre-
dients are discovered in abundance in the lacteals and absorbents of the body.
As shown by some of our most eminent physiologists, excess of fibrin or of
corpuscles in the human frame indicates a healthy or morbid state of the organism
—the preponderance of fibrin being held by them as the symbol of the highest con-
dition of health, whilst the predominance of corpuscles is equally maintained as
indicative of a cachectic or otherwise unhealthy state of body; so in these experi-
ments the corroborative voice of Nature declares that a high state of vitality in the
albumen is associated with the development of fibrin, whilst a low vital energy in
the substance employed has always a tendency to produce corpuscular products.
On the Mode of Formation of Renal Caleuli.
By Guorcs Haney, ID., PRS, PBC.
In this communication the author laid down several general laws as being
applicable to all kinds of caleuli, a few of which are the following :—
ist. Caleuli may occur at every period of life from the cradle to the grave.
2nd. In all cases of constitutional concretions the amount of renal solids must
be disproportionate to the amount of liquids excreted.
3rd. That the deposition of a calculus in any part of the renal system is in every
case due to some special local cause. The cause may be trifling and temporary ;
but still it must exist.. Once, however, the concretion has begun to form the
original exciting cause is soon lost sight of, and the calculus goes on forming
round its nucleus, quite independent of the local condition which called it into
existence,
4th. The vast majority of constitutional calculi, be their nature what it may
(oxalate of lime, phosphate of lime, uric acid, xanthin, or cystin), have their origin
in the kidneys.
5th. The colour of the concretion does not always depend upon the nature of
the substance which is composed, but upon the presence of other colouring-matiers
in the renal secretion. Uric acid calculi, for example, vary in depth of colour
according as the quantity of urohzmatin is small or great; just as crystals of sugar-
candy owe their pink, yellow, or other tints to the pigment present in the water
out of which they are crystallized. Phosphatic and cystinic calculi form an
exception to this rule by refusing to combine with extraneous pigments.
Gth. There are three perfectly distinct modes in which crystalloid material
is deposited in the formation of calculi.
The first and rarest form of calculi are those which consist of a monster crystal,
or an aggregation of monster crystals, and are only to be met with in the case of
triple phosphates, oxalate of lime, and uric acid. The second is that in which a
certain amount of colloid is united with the crystalloid material; one in which
it may be said that small crystals separating from the supersaturated renal
secretion become entangled in mucus, tube casts, epithelium scales, or other colloid
material, and by fresh aggregations around them gradually become closer and closer
packed together, until they assume the appearance and properties of a compact
concretion, The last mode of formation is by the aggregation of molecular atoms,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 131
on the principle of molecular coalescence from the union of viscid or colloid material
with earthy or organic crystalloid matter, in the manner of the formation of the
dental tissues and shell-structures described by Mr. George Rainey.
To these three different modes of constitutional calculus formation the author
gives the respective names of Crystalline, Crystallo-colloid, and Molecular coales-
cence. Inconcluding, the author remarked that the calculi he had been describing
must not be confounded with those which, for the sake of distinction, might be
termed “ accidentally acquired,” such as vesical, which frequently have for their
nucleus foreign substances, such as a pea, a barleycorn, a piece of bone, hair, wire,
a fragment of sealing-wax, or a portion of catheter, the irritation of which excites
the presence of tenacious mucus, blood, or even pus, with which the foreign body
itself becomes coated, and in and around which crystalloid molecules and actual
crystals are deposited and form the calculus,
Lastly. Calculi are not always of uniform composition throughout. Their com-
osition varies at different times with the different states of health of the patient.
he centre of the concretion may be composed of uric acid, then may come a layer
of oxalate of lime, and over that another layer of uric acid or of phosphate, so that
in a section of a calculus the clinical phases through which a patient has past may
be read as truthfully as the geologist can read the earth’s history in the strata
forming its crust.
On the Siructure of the Hyg, and the early Development of the Cephalopod
Loligo, By E. Ray Lanxusrer, M.A., Ewcter College, Oxford.
The author discussed some points as to the nature and mode of formation of
eggs, in connexion with his observations on the egg of the cuttlefish, Loliyo.
Every egg is originally a small corpuscle of protoplasm, like those which build up
the tissues of animals; but it acquires additional substance, and in some animals
(for instance, birds) becomes very large before it is laid. The additional substance
differs in its character in different animals. In Apws four original egg-corpuscles
fuse and form one egg, from which one embryo develops. In most cases the egg
grows in the ovary by receiving nutrition from the blood; but in many cases (in
birds, fishes, and in cuttlefish) the egg is contained in a capsule, which is lined
with living corpuscles, and these are continually multiplying by division, and
pass from the capsule into the egg to increase its bulk. This Mr, Lankestér had
demonstrated by sections in the case of Zoliyo. So far he agreed with Prof. His;
but he did not find that these corpuscles remained alive and helped to form the
embryo cuttle fish. The ege of Loliyo when laid was a perfectly homogeneous
mixture of albuminous matters of (a) the original egg-corpuscle, (d) the corpuscles
from the capsule, and (c) the male spermatozoa. From this mixture there segre-
gated at first to one pole plastic matter, which broke up into corpuscles (“klasto-
plasts’’) forming a cap (yelk-cleavage). Outside this cap of cleavage-corpuscles
other large corpuscles (“autoplasts”) then made their appearance by a new and
independent process of segregation (free cell-formation); and these became branched,
forming a deep or middle layer in the embryo, whilst the cleavage-corpuscles spread
_ oyer them at a higher level,
Microzymes as partial Bionta. By Dr. Joun Ross.
Note on Huizinga’s Lxperiments on Abiogenesis. By Dr. Burpon SanpErson.
g Pp J MW]
Under the title of a “Contribution to the question of Abiogenesis,” Prof,
Huizinga has very recently published (Pfliiger’s Archiv, vol. vii. p. 549) a series of
experiments which deserve notice, as constituting a new and carefully worked out -
attempt to support the doctrine of spontaneous generation.
Prof. Huizinga begins his paper with the words “ Multa renascentur que jam
cecidere,” using them as an expression of the recurring nature of this question.
He then proceeds to say that he was induced to undertake his inquiry by the
publication of the well-known work by Dr, Bastian (whom he compliments as
132 REPORT—1873.
haying awakened the exhausted interest of physiologists in the subject), his special
object being to repeat the much-discussed turnip-cheese experiment.
Every one knows what Dr. Bastian’s observation is. It is simply this, viz. that
if a glass flask is charged with a slightly alkaline infusion of turnip of sp. gr. 1015,
to which a trace of cheese has been added, and is then subjected to ebullition for
ten minutes and closed hermetically while boiling, and finally kept at fermentation
temperature, Bacteria develop in it in the course of a few days. This experiment
has been repeated by Huizinga with great care, and the accuracy of Dr. Bastian’s
statement of fact confirmed by him in every particular ; yet, notwithstanding this,
he thinks that the evidence afforded by these results in support of the doctrine so
inadequate, that he, desiring to find such evidence, has thought it necessary to
repeat the observation under what he regards as conditions of greater exactitude.
Huizinga’s objections to Bastian’s ore are two. First, that when a flask
is boiled and closed hermetically in ebullition, its contents are almost entirely
deprived of air; and, secondly, that cheese is a substance of mixed and uncertain
composition. To obviate the first of these objections he closes his flasks, after ten
minutes’ boiling, not by hermetically sealing them, but by placing over the mouth
of each, while in ebullition, a porous porcelain plate which has first been removed
from the flame of a Bunsen’s lamp. The hot porcelain plate is made to adhere to
the edge or lip of the flask by a layer of asphalt, with which the edge has been
previously covered. The purpose of this arrangement is to allow air to enter the
flask at the same time that all germinal matter is excluded. It is not necessary to
discuss whether this is so or not.
To obviate the second objection he alters the composition of the liquid used ;
he substitutes for cheese, peptone ; and for turnip-infusion, a mixture of the fol-
lowing composition in 1000 parts :—
Grape-sugar ...... ss... 25 grammes,
Potassium nitrate........ 2 FS
Magnesium sulphate .... 2 9
Calcium phosphate ...... 0-4 gramme.
The phosphate is prepared by precipitating a solution of calcium chloride with
ordinary sodium phosphate, taking care that the chloride is in excess. The preci-
pitate of neutral phosphate so obtained is washed and then added to the saline
solution in the proportion given. On boiling it is converted into soluble acid
phosphate and insoluble basic salt, of which the latter is removed by infiltration ;
consequently the proportion of phosphate in solution is less than that above indi-
cated. To the filtrate, peptone is added in the proportion of 0-4 per cent.
The peptone is obtained by digesting egg-albumen at the temperature of the
body in artificial gastric juice, made by adding the proper quantity of glycerine
extract of pepsin to water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The liquid so ob-
tained is first rendered alkaline by the addition of liquor sodx, then slightly
acidulated with acetic acid and boiled. The syntonin thus precipitated is sepa-
rated by infiltration from the clear liquid, which is then evaporated to a sirup and
poured in a thin stream into strong alcohol with constant agitation. The preci-
pitated peptone is separated after some hours and washed with alcohol, and re-
dissolved in a small quantity of water. The solution is again precipitated by
pouring it into alcohol in the same way as before, and the precipitate washed and
dried.
Flasks having been half filled with the liquid thus prepared (in 1000, two each
of nitre and Epsom salts, a trace of phosphate of lime, twenty-five parts of grape-
sugar, and four parts of peptone), each is boiled for ten minutes, closed while boil-
ing with the earthenware plate as above described, and placed as soon as it is cool
in the warm chamber at 30° C. The experiment so made gave, without any
exception, a positive result in every case. After two or three days the fluid was
crowded with actively moving Bacterium termo.
In June last I published in ‘ Nature’ a repetition of Dr. Bastian’s experiments,
with a variation not of the liquid, but of the mode of heating. Instead of boiling
the flasks for ten minutes over the open flame and closing them in ebullition, I
boiled them, closed them hermetically, and then placed them in a digester, in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 133
which they were subjected to ebullition under a pressure of 2 inches or more of
mercury. The result was negative. There was no development of Bacteria.
Since the publication of these experiments Huizinga’s have appeared. His
result, regarded as a proof of spontaneous generation, is clearly not superior to
Bastian’s. His substitution of a soluble immediate principle for an insoluble mixed
product like cheese, and the use of a definite solution of sugar and salts, are not
material improvements. The question is not whether the germinal matter of
Bacteria is present, but whether it is destroyed by the process of heating. Conse-
quently what is necessary is not to alter the liquid, but to make the conditions
of the experiment, as regards temperature, as exact as possible. In this respect
Huizinga’s experiment is a confirmation of Bastian’s, and nothing more.
I have recently repeated Huizinga’s experiments with the same modifications as
regards temperature as those employed in my repetition of the turnip-cheese experi-
ments. The result has been the same. In all essential respects 1 have followed
the method described by him in his paper. I have prepared the solution of salts,
grape-sugar, and oar in exact accordance with his directions. To obviate his
objection as to the absence of air, I have introduced the liquid, not into flasks, but
into strong glass tubes closed hermetically at each end and only half filled with
liquid, the remainder of the tube containing air at the ordinary tension. Each of
these tubes, after having been subjected to the temperature of ebullition under 2
inches of mercury for half an hour, has been kept since September 10 at the tem-
peeeare of fermentation (82° C.). Up to the time of my leaving London for
radford no change whatever had taken place in the liquid.
As a control experiment I opened one of the tubes immediately after boiling, and
introduced a drop of distilled water. It became opalescent in twenty-four hours.
On the Electrical Phenomena which accompany the Contractions of the Leaf of
Dionxa muscipula. By Dr. Borpon SanpErson.
It is well known that in those structures in the higher animals which are
endowed with the property of contracting when stimulated, viz. nerve and muscle,
this property is associated with the existence of voltaic currents which have defi-
nite directions in the tissue. These currents have been the subject of very careful
observation by physiologists. They require delicate instruments for their investi-
gation, but the phenomena dependent on them admit of the application of the most
exact measurements. The constant current which can be shown to exist in a
muscle is called the normal current. The most important fact with reference to it
is that it exists only so long as the muscle is alive, and that it ceases during the
moment that the muscle is thrown into action. Other characteristics of the
muscle-currents were referred to, which we have not space to meution.
In certain plants said to possess the property of irritability, contractions of cer-
tain organs on irritation occur which strikingly suggest a correspondence of func-
tion between them and the motor organs of animals. Among the most remarkable
are those of Drosera and some other plants belonging to the same natural order,
particularly the well-known Venus’s Flytrap (Dionea muscipula). The sensitive
plant, the common monkey flower, the rock Cistus, afford other examples.
Strange as it may seem, the question whether these contractile movements are
accompanied with the same electrical changes as those which occur in the con-
traction of muscle and in the functional excitation of nerve has never yet been
investigated by vegetable physiologists. Mr. Darwin, who for many years has
devoted much attention to the animal-like functions of Dionea and Drosera,
kindly furnished plants for the purpose of the necessary experiments, which have
been made by Dr. Sanderson in the laboratory of University College, London. The
result has been that the anticipations he had formed have been confirmed as to the
existence of voltaic currents in these parts, and particularly in the leaf of Dionea.
By a most remarkable series of experiments, made with the aid of Sir W. Thomson’s
galvanometer, he has shown that these currents are subject, in all respects in which
they have been as yet investigated, to the same laws as those of muscle and nerve.
nee
134 rEPORT—1873.
On the Diverticulum of the Small Intestine in Man, considered as a Rudimentary
Structure. By Professor C. A, Srrurumrs.
On the Development of the Armadillo’s Teeth. By C. 8. Tomns,
Notes on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Indian Elephant.
By Dr, Morrison WATSON.
[Printed in extenso in the ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology’ for Noy, 1873.]
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Address to the Department of Anthropology.
By Joun Brppor, M.D., FR.
The position of Anthropology in the British Association, as a permanent depart-
ment of the Section of Biology, being now fully assured, and its relations to the
allied and contributory sciences beginning to be well understood and acknowledged,
I have not thought it necessary, in opening the business of the department, to
follow the example of my predecessors, Professor Turner and Colonel Lane Fox.
The former of these gentlemen, at our Edinburgh Meeting, devoted his opening
address to the definition, history, and boundaries of our science; the latter, at
Brighton, in the elaborate essay which many of you must have listened to, not
only discussed its relations to other sciences, but gave an illustrative survey of a
great portion of its field and of several of its problems,
But while, on the one hand, I feel myself incompetent to follow these prece-
dents with success, on the other I am encouraged to take a different line by the
consideration that if, as we are fond of saying in this department, “the proper
study of mankind is man’’—if, that is, anthropology ought to interest every body,
then assuredly the anthropology of Yorkshire ought to interest a Yorkshire
audience.
Large as the county is, and sharply marked off into districts by striking
diversities of geological structure, of climate, and of surface, there is an approach
to unity in its political and ethnological history which could scarcely have been
looked for. Nevertheless we must bear in mind the threefold division of the
shire—not that into ridings, but that pointed out by nature. We have, first, the
western third, the region of Carboniferous limestone and Millstone-grit, of narrow
valleys and cold rainy moorlands; secondly, the great plain of York, the region
roughly speaking, of the Trias, monotonously fertile, and having no natura
defence except its numerous rivers, which, indeed, have sometimes served rather as
a gateway to the invader than as a bulwark against him; to this plain Holderness
and the Vale of Pickering may be regarded as eastern adjuncts. Thirdly, we have
the elevated region of the east, in the two yery dissimilar divisions of the moor-
lands and the wolds; these are the most important parts of Yorkshire to the
prehistoric archeologist, but to the modern ethnologist they are comparatively of
little interest.
The relics of the paleolithic period, so abundant in the south of England, are,
I believe, almost wholly wanting in Yorkshire, where archeology begins with
the neolithic age, and owes its foundations to Canon Greenwell of Durham, Mr,
Mortimer of Driffield, Mr. Atkinson of Danby, and their predecessors in the ex-
ploration of the barrows of Cleveland and the Wolds, whose results figure largel
im the ‘Crania Britannica’ of Davis and Thurnam, themselves, by the way, bot
~atives of the city of York.
The earliest inhabitants we can distinctly recognize were the builders of certain
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 135
long barrows, such as that of Scamridge in Cleveland. There is still, I believe,
some difference of opinion among the anthropologists of East Yorkshire (where,
by the way, in the town of Hull, the science flourishes under the auspices of a
local Anthropological Society)—still, I say, some difference of opinion as to
whether the long-barrow folk were racially diverse from those who succeeded
them and who buried their dead in round barrows. But Canon Greenwell at
least adheres to Thurnam’s doctrine, and holds that Yorkshire, or part of it, was
occupied at the period in question, perhaps 3000 years ago, by a people of moderate
or rather short stature, with remarkably long and narrow heads, who were ignorant
of metallurgy, who buried their dead under long ovoid barrows, with sanguinary
rites, and who labour under strongly founded suspicions of cannibalism.
Of the subsequent period, generally known as the bronze age, the remains in
Yorkshire, as elsewhere, are vastly more plentiful. The Wolds especially, and the
Cleveland hills, abound with round barrows, in which either burnt or unburnt
bodies have been interred, accompanied sometimes with weapons or ornaments of
bronze, and still more often with flint arrow-heads. Where bones are found, the
skull presents what Barnard Davis considers the typical British form; 7. e. it is
generally rather short and broad, of considerable capacity and development, with
features harsh and bony. The bodily frame is usually tall and stalwart, the
stature often exceeding 6 feet, as in the well-known instance of the noble savage of
Gristhorpe, whose skeleton is preserved in the Scarborough Museum.
Though certain facts, such as the known use of iron in Britain before Cexsar’s
time and its extreme rarity in these barrows, and some little difference in pro-
portion between the skulls just described and the type most common among our
modern British Kelts, do certainly leave room for doubt, I have little hesitation in
referring these round barrows to the Brigantes and Parisii*, the known occupants
of Yorkshire before the Roman conquest.
Both what I will term provisionally the pure long-barrow and the pure round-
barrow types of cranium are represented among our modern countrymen. But the
former is extremely rare, while the latter is not uncommon. It is probable enough
that the older type may, in amalgamating with the newer and more powerful one,
have bequeathed to the Kelts of our own time the rather elongated form which
prevails among them. Whether this same older type was really Iberian is a point
of great interest, not yet ripe for determination.
_ Another moot point is the extent to which the population of modern England is
derived from the colonists introduced under the Roman occupation. It is my own
impression that the extent, or rather the intensity of such colonization, has been
overestimated by my friend Mr. Thomas Wright and his disciples. I take it that,
in this respect, the Roman occupation of Britain was somewhere between our
own occupations of India and of South Africa, or perhaps still more nearly like
that of Algeria by the French, who have their roads, villas, and military esta-
blishments, and even considerable communities in some of the towns, but who
constitute but a very small percentage of the population, and whose traces would
almost disappear in a few generations, could the communication with the mother
country be cut off. ‘
If, however, any traces of the blood of the lordly Romans themselves, or of that
more numerous and heterogeneous mass of people whom they introduced as
legionaries, auxiliaries, or colonists, are yet recognizable anywhere in this county,
it may probably be in the city of York, or in the neighbourhood of Catterick.
The size and splendour of ancient Eburacum, its occupation at various times as a
sort of military capital by the hse sag Severus and others, its continued existence
through the Anghan and Anglo-Danish periods, and its subsequent comparative
freedom from such great calamities} or vicissitudes as are apt to cause great and
sudden changes of population, might almost induce us to expect to find such vestiges,
If Greek and Gothic blood still assert themselves in the features and figures of the
pon of Arles, if Spanish characteristics are still recognizable in Bruges, why not
talian ones in York? It may be so; but I must confess that I have not seen
* It has been conjectured that the Parisii were Frisians; but I think it very unlikely.
+ Unless, indeed, York was the “ municipal town” occupied by Cadwalla, and besieged
by his Anglian adversaries,
136 REPORT—1873.
them, or have failed to recognize them. Catterick, the site of ancient Cataracto-
nium, I have not visited.
Of the Anglian conquest of Yorkshire we know very little, except that it was
accomplished gradually by successive efforts, that the little district of Elmet, in
the neighbourhood of Leeds, continued British for a while, and that Carnoban
(which is almost certainly Craven) is spoken of by a Welsh writer as British after
all the rest of the country had ceased to be so—a statement probable enough in
itself, and apparently corroborated by the survival of a larger number of Keltic words
in the dialect of Craven than in the speech of other parts of Yorkshire.
Certain regulations and expressions in the Northumbrian laws (among others the
less value of a churl’s life as compared with that of a thane) have been thought to
indicate that the proportion of the British population that remained attached to
the soil, under Anglian lords, was larger in the north than in some other parts of
England. The premises are, however, insufficient to support the conclusion ; and,
on the other hand, we are told positively by Bede that Ethelfrith Fleisawr drove
out the British inhabitants of extensive districts. The singular discoveries
of Boyd Dawkins and his coadjutors in the Settle Cave, where elaborate orna-
ments and enamels of Romano-British type are found in conjunction with indica-
tions of a squalid and miserable mode of life long endured, attest clearly the
calamities of the natives about that period (the early part of the seventh century),
and show that even the remote dales of Craven, the least Anglian part of York-
shire, afforded no secure refuge to the Britons of the plains, the unfortunate heirs
of Roman civilization and Roman weakness. The evidence yielded by local names
does not differ much from that of the same kind in other parts of England. It
proves that enow of Welshmen survived to transmit their names of the principal
natural features (as Ouse, Derwent, Wharfe, Dun, Roseberry, Pen-y-gent), and of
certain towns and villages (as York, Catterick, Beverley, and Ilkley), but not
enow to hinder the speedy adoption of the new language, the renaming of many
settlements, and the formation of more new ones with Anglian names. The sub-
sequent Danish invasion slightly complicated this matter; but I think it is pretty
safe to say that the changes in Yorkshire were more nearly universal than in
counties like Devonshire, where we know that the descendants of the Welsh con-
stitute the majority. If the names of the rivers Swale and Hull be really Teutonic,
as Greta undoubtedly is, the fact is significant; for no stream of equal magnitude
with the Swale, in the south of England, has lost its Keltic appellation.
We do not know much of the Anglian type, as distinguished from the Scandi-
nayian one which ultimately overlaid it almost everywhere to a greater or less
depth. ‘The cranial form, if one may judge of it by the skulls found in the ancient
cemetery of Lamel Hill near York, was not remarkably fine, certainly not superior
to the ancient British type as known to us, to which, moreover, it was rather in-
ferior in capacity. There is some resemblance between these Lamel-Hill crania
and the Belair or Burgundian type of Switzerland; while the Sion or Helvetian
type of that country bears some hkeness to our own Keltic form.
The group of tumuli called the Danes’ Graves, lying near Driffield, and described
by Canon Greenwell in the ‘ Archeological Journal’, have yielded contents which
are a puzzle for anthropologists. Their date is subsequent to the introduction of
the use of iron. Their tenants were evidently not Christians; but they belonged to
a settled population. The mode of interment resembles nothing Scandinavian ;
and the form of the crania is narrower than usual, at least in modern times, in
Norway and Denmark. It is hazardous to conjecture any thing about them ; but
I should be more disposed to refer them to an early Anglian or Frisian settlement
than to a Danish one.
We come now to the Danish invasions and conquest, which, as well as the
Norman one that followed, was of more ethnological importance in Yorkshire than
in most other parts of England. The political history of Deira from the ninth
century to the eleventh, the great number of Scandinavian local names (not
greater, however, in Yorkshire than in Lincolnshire), and the peculiarities of the
local dialect, indicate that Danes and Norwegians arrived and settled, from time
to time, in considerable numbers. But in estimating those numbers we must
make allowance for their energy and audacity, as well as for the yery near kinship
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 137
between the Danes and the Northumbrian Angles, which, though it did not pre-
vent sanguinary struggles between them at first and great destruction of life, must
have made amalgamation easy, and led the natives readily to adopt some of the
characteristics of the invaders.
Whatever the Danish element in Yorkshire was, it was common to Lincolnshire
and Nottinghamshire and to the north-eastern part of Norfolk, and it was com-
paratively weak in Northumberland and even in Durham. In Yorkshire itself it
was irregularly distributed, the local names in by, toft, and thwaite and the
like being scattered in a more or less patchy manner, as may be seen on Mr,
Taylor’s map. They are very prevalent in Cleveland, as has been shown by Mr.
Atkinson. Again, the long list of the landowners of the county under Edward
the Confessor, given in Domesday book, contains a mixture of Anglian with
Scandinavian names, the latter not everywhere ‘preponderating. Here, again,
Cleveland comes out very Danish. I am inclined to believe that the Anglian
opulation was, in the first fury of the invasion, to some extent pushed westwards
into the hill-country of the West Riding, though even here distinctly Danish
names, such as Sowerby, are quite common. Beverley and Holderness perhaps
remained mainly Anglian.
The Norman conquest fell upon Yorkshire, and parts of Lancashire and Durham,
with unexampled severity, It would seem that the statement of William of
Malmesbury, that the land lay waste for many years through the length of 60 miles,
was hardly, if at all, exaggerated. The thoroughness and the fatal effects of this
frightful devastation were due, no doubt, partly to the character of William, who,
having once conceived the design, carried it out with as much completeness and
regularity as ferocity, and partly to the nature of the country, the most populous
portion of which was level and devoid of natural fastnesses or refuge—but also, in
some desree to the fact that the Northumbrians had arrived at a stage of material
civilization at which such a mode of warfare would be much more formidable than
while they were in a more barbarous condition, always prepared for fire and sword,
and living, as it were, from hand to mouth. Long ages afterwards the Scots told
Froissart’s informants that they could afford to despise the incursions of the English,
who could do them little harm beyond burning their houses, which they could soon
build up again with sticks and turf; but the unhappy Northumbrians were already
beyond that stage.
In all Yorkshire, including parts of Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland,
Domesday numbers only about 500 freemen, and not 10,000 men altogether. This
great destruction, or rather loss of population (for it was due in some measure to
the free or forced emigration to Scotland of the vanquished), did not necessarily
imply ethnological change. Let us examine the evidence of Domesday on this
oint, It agrees with that of William of Malmesbury, that the void created by
Eeaastation remained a void, either entirely or to a great extent. Whole parishes
and districts are returned as “waste.” In one instance 116 freemen (sockmanni)
are recorded to have held land in King Edward’s time, of whom not one remained;
in another, of 108 sokemen only 7 remained. But foreigners did settle in the
county to some extent, either as military retainers of the new Norman lords, as their
tenants, or as yon eene in the city of York, where 145 francigenze (Frenchmen)
are recorded as inhabiting houses,
Of the number maintained by way of garrisons by the new nobility, one can
form no estimate ; but considering the impoverished and helpless condition of the
surviving natives, such garrisons would probably not be large. But from the
enumeration of mesne tenants, or middlemen, some inferences may perhaps be
drawn. On six great estates, comprising the larger part of Eastern and Central
Yorkshire, sixty-eight of these tenants are mentioned by name, besides 11 milites,
or men-at-arms. Only 11 of the 68 bear names undoubtedly English; and none of
them have large holdings, as is the case with some of those bearing Norman names,
On the lands of Drogo de Bevrere, about Holderness, several of the new settlers
were apparently Flemings.
The western part of the county, however, or the greater part of it, had been
granted to two lords who pursued a more generous policy. Alan, count of Bretagne,
the founder of Richmond, had twenty-three tenants, besides twelve le men-
1
138 REPORT—1878.
at-arms with very small holdings. Of the twenty-three, nine were Englishmen, in
several instances holding as dependents the whole or part of what had been their
own freeholds. The Breton ballads and traditions seem to favour the supposition
that Count Alan’s Breton followers mostly returned home; and Count Hersart de
la Villemarquée, the well-known Breton archeologist, informed me that his
ancestors returned to Bretagne from Yorkshire in the twelfth century, On the
whole, I do not think it probable that the Breton colony was numerous enough to
leave distinct and permanent vestiges; but if any such there are, they may be
looked for in the modern inhabitants of Richmond and Gilling.
Ibert de Lacy, again, had a great domain, including most part of the wapentakes
of Morley, Agbrigg, Skyrack, and Staincross—extending, that is, far to the north
and south of our present place of meeting. Bradford, by the way, was then hardly
so important and wealthy as at the present day. A thane named Gamel had held
it in the time of Edward the Confessor, when it was valued at four pounds yearly ;
but at the time of the survey it was waste and worth nothing.
Sixty-seven mesne tenants under Ibert de Lacy are mentioned, of whom no less
than forty-one bore English names, and only twenty-six foreign ones. It is pro-
bable therefore that in this important part of the county the ethnological change
wrought by the Conquest was not greater, if so great as in England generally, but
that in the centre, east, and north-east it was of some moment, and that the
Scandinavian element of population suffered and lost more than the Anglian.
It might be a matter of some interest to a minute ethnologist or antiquarian to
trace out fully the local history after the Conquest from an ethnological point of
view, investigating particularly the manner and source of the repeopling of the
great plain of York.
After this had been completed, no further change of ethnological importance took
place during several centuries. The Flemings and Frisians, who, in considerable
numbers, settled at various times in Leeds, Halifax, and Wakefield, whether drawn
hither by the course and opportunities of trade, or driven by the persecutions of
Philip II. and the Roman Catholics, brought in no new element, and readily
amalgamated with the kindred race they found here.
The more recent immigrations into the West Riding and Cleveland from all parts
of Britain, and even from the continent of Europe, have interest of other kinds.
Vast as they have been, they have not yet obscured in any great degree the local
types, physical or moral, which still predominate almost everywhere, though
tending of course to assimilate themselves to those of the mixed population of
England in general.
In describing these types I prefer to use the words of Professor Phillips, who, in
his ‘ Rivers of Yorkshire,’ has drawn them in true and vivid colows. He speaks
of three natural groups :—
“First. Tall, large-boned, muscular persons ; visage long, angular ; complexion
fair or florid; eyes blue or grey; hair light, brown or reddish. Such personsin all
parts of the county form a considerable part of the population. In the North
Riding, from the eastern coast to the western mountains, they are plentiful.
“Second. Person robust; visage oval, full and rounded; nose often slightly
aquiline; complexion somewhat embrowned, florid; eyes brown or grey; hair
brown or reddish. In the West Riding, especially in the elevated districts, very
powerful men have these characters.
“Third. Person of lower stature and smaller proportions ; visage short, rounded ;
complexion embrowned ; eyes very dark, elongated; hair very dark. Individuals
having these characters occur in the lower grounds of Yorkshire, as in the valley
of the Aire below Leeds, in the vale of the Derwent, and the level regions south -
of York.
I have chosen to quote from Professor Phillips rather than to give descriptions
of my own, both because his acquaintance with the facts is more extensive than
mine, and bacause I desire to pay my small tribute to the genius and insight of the
author of a work so unique and so admirable as his upon Yorkshire.
He ascribes the first and second of these types mainly to a Scandinavian, the last
to a Romano-British, or possibly Iberian origin; and appears to think that the
first, the tall, fair, long-faced breed, resembles the Swedes, and that the second,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 139
the brown burly breed of the West Riding, is more Norwegian in character. He
probably selects the Swedes as the purest or most typical of the Scandinavian
nations. For my own part, Iam disposed to treat the first as Norwegian more
than Anglian, the second as Anglian rather than Norse, and Norse rather than
British. The tall fair type engrosses most of the beauty of the north, having
often an oval face, with a fine straight profile nearly approaching the Greek, as
Knox and Barnard Davis, two close observers, have both remarked. And it is
markworthy that it reappears in force almost everywhere in Britain where Norse
blood abounds, e.g. in Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, in the upper class of the
Hebrideans, in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Lonsdale, about Lincoln (where
Professor Phillips also noted it) and the Vale of Trent, and about the towns of
Waterford and Wexford. The second type, on the other hand, much resembles a
prevailing form in Staffordshire, a very Anglian county. A notable point about it
is the frequency of eyes of a neutral undecided tint, between light and dark, green,
brown, and grey, the hair being comparatively light. The third is of more doubtful
and of more manifold origin. Iberian, Britokeltic, Roman, Breton, Frenchman,
may all or any of them have contributed to its prevalence. I am inclined to think,
though on rather slender grounds, that it is common in some of the districts de-
populated by the Conqueror. Professor Phillips spealis of its smaller proportions ;
but it includes many robust men. It is probably far from well representing the
Brigantian type, which seems to me to have influenced the other types, but rarely
to crop out at all purely.
The breadth of the head is on the average somewhat greater in Yorkshire than
in other parts of Britain ; so we are informed by the hatters. In this the natives
of Yorkshire agree with those of Denmark and Norway, who have rather broader
heads than those of Sweden and Friesland.
I have already spoken of the colours of the eyes and hair, The latter is on the
whole lighter in Yorkshire than in most parts of England; but dull rather than
bright shades prevail. In the east, at Whitby, Bridlington, and Beverley, in Tees-
dale and Middle Airedale, light hair is particularly abundant; in Craven, as might
have been expected, it is less so: other parts of the county are not so well known
to me; and in this matter I have to trust to my own observation.
As to the stature and bulk of the people, however, I have much and accurate
information, through the kindness of numerous observers, some of them of repute
as naturalists. These are Mr. Atkinson of Danby, Mr. Tudor of Kirkdale; Dr.
Wright of Melton, Dr. Christy of the North Riding Asylum, Drs. Kelburne King
and Casson of Hull, Mr. Ellerton of Middlesborough, Mr. Wood of Richmond, Mr,
Kaye of Bentham, Mr. Edy of Grassington, Dr. Paley of Ripon, Dr, Ingham of
Haworth, Messrs. Armitage of Farnley, Dr. Wood of Kirkby Overblow, Dr. Aveling
and Mr. Short of Sheffield, Mr. Milner, late of Wakefield Prison, and a clergyman
on the Wolds, whom the prejudices or fears of his parishioners will not allow me
toname. “A Yorkshireman,’’ complained this last gentleman, “is a difficult animal
to catch and weigh and measure ;” but a very large number of them have been
subjected to these processes by my obliging correspondents. The general result is
that in the rural districts they are remarkably tall and stalwart, though not, except
in parts of the west, so heavy as their apparent size would indicate—but that in the
towns, and especially in Sheffield, they are rapidly degenerating ; and I conclude
from the Haworth report that the same is the case in the manufacturing villages.
In many of the rural districts the average ranges between 5 feet 8 and 5 feet 9 inches,
and about Richmond and on the Bentham Fells is considerably higher; while at
Sheffield, and even at Haworth, it may hardly reach 5 feet 6 inches. The causes
of this great degeneration are manifold: some of them may easily be traced ; but
either the will or the power to remedy the evil is wanting.
Of the moral and intellectual endowments of Yorlkshiremen, it may perhaps
appear presumptuous or invidious to speak ; but the subject is too interesting to be
passed by in silence, and I will endeavour to treat it without either “extenuating,
or setting down aught in malice.” In few parts of Britain does there exist a more
clearly marked moral type. To that of the Irish it has hardly any affinity; but
the Scotchman and the Southern Englishman alike recognize the ditferences which
distinguish the Yorkshire character from their own, but are not oon to appre=
140 REPORT—1873.
ciate the numerous respective points of resemblance. The character is essentially
Teutonic, including the shrewdness, the truthfulness without candour, the perse-
verance, energy, and industry of the Scotch, but little of their frugality, or of
the theological instinct common to the Welsh and Scotch, or of the imaginative
genius, or the more brilliant qualities which sometimes light up the Scottish
character.
The sound judgment, the spirit of fair-play, the love of comfort, order, and
cleanliness, and the fondness for heavy feeding are shared with the Saxon
Englishman ; but some of them are still more strongly marked in the Yorkshire-
man, as is also the bluff independence—a very fine quality when it does not degene-
rate into selfish rudeness. The aptitude for music was remarked by Giraldus
Cambrensis seven centuries ago; and the taste for horseflesh seems to have
descended from the old Norsemen, though it may have been fostered by local
circumstances. The mind, like the body, is generally very vigorous and energetic,
and extremely well adapted to commercial and industrial pursuits, as well as to the
cultivation of the exact sciences; but a certain defect in imaginative power must,
I think, be admitted, and is probably one reason, though obviously not the only
one, why Yorkshire, until quite modern times, was generally behindhand in politics
and religion, and why the number of her sons who, since Czedmon, have attained
to high eminence in literature is not above the average of England.
Note on the Iberians. By Joun Brpvor, M.D., F.R.S.
The writer briefly adverted to :—1st. The longer heads and more frequently light
hair of the Spanish Basques as compared with the modern Aquitanians, 2ndly.
The probable presence in Aquitaine of a melanochroic element of population,
neither Basque, Kymric, nor Gaelic, but possibly Ligurian. 38rdly. The presence
of acommon element in the populations of the Basque countries, of Bretagne, and
of Wales, indicated by certain physical types.
The Serpent in connexion with Primitive Metallurgy. By A. W. Bucktanp,
In considering the innumerable serpent legends which have descended to us from
an immeasurable antiquity, we cannot fail to be struck with the remarkable fact
that by far the larger number represent the serpent either as the guardian of hidden
treasure and revealer of hidden knowledge, or as in some way connected with gold
and gems. Pursuing our inquiries further, we find almost invariably that all the
heroes and gods with whom the serpent is associated are also credited with some
mysterious power over riches, agriculture, and atmospheric phenomena: they are
always the pioneers of civilization, the teachers of agriculture and of mining: their
age is the golden age of the people over whom they reign; and in all these instances
the serpent is the Agathodsemon, the good and benevolent deity, sometimes the
creator, almost always the first and oldest of gods or demigods, and in this character
is generally accompanied by an egg as an emblem of the world, or a cone symbolical
of the sunorfire, these serpent races being invariably worshippers of the sun and earth.
But we find that this character of the serpent is confined to Turanian races, or to those
nations who have at some time or other passed under Turanian influences. Among
the Aryans and Semites the serpent is looked upon as a form of evil, although this -
idea is modified in many cases by a survival of primitive belief, so that in Hindostan
he is still regarded with veneration, although the origin of that veneration can
generally be traced to aboriginal tribes. It would therefore appear that the serpent
may yet become a very important ethnological guide; and being traced back to the
age of totemism, and read by the light of legends confirmed by early monuments,
it may probably be assumed that the primitive tribe or tribes bearing the serpent
as a totem were also the first metal workers, and had acquired their knowledge of
metals in some way through the instrumentality of the totem, for this reason so
highly and so widely venerated. It would also appear that these early serpent
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 141
tribes carried their knowledge from the parent hive (probably in Central Asia or
India, where the precious metals abound) across Asia, Africa, Europe, and even to
America, leaving traces of their presence everywhere in serpent symbols, serpent
mounds, megalithic monuments, and the earliest traces of metallurgy, confined,
however, to the use of the three precious metals in their pure unsmelted form. And
it would further appear that the connexion with America was broken before smelted
metals and iron became known, the art of smelting having probably been an acci-
dental discovery of the Aryan successors of the early serpent tribes. This serpen-
tine origin of metallurgy the author has endeavoured to set forth at some length
in this paper, believing it to be a matter worthy of further investigation, being
apparently confirmed by the present veneration of the serpent existing among
uranian races, and the absence of serpent traditions among savages living in a
purely stone age, excepting in the Fiji Islands, where the inhabitants bear traces
of great admixture with Asiatic tribes.
—
Observations on Professor Gennarelli’s Paper “ On the Existence of a Race of
Lied Men in Northern Africa and Southern Europe in Prehistoric Times.”
By ©. H. KE. Carmicaarr, M.A.
This communication gave an analysis of a paperrecently read before the Anthropo-
logical and Ethnological Society of Italy by Prof. Gennarelli. The arguments ad-
duced rest partly on the exposition of various myths, and partly on so-called histo-
rical evidence furnished by the hieroglyphics of Egypt and the pottery of Etruria,
where representations of men are coloured red, and those of women of a lighter shade.
As a consequence of the discussion of Gennarelli’s hypothesis, an Italian Committee
has been formed for the study of the primitive races of Italy.
On Prehistoric Names of Weapons. By Hypn Crarxe.
This was a first attempt to apply the evidence of philological science to the con-
sideration of the distribution of the names of weapons in illustration of the distri-
bution of the weapons themselves among variousraces. Examples were taken from
the Indian region, West Africa, North America, South America, and Australia, of
the roots BK, BN, KN, and DM, applied to arrow and dart, knife, axe or hatchet,
spear or lance. Of one of these an example was given in Naga (India) of Api and
takoaba, and in Houssa (Africa) of kebia and takobi. In the latter triliteral epoch,
the fanciful reference of weapons to the tongue as darting was mentioned in degen
and tongue, lancea and lingua, gladius and glotta. Examples were also given from
Australia,
On the Comparative Chronology of the Migrations of Man in America in
relation to Comparative Philology. By Hypr Ciarxe.
The object of this paper is to show that, so far as the evidence of language is as
yet available and so far as probabilities go, the languages and culture of ‘America
are connected with those of the Old World, and that there is no exclusive or
indigenous American language, grammar, or culture. The inference drawn is that
there is an original community of races and of culture, but that the culture was
arrested in its development by the stoppage of migration of the advanced races,
Successive migrations are declared to represent successive geological formations,
and the essay is made to lay the foundation of the comparative chronology of man.
The earliest migration determined by philology is that of the three languages of
the Negritos or Pygmeans, allied to the Mincopies of the Andamans. To the austral
branch are assigned the Natchez and Muskogulge, or Creek of North America, the
Alikulip and Tekeenika of Tierradel Fuego; to the septentrional belong the North-
American Shoshoni, Utah, Comanch, &c., the Netela and Kij, the Central American
Bayano and Darien, and the South-American Mayoruna and Kiriri ; and to the polar
the Eskimo,
To the Lenca of Honduras are joined the Coretu of South America as allied to
142 REPORT—1873.
the Kouri of West Africa. The great; Carib group is connected with those of
Dahomey and Whydah.
The close connexion of the Guarani and Omagua with the Abhass of Caucasia and
the Agaw of the Nile, in grammar and roots, embraces the Guarani, Tupi, Om-agua,
Mundrueu, Apiaca of Brazil, the Movima Saraveca &c. of the Missions, the 5, Pedro
and Coretu of the Orinoco. More distant are the Skwali, Sekumne, and Tsamak
of California.
The want of better knowledge was accounted for by imperfect information as to
the languages of the Old and the New World, and by the disappearance of whole
formations of languages, leaving only surviving a few detached and ill-connected
members, much altered by subsequent influences.
A tradition of the Americas and Australia was attributed to the Greek, Roman,
and medizeval geographers,
On the Ashantee and Fantee Languages. By Hype Crarxe.
These, together with the Dzellana, were classified with the Korean and the Che-
temachs assigned as a North-American branch, It was noted, in reference to the
common origin of culture, that the Oricas had, like the Ashantees, established a large
kingdom and repulsed European forces.
On the Report concerning Bushinan researches of Dr. W. H. Bleek, Ph.D.
By Hyper Crarxe.
Dr, Bleek had been supplied by the authorities of the Cape of Good Hope with
a large number of Bushmen convicts. From these he had written down more than
four thousand columns (half pages quarto) of text, besides a dozen genealogical
tables, and other genealogical, geographical, pathological, &c. notices. An English-
Bushman vocabulary of 142 pages and a Bushman-English one of 600 pages have
been formed. The mythology in which animals and heavenly objects are personified
is largely illustrated. It is expected that the Cape legislature will authorize the
publication of these important materials for anthropological investigations.
On the Northern Range of the Iberians in Europe.
By W. Boxy Dawxis, M.A., PLR.
The range of the Iberian Basque, or Euskarian peoples, characterized by their
small stature, dark complexion, jet-black hair and eyes, oval face, and orthognathic
skull, was examined from the point of view offered by history. In the earliest
records the population of the Iberic peninsula was composed of two elements, the
northern, to which its name is due, and the southern or Celtic, the fusion between
the two being proved by the name Celtiberi, or Castilians, In France, at the time
of the conquest by the Romans, the Iberic element was represented by the Aquitani
in the region bounded by the Garonne and Gironde, but whose north-eastern frontier
was subsequently extended to the Loire (Ligur). Between them and the allied
Ligurian tribes on the borders of the Mediterranean a broad band of Celte inter-
posed, marking that the eastern Pyrenees was the route by which the Celtic invasion
of Spain took place. The Belge pressed on the Celts, occupying the valley of the
Rhine. The same sequence of peoples was maintained in Britain. In the west of
‘Wales the Iberians were represented by the Silures ; the Celtee occupied the greater
part of the island, and the Belge had taken possession of the maritime region. The -
dark-haired inhabitants of South-west Ireland were of Iberian descent, and the
Celt possessed most of the island. These “ ethnological islands” of Iberians, in
Ireland, in Wales, in South-east France, and it may be added in Sicily, isolated by
a sea of Celt from the mainland of Basques, proved that the Iberie peoples were
once distributed through the area under consideration before the Celtze had driven
them away to the west.
This conclusion is confirmed by an examination of the contents of ossiferous
caves and of tumuli, by which they were shown to have extended as far north
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 143
as Oban, and as far to the east as Belgium in the Neolith age, the human remains
described by himself, Busk, Thurnam, Broca, Dupont, and others being of the same
type as those from Basque cemeteries in the museum of the Anthropological Society
of Paris, and the associated works of art being for the most part the same. The
pred of the Iberic peninsula were also occupied by Basques in the neolithic stage
of culture.
- The Basque population was probably derived from Asia, and the route by which
they peg into Europe was probably the same as that by which the Celtz, Belge,
and Germans advanced to the west rather than by way of Africa, Itis also very
likely that the Basques stood in close relation to their neighbours the Etruscan, and
the two non-Aryan peoples may have been identical in race, related to each other
as Celt to Belgian.
Some Remarks on Ethnic Psychology. By Rosrrt Duyn, FRCS.
_ The comparative psychology of the typical races of man presents a subject for
investigation of great interest to many an ethnological inquirer and to all physio-
logical anthropologists, but at the same time is of a character so wide and compre-
hensive, that the author confines his remarks principally to the physiological bearings
of the subject—to cerebral psychology. He observes that, while comparative psy-
chology, in its widest sense, embraces the study and strict interpretation of all those
living experiments (to use the happy expression of Cuvier) which nature presents
to us in an ascending series in the wide domain of animal life, from the lowest
up to man himself, ethnic psychology restricts the inquiry to the genus Homo
sapiens and its typical varieties. He refers to a paper which he read at the
Cambridge Meeting of the British Association in 1862, “On the Psychological
Differences which exist among the Typical Races of Man,” in which he dwelt upon
the importance of carefully studying and of contrasting and comparing the cerebral
organizations of the typical races, with the view, and as the most efficient means,
to the better understanding and elucidation of the psychological differences which
exist among and characterize them. Believing as he then did, and as he still does,
that the distinctive psychical differences which exist among the typical races will
be found to be engraven on their brains, he here again enforces the paramount
importance of this duty, and indicates a field of investigation and inquiry which,
if fully explored, cannot fail, as he thinks and believes, of throwing a flood of light
upon the subject of ethnic psychology. He dwells on the labours of Gratiolet in
France, quoting the emphatic language of Professor Rolleston, of Oxford, “ what
Max Miiller had done for language and Adams for astronomy, that Gratiolet had
done for the anatomy of the brain ; ” regretting at the same time that, notwithstan-
ding the labours of Gratiolet and the chart which he may be said to have provided
for our guidance as a standard of comparison, the brains of the typical races have
yet to be carefully examined, compared, and contrasted with each other. This
remains to be done, and is still a desideratum. He strives to impress strongly on the
minds of others his own conviction of the necessity and importance of a more
exact knowledge than that to which we have yet attained of the cerebral structural
differences which exist among the typical races. The basis of his own conviction of
the paramount importance of the duty of studying, contrasting, and comparing in all
the different races the nervous apparatus and organic instrumentality through which
their varying psychological phenomena are manifested, rests on the postulates that
the genus Homo is one, and that the brain is the instrument of the mind ; and on the
consequent and legitimate corollary from these, that the distinguishing psychical
differences which exist among the typical races are greatly, if not altogether, de-
pendent upon structural differences in their cerebral organizations. He says all
physiological psychologists are agreed that the vesicular matter of the great hemi-
spherical ganglia of the brain is the sole and evelusive seat of all intellectual action
and volitional power, but that his own mind rests in the conviction, as a well-
established fact, that different parts and portions of the vesicular matter of the
cerebral hemispheres are the seat of tet psychological activities and of different
kinds of mental action. He says the type of the brain is the same in all the different
races, and that in its evolution and ascensive development it passes through the
144 : REPORT—1873.
phases in which it appears in the Negro, Malay, American, and Mongolian races,
and finally reaches the highest or Caucasian type ; so that, in fact, the leading
characters of the typical races of mankind are virtually and simply representations
of particular stages of the highest or Caucasian race. As the anterior lobes of the
brain are the seat of the intellectual activities, fullness of development and com-
plexity of structure are sure indications of the elevation of the racial type; while,
on the other hand, the converse, as seen in the Negro or Bushman, is equally true, viz.
that simplicity of structure and perfect symmetry of type and arrangemnt of the
convolutions on both sides of the hemispheres are indisputable marks of degradation
of function and inferiority of race. He says Gratiolet has dwelt on the importance
of studying with scrupulous care and attention the complexities, relations, and ar-
rangements of the convolutions on the inferior, frontal, and coronal stage in all the
typical races, with a view to their psychical significance, and to the elucidation
and advancement of the study of ethnic psychology. In conclusion, he says that
the fact is indisputable that the large-brained European differs from and far sur-
passes the small-brained savage in the complexity of his manifestations, both intel-
lectual and moral ; but then he asks, Is not all this in strict accordance with and
what @ priori might be expected to result from organic differences in the instruments
of the higher psychical activities—in other words, in the nervous apparatus of the
perceptive and intellectual consciousness ?
Notes on Ooral-Caves with Human Bones in Stalagmite on Mangaia, South
Pacific. By the Rey. W. Wyatt Grit, B.A.
The author has resided for many years on the little island of Mangaia, one of the
seven islands constituting the Hervey group. Mangaia is in 21°57’ south latitude,
and 158° 7’ west longitude. It is nearly 20 miles in circumference, and not more
than 800 feet above the sea-level, with an unbroken fringing reef. The interior of
the island is formed of dark volcanic rock, rising in low hills striking from a single
flat-topped centre. There is no lagoon. Streams of water from the centre por-
tion, after fertilizing some thousands of taro-plantations, find their way to the
ocean through a remarkable belt of uplifted dead coral, which, like a cyclopean
wall, surrounds the inner part of the island. This mass of coral rock begins to rise
gradually about 200 yards from the rugged beach and slopes up to a ridge, but
towards the interior is perpendicular. It is from one to two miles across. In some
places the surface bristles with jagged rock sharp as spear-points. Many are the
ghastly wounds to the passenger occasioned by footslips. Numerous sea-shells,
‘similar to those on the present beach, are imbedded in this reef, even in the
highest parts. It is everywhere perforated by caverns and galleries. Mangaia
thus remarkably displays both the ordinary forms of coral islands, the reef of dead
coral upraised on the land, and the fringing reef at sea denoting elevation first and
then subaidlenie both requiring a very long period of time for growth. The caves
in the dead coral have been used as habitations, as refuges, and as cemeteries.
Scores of them are filled with desiccated human bodies; stalactite and stalagmite
abound, and form thick and fast-growing layers of limestone rock, of which the
author exhibited some specimens. In the waters lying in the hollows were nume-
rous limestone balls.
Soon after arriving in Mangaia in 1852, the author explored a great number of
caverns on the southern part of the island. The great ‘cave of Tevaki” divides
into two branches—the one communicating with the sea, the other with a glittering
stalactite roof terminates in an awful chasm. Pursuit of a tribe entrenched in such a
natural fortress was out of the question; the plan adopted in such circumstances
was to starve them out. Opposite to this great cave is a lesser one with a low en-
trance. At the further end of this the author found a quantity of detached human
bones, and, close by, a number of others imbedded in the solid limestone wall of
the cavern,
Two years ago the rumour of the great interest felt in Europe in the antiquity
of the human race reminded him of these caye-remains ; and so vivid were his first
impressions that he was able to go straight to the grotto, and with a hammer de-
tached the few specimens from the rock which were exhibited.
———
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 145
If any ordinary native of Mangaia were asked about these relics of humanity, he
would merely say, they were “ taito, taito rava” (old, very old”), and this would
probably delude the Eae peal inquirer into the belief that they were of remote
antiquity.
The tradition of the “ wise men” in relation to the matter is, that the sacerdotal
clan of Mautara, about the year 1718 a.p., surprised and destroyed Ruanae’s can-
nibal tribe at Pukuotoi, a spot about a mile from the grotto. This event has been
celebrated in song by the chief Potiki in his ‘ Lament for Vaiaa,’ beginning thus :—
The clan of Ruanae has perished,
As the reef covered with dead fish
Is the ground where they fought.
The entire victorious { Let their carcases rot there!
clan in chorus ... | Let their carcases rot there!
The bodies of some of the most distinguished were conveyed by their friends to
the neighbouring caves and piled up there on wooden platforms. As the wood
decayed, the bones were scattered over the damp floor.
The author procured some human bones of a more remote date, but in a much better
state of preservation, a circumstance owing to the dryness of the cave in which
they were found. These relics are stated by the “ wise men” to be the remains
of invaders from Tubuai, who effected a landing, and at first overran the island in
the reign of Anne, but were eventually deceived and destroyed by the aborigines
of Mangaia, Anne was the fourth sovereign chief of the little island; the battle
which sealed the fate of the invaders was the fourth ever fought on Mangaia. At
first sight the bones chipped out of the rock seem to be of much higher antiquity
than the relics of the invaders from Tubuai; yet this is not the case.
The author concludes that the Hervey islands have been peopled in compa-
ratively recent times; and so, too, of the Eastern Pacific islands. Tahiti and
the neighbouring islands were all peopled some generations previous to the
Hervey islands, the first island colonized in that neighbourhood being Raiatea,
the. centre of a widely extended and most sanguinary worship. Those islanders
speak of their ancestors as having come up from the “po” =“ darkness,” or from
“ Hawaii” =“ Savaii.” By “coming up out of darkness,’ no doubt the lands
where the sun sets are intended ; and “ Hawaii” is Savaii, the largest island in
the Samoan group. Of course ‘‘ Hawaii” naturally reminds one of the great island
in the Sandwich group; but the traditions of the Eastern islands all point west-
ward, not northward.
A close study of the question for several years past induces the author to believe
that the Hervey group was colonized about five or six centuries ago. The grounds
of his belief are :-—
1. The fact that when in 1823 Rarotonga was discovered the twenty-fourth
“Makea”’* was reigning. Allowing to each “Makea” a reign of twenty-five
years, we have a total of 600 years. Another chief on Rarotonga, named “ Tino-
mana,” was in 1823 the nineteenth in direct descent from “ Makea Karika,” who
came from Samoa. Allowing, as in the former instance, twenty-five years to each
chief of this tribe, we obtain a total of 475 years.
2. The “wise men” of Atiu confessed to the writer that the ancestors of the
present chiefs sprang from the regal Makea family of Rarotonga.
3. The well-known succession of priests of the three principal gods of Mangaia
supplies us with nine very long lives. Allowing each priest to discharge his
functions during the long (probably too long) period of fifty years, we get a result
of only 450 years. The Mangaians themselves trace their origin to ANATKI, or
“netherworld.” Now “Avaiki,” “Hawaii,” and “Savaii” are but slightly different
forms of one word. In their songs and myths are many references to ‘the hosts
of Ukupolu,” undoubtedly the “ Upolu” of Samoa, The other islands of that group
are all mentioned in ancient Mangaian song.
But whence did the Samoans spring? Many words in their dialect are identical
with that spoken on the south-eastern peninsula of New Guinea, Of the Asiatic
* “ Makea” is a regal title, like “ Pharaoh” and “ Candace” of Scripture,
146 ; REPORT—1873.
and Semitic origin of the Samoans and Eastern Pacific Islanders generally, the
author has no doubt. ‘
The instruments produced were not from the cave, but were actually used by
the present or last generation. The author pointed to a remarkable oval sling-stone
of stalagmite limestone, to the axes of jade, basalt, and greenstone, to the hafted
axes of basalt, as illustrating by recent examples the history of the extinct stone
age of Europe.
On the Passage of Eastern Civilization across the Pacific.
By J. Parx Harrison, M.A.
The fact that a drift-current from the west deposits wood and other light mate-
rials upon the shores of Haster Island, and then, turning northwards, joins the
Chilean stream in its course towards the equator, goes far to support the tradi-
tions of the Eastern islanders, as well as the inhabitants of the coast of Quito, that
strangers arrived amongst them many centuries ago from the west. The author
mentioned that there is a tall race, with marked aquiline features, who formerly
followed sun-worship and artificially elongated the lobes of the ears, that can be
traced across the Pacific in two directions—one through the islands of Sancta Crux
to California, the other through the Tonga Islands, Oparo, and Easter Island to
Peru. Numerous distinctive analogues along both routes appear to connect the
people alluded to with our east. Both in stature and profile they differed from the
races with which they mingled, and became more or less amalgamated.
On a hitherto undescribed Neolithic Implement.
By J. Stvcuarr Horpen, M.D., F.GS., MATL.
This implement is a flint saw, which seems peculiar to the primitive dwellers
of the Glens of Antrim in the later stone period. It has been found in several
dolmens by the Earl of Antrim and the writer. That it is rare and local is con-
firmed by its absence from the stone-implement collections in our museums, and
its also not being mentioned by Mr. Stevens, Mr. Evans, and other writers on this
subject. It is formed from a flat flint flake by chipping a curved portion out of
its thin margin, the edge of which is bevelled and finely serrated. When held in
the hand and semirotated, it would be an excellent tool for sawing notches in a
round stick or bone, and may have been thus used to notch arrow-shafts in order
to securely tie on the barbs, and would also serve for marking tallies.
Being found so purely local puts aside the suggestion of it having been used for
any religious rite. It 1s much too delicate to have been employed as a scraper,
and the manner in which old ones are worn and fractured negatives this opinion,
Though very unlike every flint saw hitherto met with and described, this genuine
implement seems to admit of no other designation.
A true Cerebral Theory necessary to Anthropology *.
By J. Karns, D.Se., M.A., Tr. L.A.S.
Dr. Kaines began his paper by stating that anthropology, the science of mankind,
cannot be more than instituted as a science while physiology, or the science of
individual life, is incomplete, To render human and comparative physiology com-
plete, cerebral physiology must acquire positivity.
Further, the aim of the author was to show that phrenology was the only de
facto science of mind, it being based on physiology ; while certain pseudo-sciences
of mind, based on theological and metaphysical data, were unscientific. Dr. Kaines
briefly reviewed the labours of Gall and others who had founded and established
organology, and asked why it was that the science of cerebral physiology had fallen
into apparent disrepute. He went on to show in what way the strength and weak-
ness of the system were regarded by eminent thinkers and physiologists, such as
* The above paper is printed iz extenso in ‘Anthropologia,’ No, II,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 147
G. H. Lewes, Broussais, De Blainville, and A. Bain, nearly all of whom agreed
that the fundamental position of phrenology was demonstrated. The author
quoted freely from A. Comte’s ‘Philosophie Positive,’ tome iii. ‘ Biologie ”—a
philosophical exposition and criticism of Gall’s doctrine, and the means whereby it
might become, physiologically and anatomically, scientific. He said, “ Phrenolo-
gical analysis has, then, to be reconstituted, first in the anatomical, and then in
the physiological order; and finally the two must be harmonized; and not till
then can phrenological physiology be established upon its true scientific basis.”
“Tf our existing phrenology isolates the cerebral functions too much, it is yet more
open to reproach for separating the brain from the whole of the nervous system.”
“ Phrenology has too much neglected the great influence to which the chief intel-
lectual and moral functions are subject from other physiological phenomena, as
Cabanis pointed out so emphatically while preparing the way for the philosophical
revolution which we owe to Gall.”
The paper concluded by showing that anthropology could benefit nothing from
old systems unscientifically based, and that anthropologists could only prosecute
their studies successfully by discarding: as idle all questions of origins of species,
whether human or animal, and of first and final causes, these questions being be-
yond settlement by such knowledge and such powers as we have,
On an Age of Colossi.
By Joun 8S. Puuyt, /.S.A., F.GS., PRGS., FRIB.A.
This paper commenced with a slight sketch of the theory of the ages of stone,
bronze, and iron, as generally recognized by anthropologists, for the purpose of
bringing forward a feature which, in the author's opinion, would at a future period
considerably modify present ideas on this subject—the geographical feature, the
effect of which, he thought, could be hardly understood till we were able to cor-
relate more perfectly the antiquities of distant countries. He argued that, as-
suming a wave of emigration from a common centre to bear forward any distinct
characteristic, whether of these recognized features or of colossi, or otherwise, such
wave might, in prehistoric times, while portions of it terminated abruptly near its
source, upon desirable spots being attained, travel indefinitely by other sections
over an enormous area, even giving rise to secondary or subwaves of exodus.
This, in result, might produce the strange features, discovered by subsequent
travellers, of a civilized or historic age setting in, either from a succeeding wave
or some other cause, which would reach to the settlements from which the sub-
exodus proceeded, but not follow the offshoots; hence, in an age highly historic,
and civilized in a given geographical area, there might be found people with the
same features, traditions, myths, and roots of language in a barbarous or prehistoric
age or condition outside that geographical area; and in consequence any par-
ticular age so identified might be, or seem to be, indefinitely long from the retainers
of its characteristics wandering beyond the reach of communication. That such
waves had pire over distant lands, he argued by illustration and analogy, through
various architectural features, special and peculiar, found in remote and distant
countries. After drawing attention to the inhabitants of what he termed the
three great centres of colossi, and which he designated as Egyptian, Malayan, and
pre-Mayan, or Mexican, he illustrated by diagrams and drawings the favourite
emblems of those creators of colossi, from which it appeared that on a-broad basis
there was both an architectural and emblematic similarity in their works, the
yramid, the monolith, the obelisk, and the elevated platform being prominent
Ptares in each; the worship of the sun apparently common, and colossal em-
blems of the human figure, reptilia, and birds abounding. Laster Island, as repre-
senting Polynesia, was included, and the physical features and climatic conditions
were found approximating in these different centres. He are pee a belief that
a careful study of the poetic language of the Singhalese would aid and stimulate
researches in the forest-covered cities of Ceylon, and those of the ancient Maya (if
possible) and of the Quiché peoples would unravel the mystery of the now impene-
trable cities of Mexico and Central America. While these cities, with their colossi,
148 REPORT—1873,.
were so buried, we had much to learn of the history of the human family, and the
age in which their colossi were executed.
This part of the question was (he considered) too extensive for a single paper,
and he would confine himself, by way of illustrating his argument, to what seemed
to him the result of an offshoot from such a preceding wave as he had supposed,
which he considered had laved its final billow on the shores of Britain. He first
pointed out that the highly civilized nations of Greece and Rome were not origi-
nators of colossi, but elaborators of the raw material ideas (if he might so express
himself) of the Egyptians and other earlier nations, as shown by their exquisite
symmetry, and the costliness of the materials (gold and ivory) of which some of
their most gigantic colossi were constructed, as quoted by Pliny, Pausanius, Strabo,
and other ancient writers. He then gave a number of examples of similar accom-
panying features in Britain, Egypt, Mexico,and Malaya. He found parallels of design
in the plans of some Oriental cities (as Rhodes), in those of some of the Chinese and
Sardinian tombs, and the horseshoe device of Stonehenge, all of which assimilate ;
in the circle of Copan and those of Avebury, the Giant’s Ring near Belfast, and
others; and finally argued that we had not only these collateral evidences, but
actual colossi of the ancients in these lands, in enormous monoliths, in venerated
idols—as, amongst others, the celebrated rock, the traditional goddess Andras, and
the enormous Wilmington giant, both in Sussex; and the latter, as the result of
his attracting attention to it, is now being restored, with the consent and kind
assistance of the Duke of Devonshire. This figure, he quoted Cresar and Strabo
to show, agreed identically with the description given by those writers of the vast
Celtic deity, to which were sacrificed human victims, wild beasts and cattle, and
of which Cesar says “ they had many images,”
Notes on Stone Implements from British Guiana. By F. W. Rovrmr, F.G.S.
The specimens exhibited to the department and described in this communi-
cation were collected by Mr. C. B. Brown during his recent survey of British
Guiana. One of the implements, formed apparently of diorite, presented the form
of an acute cone, 6 inches high, with a flat circular face, about 2 inches in diameter :
this face seemed to be well adapted for grinding or pounding. Mr. Franks had
pointed out the similarity between this implement and others from the north-west
coast of America, where they are used as hammers. This specimen was found
on the Burro-burro river. Among the other implements was an adze in diorite,
found on the site of an ancient Indian village at Skeldon, at the mouth of the
Corentyne river. It was accompanied by a small carved image in a green steatitic
mineral, by fragments of coarse pottery, and by a large number of bones, including
those of the tapir.
On the Relation of Morality to Religion in the Early Stages of Civilization.
By Epwarp B. Trtor, F.B.S..
Investigations of the culture of the lower races of mankind show morality and
religion subsisting under conditions differing remarkably from those of the higher
barbaric and civilized nations. Among the rudest tribes a well-marked standard
of morality exists, regulating the relations of family and tribal life. There also
exists among these tribes some more or less definite religion, always consisting of
some animistic doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and usually taking in
some rudimentary form of worship. But, unlike the higher nations, the lowest
races in no way unite their ethics and their theology. As examples, the Austra-
lians and Basutos of South Africa were adduced. The Australians believe spiri-
tual beings to swarm throughout the universe : the Basutos are manes-worshippers,
considering the spirits of deceased ancestors to influence all the events of human
life ; wherefore they sacrifice to the spirits of near relatives, that they may use their
influence with the older and more powerful spirits higher in the line of ancestry.
Yet these races and many others have not reached the theological stage at which
man’s good or evil moral actions are held to please or displease his divinities, and
to be rewarded or punished accordingly. The object of the present paper is to
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 149
trace the precise steps through which the important change was made which con-
verted the earlier unethical systems of religion into ethical ones. This change
appears to have been a gradual coalescence between the originally independent
schemes of morality and religion.
In order to show the nature of such coalescence between religion and other
branches of culture not originally or not permanently connected with it, the author
traced out, on an ethnological line, the relations between religion and, on the one
hand, the rite of marriage, on the other hand the profession of medicine.
First, as to marriage. The evidence of the lower races tends to show that
at early stages of civilization marriage was a purely civil contract. Its earliest
forms are shown amongst savage tribes in Brazil and elsewhere. The peaceable
form appears well in the custom of the marriageable youth leaving a present of
fruit, game, &c. at the door of the girl’s parents; this is a clear symbolic promise
that he will maintain her as a wife. Another plan common in Brazil is for the
expectant bridegroom to serve for a time in the family of the bride, till he is con-
sidered to have earned her,
The custom of buying the wife comes in at a later period of civilization, when
roperty suited for trade exists. The hostile form of marriage, that by capture,
fi also existed among low tribes in Brazil up to modern times, the man simply
carrying off by force a damsel of a distant tribe—the antiquity of this “ Sabine
marriage ” in the general history of mankind being shown by its survival in coun-
tries such as Ireland and Wales, where within modern times the ceremony of
capturing the bride in a mock fight was kept up.
i in none of these primitive forms of marriage, as retained in savage culture,
did any religious rite or idea whatever enter. It is not till we reach the high
‘ savage and barbaric conditions that the coalescence between marriage and religion
takes place, as where among the Mongols the priest presides at the marriage feast,
consecrates the bridal tent with incense, and places the couple kneeling with their
faces to the east, to adore the sun, fire, and earth; or, as where among the Aztecs,
the priest ties together the garments of the bridegroom and bride in sign of union,
and the wedded pair pass the time of the marriage festival in religious ceremonies
and austerities, So complete in later stages of culture did this coalescence become,
that many have come to consider a marriage hardly valid unless celebrated as a
religious rite and by a priest.
Second, as to the relation of the profession of medicine to religion. In early
animistic philosophy, one principal function of spiritual beings was to account for
the phenomena of disease. As normal life was accounted for by the presence of a soul
operating through the body in which it located itself, so abnormal life, including
the phenomena of disease, was accounted for in savage and barbaric culture as
caused by some intruding spirit. Thus the belief in spiritual obsession and possession
becomes the recognized theory of disease, and the professional exorciser is the
doctor curing disease by religious acts intended to expel or propitiate the demon.
Since the middle period of culture, however, this early coalescence has been gra-
dually breaking away, till now in the most civilized nations the craft of healing
has become the function of the scientific surgeon or physician, and the belief and
ceremonies of the exorcist survive in form rather than in reality.
By these cases it is evident that coalescence between religion and other matters
not necessarily connected with it may take place at different periods of culture,
and also that this coalescence may terminate after many ages of adhesion, Havin
shown this, the author proceeded to ascertain exactly when and how in the history
of civilization the coalescence of morality and religion took place.
First, where manes-worship is the main principle of a religion, as among some
North-American tribes and de Kafirs of South Africa, the keeping up of family
relations strongly affects the morality. It is, for instance, a practice among the
rude races to disinter the remains of the dead or to visit the burial-place, in ade to
keep the deceased kinsman informed as to what takes place in his family, in which he
is a held to take the liveliest interest. Thus itis evident any moral act of anin-
dividual damaging to his family would be offensive to the ancestral manes, whose
influence must therefore strengthen kindly relations among the living members of
the tribe. Higher in the social scale this ethical influence of manes-worship takes
150 REPortT—1873,
more definite form, as when in China the divine ancestors of an emperor will re-
proach him for selfish neglect or cruelty to his nation, and even threaten to induce
their own highest divine ancestor to punish him for misdeeds, Thus among the
ancient Romans the Lares were powerful deities enforcing the moral conduct of the
family, and punishing household crime.
Second, the doctrine of the Future Life begins at the higher levels of savagery
to affect morals. In its first stage the doctrine of metempsychosis is seen devoid
of moral meaning, men being re-born as men or animals ; but when the distinction
appears in the higher savagery between migration into vile or noble animals, it is
not long before this distinction takes the form of reward or punishment of the good
and wicked by their high or low re-incarnation, an idea which is the basis of the
Buddhist scheme of retributive moral transmigration through successive bodies.
In its earlier stages this doctrine was one of mere continuance, as where South-
American tribes expected the spirits of the dead to pass to another region where
they would live as on earth. Here the distinctions of earthly rank are carried on,
the chief’s soul remaining a chief, and the plebeian’s soul a plebeian, but no sign
of moral retribution appears. The first stage of this seems to be where warriors
slain in battle are admitted to the paradise of chiefs in the land of the Great
Spirit. This idea, which comes into view in several districts, leads to the fuller
moral scheme in which goodness of any kind, valour, skill, &c. are more and more
held to determine the difference between the next life of the good man in happy
hunting-grounds, or of the bad man in some dismal wilderness or subterranean
Hades. In the higher nations this element becomes more and more distinctly
marked, till the expectation of future reward and the fear of future punishment
becomes one of the great motives of human life.
Third, when theology among the rudest tribes is mostly confined to considera-
tion of ghosts, demons, and nature-spirits, the intercourse with these leads to little
inculeation of moral action. It is when ideas of the great deities become pre-
dominant, when men’s minds are turned to the beneficent action of the Sun, or
Heaven, or Earth, or to a Supreme Deity yet above these, that it is conceived that
the order of nature includes moral order of human conduct. Then, as in the reli-
gion of ancient China, the universe and its Supreme Deity are regarded as furnish-
ing the model and authority regulating man’s actions towards his kindred and his
subjects. Thus there presents itself, not at the beginning but the middle of the
development of religious ideas among mankind, the leading principle of a moral
government of the world and its inhabitants.
In these three ways it appears, from the evidence of ethnology, that the vast
ae was made from the earlier unethical to the later ethical systems of
religion.
GEOGRAPHY.
Address by Sir Ruruzrrorp Axcock, K.C.B., President of the Section.
I cannot help feeling that my claim to the title of a Geographer is much too
slight to warrant my appearance here as President of the Geographical Section
of the British Association. My misgiving as to the fitness of the choice would,
indeed, have precluded my accepting the honour, had I not believed that the main
object of this Association is to receive and give ventilation to any new ideas or
scientific contributions, to secure the attention of a larger audience of scientific
men than could otherwise be easily obtained for any special subject, and to pro-
mote the free interchange of opinions between persons of various pursuits and
qualifications. For this end it is not necessary that the President should himself
be competent to take a leading part in discussing the many interesting and scientific
subjects which are likely to be brought forward. It is enough, I conceive, that he
should appreciate at their just value the studies of those who are willing to com-
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 151
municate the results of their labours, and be ready to promote the candid and im-
tial consideration of any papers to be read and discussed, With this assurance
will throw myself upon your indulgence for any shortcomings, and proceed with
the business before us.
The admirable review of geographical progress during the past year presented
to the Geographical Society at its last Anniversary in May by Sir Henry Rawlinson,
must be too fresh in the memory of those of my hearers who are interested in geo-
graphical pursuits, to require any attempt on my part to go over the same ground.
it has been published in the volume of the Society’s Transactions for the year, and
it would be superfluous, if not presumptuous, on my part, therefore, to occupy
your time by any repetition on the present occasion.
If I venture at all upon this field of geographical achievements it will be
rather with a view to draw your attention to the wide scope and application of
Geography as a science, and to the mode in which geographical explorations and
discoveries lead to important results in various directions. Geography, in a popular
sense, is apt to be too much associated with a mere description of the configuration
of the earth, with its seas and continents, illustrated by maps. But before
Geography could fulfil even this very narrow and restricted conception of its
proper functions—before, indeed, it could exist in any but the rudest and most im-
perfect shape, such as we see_in medizval maps—great progress had to be made in
astronomy and mathematics. Without these two sister sciences, Cartography, or
the process of depicting relative distances and places on the earth, either on maps
or iotex could not be carried out with any approach to certainty or accuracy.
Explorations with a compass, and measure of distance estimated by the number
of days’ journey, gave little more than such results as we find recorded in Pto-
lemy’s works. The map of the world preserved in Hereford Cathedral is a curious
sample. There the history of our race, as well as the distribution of countries, are
given on purely theologic and historical or legendary data. Beginning at the
top of the circle with Paradise, it presents nearly every thing in nature and
fiction, but Geography, to the gaze of the curious. Until the discovery of the
gnomon, and the means of fixing the latitude and longitude of any place by ob-
servations of the celestial bodies had been perfected, Geography could have no
existence as a science. It owes much, also, to its intimate connexion with various
branches of knowledge, and investigations into the nature and mutual relations of
objects on the earth, or forming a part of its crust, which seemingly had, at the
time of their prosecution, no direct bearing on Geography or its objects. In
modern times only it has been fully recognized that Descriptive Geography is of
little value apart from Physical Geography; and these, again, lose much of their
interest without their relation to Political and Historical events are traced.
Astronomy had, in effect, to supply the means of reducing to a systematic and
available form the accumulated materials which must now constitute Geography,
by first enabling geographers to determine with accuracy the relative position of
eee with their distance from each other, and their exact latitude and longitude.
ut this power once gained, the importance of Geography and its influence over
the material interests of mankind soon became ara and its progress as a
science has gone on increasing at a proportionately rapid rate. It was in vain
that Marco Polo twice traversed Asia in its whole breadth, from the Mediterranean,
to the Great Wall of China, and lived to return and recount all the wonders he
had seen to his countrymen within the prison walls of Genoa. It only earned for
him the derisive sobriguet of Marco Millione, from the supposed fabulous nature
of the statements he made; and although he contributed so vast an amount of new
facts to the knowledge of the earth’s surface, it does not appear, even when his book
was printed a century and a half later, that it had any material effect upon the science
of Geography, for want of the higher knowledge required to systematize and assi-
milate the whole.
Later (as Colonel Yule has well pointed out in his admirable edition of Marco
Polo’s book), when Vasco de Gama, doubling the Cape of Good Hope, reached
the Malabar coast, and “the great burst of discovery eastward and westward took
place,” the results of all attempts to combine the new knowledge with the old
were most unhappy. The first and crudest forms of such combination attempted
152 REPORT—1873.
to realize the erroneous ideas of Columbus regarding the identity of his discoveries
with the regions of the Great Khan’s dominion. It was, in consequence, some time
before America could vindicate its independent position on the surface of the
globe; while Jerusalem long remained the central point of the map, because it was
so described in the book of Ezekiel. Down nearly to the mine of the 15th
century the map of the world was, in its outline, as it had been handed down by
Biblic and other traditions sanctioned by some Fathers of the Church, “ sprinkled
with a combination of classical and medieval legends.”
How important geographical science has become since that date, and how each
day brings fresh materials and illustrations of the importance, I need hardly point
out. The discovery by the Portuguese of a sea-route to India entirely changed the
whole course of commerce between Europe and Asia. A trade which had first
enriched Tyre and the Phoenicians, and in Solomon’s reign tempted the Jews to
build fleets on the Red Sea—which, still increasing, made Alexandria the great em-
porium of Indian wares, while in more modern times it helped to create a city
of merchant princes in Venice,—abandoned from that date the caravan routes of
Asia. The Adriatic ceased to bear rich argosies from the East, and Nuremberg,
with other free cities of Germany, equally lost a source of wealth in distributing
Eastern merchandise.
This was the first and most pregnant of the great changes caused by the geo-
graphical discoveries of the 15th century. The planting of the European race in
North and South America, and especially of our own stock in the North, was a
second result, which promises to make English the predominating language of the
world, and to spread British institutions and love of liberty over the four quarters of
the globe. How it has affected the destiny of the Aborigines over the new world
laid open by geographical discoveries is a less satisfactory subject of reflection;
but svhafore the estimate may be of relative good and evil following in the wake
of such explorations, the influence exercised on the destinies of nations cannot be *
questioned ; and amidst all the workers who contributed to these results, great and
lasting as they have been, Geographers may rightly claim a foremost place.
Few things in the retrospect of past intercourse and knowledge of each other among
nations widely separated are more remarkable than the continuous communication
across the whole breadth of Asia between east and west, which seems always to
have been maintained for purposes of traffic, from the earliest periods. No dangers
of the way, no physical Pistnelas of mountain-ranges and great rivers or deserts,
no length of time nor ignorance of the geographical bearings of any portion of this
area of so many thousand miles, seemed to have acted as deterrents. Hvyen the
softly nurtured Venetian merchants were undismayed; and Marco Polo’s book of
his father’s travels and his own abundantly proves that time must have borne a
very different value in those days to that which prevails in this century. In the
first journey to China we find they stayed one year at Sarai, on the Volga, and
another at Bokhara. It is true they found it difficult to get either backward or
forward, owing to the unsettled state of the country; but this did not in any way
militate against their accepting an invitation, under a safe escort from the Envoys
of Alan, the “ Lord of the Levant,” to proceed to the court of Kublar Khan, in
China—a journey which occupied them a whole year. Whether the profits of any
successful venture were so enormgus as to afford adequate return for the time, or
the merchants of those days were so fond of adventure and exploration that they
were content with less profit than modern commerce expects, I am not prepared to
say. But whatever may be the true explanation of this apparent diversity, we
may congratulate ourselves that each year many geographical explorations, accom-
panied as these now are by careful and scientific observations, and the immediate
registering of new facts in accurate collation with all previously acquired data,
sensibly diminish the extent of unknown territory, and by so much not only facili-
tate the development of a constantly increasing commerce, but largely contribute to
the diminution of causes of national contention, in the application of treaties and
the determination of boundaries.
We have had several very striking examples of this within the past year; and
although this is not the place to enter into the merits of the oie questions
as to limits in any of the cases, I may be permitted to refer to them in general
ee
a
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 153
terms as illustrations of the important service which geographical science is
enabled to render to Nations and to States in the higher field of political combi-
nations and diplomatic negotiations. It has been well said that the surveyor is
likely to do more in future than soldiers to prevent war; and the more frequently
the scientific geographer precedes negotiations, the less ground there will be for
doubt or disputes about boundaries—a most fertile subject of quarrel in all ages.
Ts it not quite certain, for instance, that if accurate and complete surveys had been
made of the Straits between Vancouver’s Island and the American coast, and
appended to the treaty of 1846, which was intended to settle the Oregon boundary,
with a line drawn exactly where it was intended the delimitation should take place
by the two negotiators, no dispute could have arisen? It may have seemed enough
to define the north-west water boundary to be “a line drawn from the middle of the
channel which separates the Continent from Vancouver's Island southerly through
the middle of the said Channel and of the Fuca Strait to the ocean,”—more espe-
cially, perhaps, as the existence of the De Haro and Rosario channels, about which
the dispute has arisen, was known to the negotiators. Yet how long and fierce the
contention has been between two great powers ! and though now peacefully decided,
we all know that it has for more than 25 years been one of those questions which
might at any time have been a cause of war between two kindred nations,—the
greatest calamity that could well befall either the one or the other.
The result of Sir Frederick Goldsmid’s geographical labours in the east of Persia
during the past year has added another example of the inestimable political value
of accurate geographical surveys. In Asia more than any other country perhaps is
this necessity felt. Papers have been read at the Geographical Society describing
the journey of the Arbitration Commission from Bunder Abbas, through Kerman to
Seistan, and reporting fully on the districts which have been so long in dispute
between the Persian and Afghan governments. The line of delimitation between
the two countries has been decided by the labours of the Commission, and the last
mail from India announces its acceptance by both parties. My chief object in refer-
ring to it is to show the great and important services which not only may be, but
are actually rendered by geographical labours under able direction, and how much is
to be gained, both in the interests of peace and of science, from the adoption of a
practice of avoiding political complications by determining disputed lines of frontier
through the agency of mixed commissions and professional engineers, That it
should be generally adopted in the East must be the earnest desire alike of
eographers and statesmen, and converts to the principle are rapidly increasing.
he latest news from Constantinople brings the gratifying intelligence that the
Sultan of Turkey and the Shah of Persia have mutually agreed to refer their
contentions about the boundaries between the two States to a mixed Commission
of this kind. The delimitation fixed by the British Government on the Upper
Oxus by similar action is a pledge of peace with Russia. These are so many
triumphs of an enlightened policy, by which disputed boundaries are settled, not by
the sword, but by geographical observation, the accuracy of which cannot be
contested. In this case it was rendered difficult, and all the more important
politically, because, as Colonel Yule has recently demonstrated, the whole geography
of the region of the Upper Oxus and surrounding country had been falsitied
by Klaproth. In all the pseudo-travels that he invented he had imposed alike
upon the British and the Russian Governments; and the consequences of such
falsification might have been most fatal, for it vitiated the maps of the Russian
Government, and with it their diplomacy. Fortunately our own information of
the geography of the trans-Himalayan regions had so much improved since Klap-
roth exercised his ingenuity, that it became possible not only to show where the
falsification existed, but how one great source of error had arisen. Colonel Yule
has proved, in a paper now published in the ‘Transactions of the Geographical
Society,’ how, by a certain square of the Chinese Map constructed in 1759 (which
was the groundwork of Klaproth’s geographical Imowledge) having been acci-
dentally turned round through an angle of 90°, the mistake originated by which
the district of Wakhan for instance, instead of being laid down in the same parallel
as Badakhshan, was placed in the map {100 miles to the northward, and thus
appeared to Prince Gortchakoff to he conterminous with Kara-tegin.
1873, 11
154 a REPORT—1873.
There is no nation, perhaps, which has so much reagon to value geographical
science and the art of map-making at a high rate as the Russians. In their rapid
advance across the steppes and mountain-ranges of Northern Asia southward into
the valley of the Amoor and Manchuria on the east, and to Khiva and Samarcand
in the west, they have taken many courses; but in all they have had the im-
mense advantage of not only knowing the territories they coveted, but being able
to place them accurately on maps. The late Mr. Atkinson, a great traveller in
Siberia and Central Asia, gives more than one graphic and, there 1s every reason to
believe, perfectly veracious account of how negotiations for territory with Asiatics
may be successfully and even peacefully conducted, at a very small cost when thus
aided and prepared. First an exploring party starts for some unknown region,
ostensibly, it may be, for hunting, well armed and prepared to note accurately the
physical features of any country they may traverse. ‘The first exploration accom~
plished, a second follows, better provided for an actual survey and geological and
mineralogical researches. These being completed, negotiations are opened with
the chief of the tribe to whom the territory in question belongs. One of these
transactions in 1848 ended in a considerable district in the Kirghis Steppe, lying
between the Targ Abatai and the Irtisch, already ascertained to possess valuable
silver- and lead-mines, being transferred from the Sultan and chiefs of the Great
Horde of Kirghis to the Emperor of Russia (or, as he is better known to the
Kirghis, the “Great White Khan”) for a sum of 250 roubles, a gold medal, a sword
of honour, and half a dozen handsome khalats or robes for the Sultan, Mulla, and
the five or six head chiefs.
In these mysterious and hitherto inaccessible regions of Inner or Central Asia,
geographical knowledge is almost a necessary qualification in any Power which
seeks further intercourse and access. To Russia, of course, it is matter of paar
importance, situated as she is in direct contact along all her southern border wit
the nomade races which occupy the vast regions stretching across the continent
between her and all the southern ports and seas; but scarcely more so, perhaps,
than to Great Britain, as another great Asiatic Power,—the only one of equal
pretensions, strength, and influence in the East by its command of Western
resources and Asiatic territory. A knowledge of the geography of the regions
lying between the Caspian and the Amoor is, indeed, power of the most valuable
kind. When the Russians secured possession of the upper portion of the Zarafshan
valley about Saware, they commanded the waters on which Bokhara depends for
its fertility and existence, and of course obtained a means of easy conquest. Thus,
whether for conquest or for commerce, Geography is the best ally and a necessary
pioneer. If we look again at the nes showing the complex systems of mountains
separating the plains of India from Eastern Turkestan and the upper tablelands
and valleys of Central Asia, we shall find that they are not simple ranges, like the
Alps or the Pyrenees, which can be crossed by a single pass, as Mr. Shaw has so
well shown, but are composed of many chains, enclosing considerable countries
within their valleys. Thibet and Cashmere are examples of this. Eleven passes,
‘we are told, have to be crossed in travelling from India to Turkestan ; and of these,
only two are lower than the summit of Mont Blanc. Yet, thanks to the labours
of many geographic explorers, impassable as these mountain-barriers seem, we
know now that they are penetrated in such a manner by rivers, and so accessible by
comparatively emi routes, that they form no insurmountable obstacle to peaceful
commerce, although capable of a complete defence against force. Take, again, that
range of the Thian Shan to the north and the Himalayan system to the south,
which converge together as they run westward, and unite in a vast boss supporting
the high plateau of Pamir, which the natives call the Bam-i-dunya, or “ Upper
floor of the World.” Numerous valleys penetrate into it from east and from west,
peculiarity which makes it far easier to traverse from east to west than from north
to south—a fact which you will see at once has a most important bearing on the
trade-routes.
The latest advance in this direction of Russia is fixed at present at Kulja, where
she has established an important trading centre. This has been obviously dictated
by a knowledge of geographical features giving her access to Eastern Turkestan;
for although Kulja appears to be separated by difficult snowy mountains, yet these
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 155
are found’ to die away to the east; and from that point Mr. Shaw tells us Russia
has it in her power to push her advance or her trade in two directions over level
country, either eastward to China, or westward to Turkestan.
Geography, it is clear, therefore, in these regions, is the right hand of Rulers and
of Generals, and determines alike the march of armies and the advance of merchants.
Nothing can be done by either without its aid. It is impossible, however, not to
admire the energy and indomitable spirit with which Russia, claiming and freely
using all the assistance scientific geography can give, utilizes the knowledge thus
secured. Mr. Shaw relates how the Muzat Pass, leading between Aksu and Kulja,
lies over a formidable glacier; and he was assured that forty men were kept at
work in the summer roughing the ice for the passage of the caravans. With such
a rival it must be evident, if we are to compete in the same field with any success,
that both Government and merchants must put forth all their strength, and neither
be scared by physical obstacles nor daunted by expense and risks, This seems to
me the great lesson which all these accumulated facts convey. Geography has
shown the way, it is for merchants to follow, and Government, if need be, to aid
in removing obstacles not otherwise to be overcome.
The connexion between history and geography, and the important bearing of
each upon the other, was scarcely recognized until the second half of the last cen-
tury, when several historical travellers gave, with their researches into the ancient
history of Greece and Western Asia, many details of physical geography, and
showed how essential a knowledge of these were to any perfect understanding of
the events taking place in the several localities. They must be studied together,
as the nature of the ground on which a battle has been fought, or a campaign
conducted, must be studied, to understand the movements of the contending forces
and the design of the leaders,
The late Dr. Arnold, in his lectures on history, insisted much upon the mutual
relations of history and geography, and the important light which a study of
physical geography throws upon the national conditions of life, social and political,
“The whole character of a nation,” he observes, ‘‘ may be influenced by its geology
and physical geography. Again, geography holds out one hand to geology and
physiology, while she holds out the other to history. Both geology and physiology
are closely connected with history. The geological fact of England’s superior rich-
ness in coal over every other country lay at the bottom of the corn-law question.
The physiological fact that the tea-plant was uncultivated in any other climate or
country than China gave a peculiar interest to our relations with it.” And it would
be easy to give many examples of this intimate connexion between geography and
history, and the mutual aid they afford.
We have seen how possession of the head sources of the water supplies could
determine the fate of a country like Bokhara. And the distribution of river-courses
mainly determines the location of great populations, and the development of trade
and civilization by facilities of traffic and intercourse. Dr. Arnold, in the lectures
already quoted, gives an admirable illustration in dealing with the map of Italy,
which I cannot resist bringing under your notice.
The mere plan-geography of Italy shows a semicircle of mountains round the
northern boundary, and another long line stretching down the middle of the
Apennines. But let us look a little further, and give life and meaning to these
features, as Arnold delighted to do.
“ Observe, in the first place, how the Apennine line, beginning from the southern
extremity of the Alps, runs across Italy to the very edge of the Adriatic, and thus
separates naturally the Italy proper of the Romans from Cisalpine Gaul. Observe
again how the Alps, after running north and south, where they divide Italy from
France, turn then away to the eastward, running almost parallel to the Apennines,
till they too touch the head of the Adriatic on the confines of Istria. Thus;
between these two lines of mountains there is enclosed one great basin or plain,
enclosed on three sides by mountains, opening to the east to the sea. One great
river flows through it in its whole extent, and this is fed by streams almost un-
numbered descending towards it on either side, from the Alps on the one side and
from the Apennines on the other. Who can wonder that this large and rich and
well-watered place should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should.have
pa
156 4 REPORT—1878.
been contended for so often by more poor invaders? Then, descending into Italy
proper, we find the complexity of its geography quite in accordance with its
manifold political divisions. It is not one central ridge of mountains, leaving a
broad belt of level country on either side between it and the sea; nor yet is ita
clear rising immediately from the sea on one side, like the Andes in South America,
leaving room therefore on the other side for wide plains of tableland, and for
rivers with a sufficient length of course to become at last great and navigable. It
is a backbone thickly set with spines of unequal length, interlacing with each other
in a maze almost inextricable. Speaking generally, then, Italy is made up of an
infinite multitude of valleys a in between high and steep hills, each forming a
country to itself, and cut off by natural barriers from the others. Its several parts
are isolated by nature, and no art of man can thoroughly unite them. Even the
various provinces of the same kingdom are strangers to each other, The Abruzzi
are like an unknown world to the inhabitant of Naples.” This is what Dr. Arnold
meant by a “real and lively knowledge of geography,’ which brings the whole
character of a country before our eyes, and enables us to understand its influence
upon the social and political condition of its inhabitants.
But such is the rapid progress of science and man’s triumphs over nature, that
the tunnel through Mont Cenis, or Fell’s railroad over it, and the railroad which
now pierces the Apennines and unites the eastern and western coasts of Italy,
aided by telegraphic wires, already falsify Arnold’s eonclusion that no art of man
can thoroughly unite regions so separated. And the influence these achievements
must have over the unification of Italy, and the progress of civilization throughout
the peninsula, can hardly be exaggerated.
Persia at the present day offers another striking illustration of the influence of
hhysical causes on the progress of civilization and the destiny of nations, -Apart
from the consequences of ages of misrule, its physical geography has exercised a
‘very adverse influence upon the country. Persia suffers from a great deficiency
of rainfall; and although an immense supply of water comes from the mountains
by the rains and the melting of the snow, it is lost in the plains and wasted, if not
before, at least as soon as it reaches the great salt desert about twenty miles from
Teheran. With the prevailing insufficiency of the rainfall on the plains them-
selves the whole country is becoming sterile; but if the abundant supply from the
mountains could be intercepted before it reached the lower ground and collected
into reservoirs, if might then be distributed by irrigation over the whole face of
the land and play the same part as the Zarafshan or “ Gold-scatterer” (so called for
its fertilizing powers) in the rich cultivation of Bokhara. Perhaps this may not
prove beyond the power of Baron Reuter to accomplish, aided by all the science
and some of the capital of Europe. What further changes he may be enabled to
effect by the introduction of railroads and telegraphic lines for facilitating trade
and rapid communication, we may soon be in a position to speak from actual
experience ; for it is stated in the public prints that the proposed railway between
Teheran and Resht is to be commenced at once, and that the plant has already
left England. More extended operations are, it is nnderstood, contemplated to
the south of Teheran to Ispahan, and from thence to the Persian Gulf—perhaps
also to the Turkish frontier, The former will open a direct line to India, and the
latter to the Mediterranean, should the Turkish Government be willing to work in
concert. Who can calculate the revolution in the whole aspect of the country
and its life-sustaining powers, if a whole series of such measures should be carried
through at once P
The part which Russia plays in the history of Europe and Asia, and the future
which may yet be reserved for that Empire, is more a matter of physical geo-
graphy than of politics or of policy, if we look to determining causes. . What
could Russia do, frozen in between two seas and with closed ports for more than
six months in each year, but, guided by an infallible instinct (often exemplified in
nations as in individuals), stretch out feelers towards the open waters and more
genial climates? We have heard much of Russia’s destiny driving her southwards
to the Bosphorus, and eastward in the same parallel over the rich valleys of Central
and Tropic Asia; but is it not a geographical necessity, far more than a political
ambition, which has thus far driven her across the whole breadth of Asia until she
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 157
gained the Chinese ports on the Pacific, and southwards towards the mouths of the
Danube, the sunny ports of the Mediterranean, and the head of the Persian Gulf?
Until unfrozen rivers and ports could be reached, how could her people make any pro-
gress or develop their resources? It not only was a natural tendency,—as natural
as the descent of the glacier to the valleys, forging downwards by a slow but irre-
sistible pressure, but as inevitable. Obstacles may retard the progress, but not
arrest it; and Russia is but following the course of nature as well as history in
ouring down nomade hordes and hardy Scythians on the cultivated territories
ying in a more genial climate. MJRailroads and telegraphic wires supply her with
means of transport and quick transit over vast spaces never enjoyed by her great
predecessors in this line of march. Let us hope, too, that more civilizing influ-
ences will follow her track, through regions never highly favoured in this respect,
than marked the passage of a Genghis Khan or a Timor. ‘The Times’ observed
recently that it was one of the happiest coincidences in history that, just at the
time when the natural course of commercial and political development brings
Central Asia into importance, there should still exist in the eastern border of
Europe an empire retaining sufficiently the character of a military absolutism to
render it especially adapted for the conquest and control of these semibarbarous
communities. Iam not altogether prepared to accept this high estimate of Russian
ability and peculiar fitness for its self-imposed task, without qualification. That
Russia, Asiatic in origin and type, autocratic, and armed with all the power
which military science and discipline give, has some special fitness for the mission
it seems to accept as a destiny, | am not inclined to deny. But whatever may be
the decision arrived at on this head, it seems quite certain that as her progress in
arms gives her control over Central Asia, so will be the exclusion, by protective
or prohibitive tarifis, of all commerce but her own. It is only necessary to follow
on the map, and in the history of the successive advances southwards, the progress
made and the trade-routes established or extended within the last twenty years,
to be convinced that trade and exclusive rights of commerce are among the prin-
cipal objects which dictate the present policy of the empire. And, whatever may
be the designs of Russia in her advances on Central Asia, it must be clear by this
time that it is with her, and not with the nominal rulers of the States her armies
have overrun, that we must count in any steps we may take for the peaceful
prosecution of commerce. Strange and unexpected as are the reverses of fortune
which have befallen nations and empires in all ages, and great and complete as has
been the fall of many, there are few more striking than the interchange of parts
between the Muscoyite and the Mongol dynasties. The time was, as Colonel Yule
remarks, when in Asia and Eastern Europe scarcely a dog might bark without
Mongol leave from the borders of Poland and the coast of Cilicia to the Amoor
and the Yellow Sea. As late as the 13th century the Moguls ravaged Hungary
and conquered Russia, which they held in subjection for many generations. Sarai
on the Volga was the scene of Chaucev’s half-told tale of Cambuscan, when
« At Sarra in the Londe of Tartarie
There dwelt a King that werriéd Russie.”
The times have changed indeed since then, and the successors and descendants of
those same Moguls and Mieriats have another tale to tell now, at Khiva and Peking.
Before I pass from this part of my subject, I would draw your attention to the
vast field which yet remains in Asia for geographical research and exploration.
The intimate connexion between such labours and the development of our commerce
in the trans-Himalayan countries must have been made abundantly evident; and
I would fain hope there will never be any want of competent volunteers (who may
rival Mr. Shaw and Mr. Ney Elias, both distinguished and adventurous pioneers
taken from mercantile pursuits) to show the way for others. Notwithstanding all
difficulties and opposing influences, physical and political, there appears to be a
large field for our commerce, and one capable of almost infinite expansion, where
enterprise, skill, and industry may fairly count upon a good return.
As regards costly efforts in opening roads, it may perhaps seem doubtful to the
Indian as to the Imperial Government, how far either would be justified in any
large outlay. Nothing, however, is more to be regretted than doubt or hesitation
158 REPORT—1873,
for the markets once monopolized by the Russians, we may seek in vain to open
them to general trade at any later period. It is difficult to calculate how much we
should lose; for the distance from the Indus to Vernoje and Kopal, two of the most
recent markets of Central Asia founded by the Russians, is about one third of that
from these places to the great fair of the Volga. Commercially this is of great
importance, as these towns will become the centres whence the Tartar merchants
will send forth their agents to disperse the goods among all the Kirghis of the
Steppes. From these points they will also go to the Mongolian tribes, on the north
of the Gobi ; and this region, Mr. Atkinson assures us, contains a vast population. He
even anticipates that, should such a trade be established, the merchandise will find
its way through the country of the Kalkas into Davuaria, and to the regions beyond
the Selenga and the sources of the Amoor, where it may advantageously compete
with goods brought up the latter river; nor will the Siberians fail to avail them-
selves of its advantages. Whenever there shall be fairs on the Indus or beyond
the passes of the Himalayas on the borders of Sikkim or Thibet, the Kirghis will
send into India vast numbers of good horses annually. Silver and gold, the same
traveller says, is plentiful in their country, and their other resources will in all pro-
bability be rapidly developed. The best mode of opening such a trade with Central
Asia beyond question will be by fairs, or great marts, similar to Kiachta on the
frontier between China and Russia, Irkutzk and Urga, and more recently at Irbit
by the Russians. On this point we have also Mr. Atkinson’s very decided opinion.
He says, speaking of such fairs, “This I deem preferable to the English plan of
consigning goods to agents either in Yarkand, Kokhan, or Tarshkend. Once these
fairs are established, the Tartar and other merchants will attend and purchase
the necessary articles for the people among whom they vend their wares. These
men are thoroughly acquainted with the tribes and know all their wants. They are
industrious and energetic in their calling, travelling over thousands of miles. They
know every part of the country, and where to find the tribes in all seasons of the
year ; and it is by them that Russia distributes her merchandise over Central Asia.
Wherever trade can be carried on at a profit, experience has shown that all natural
obstacles have been surmounted by these hardy sons of the Steppe. It is well to
have such commercial agents and distributors as allies and customers, whereas any
attempt to locate English agents in their midst would create jealousy and excite
fears lest they should lose their legitimate profits. Far greater dangers are encoun-
tered by caravans which travel from Kulja into the interior provinces of China than
they will meet with between Yarkand, Kashgar, and the Indus.” All that is re-
quired is to bring the goods from the plains of India through the passes to the
border ; and steps to this end are being actively taken in more than one direction.
Tn 1850 Lord Dalhousie sanctioned the commencement of a road, which, leaving
the plains in the neighbourhood of Kalka, 36 miles from Umballah, should ascend
to Simla and thence towards Thibet, through the temperate valley of the Sut-
ledge, to Shipki on the Thibetan border. In the next five years this Hindostan
and Thibet road, which was to unite India with Central Asia, had made such
progress, that 115 miles of six-feet road had been completed; and it was anti-
cipated that by the following spring but 25 miles would remain of unfinished
work between Simla and China, and 60 between Simla and the frontiers of
China. I regret to state that later accounts show the work to have been stopped;
and this seems to be matter for deep regret, both on account of the large unproductive
expenditure incurred for a work stopped short of completion, and the urgent necessity
there is for secure access to the trans-Himalayan regions, while there is yet room
for competition with Russian trade and influence. One of the great questions of
the hour is, how best and most expeditiously to open up practicable roads from
the plains of India to Central Asia, on the west to Turkestan, and eastwards to
the borders of Thibet, and perhaps by British Burmah across the Shan States to the
western provinces of China. But access to the markets of Central Asia is by far the
most urgent and important ; for, as I will presently show, the southern route through
Burmah, were all difficulties overcome (and they are neither few nor slight), pro-
mises little in comparison with a more direct outlet for the Assam teas, and an
interchange of goods and produce with the populations of Thibet, Turkestan, and
Central Asia generally, Across the Himalayan barrier it appears there is a choice
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 159
of more than one or two practicable passes ; that through Sikkim to the vicinity
of Thibet offers the fewest difficulties, and in every respect promises the most
speedy results with a moderate outlay. Other routes to the west, leading to
adakshan, and one by Ladak to Turkestan (where we have already an energetic
and enterprising British representative in Mr. Shaw), and through the valley and
passes of the Chitral, are beset by many difficulties, physical and political, though not
more than a powerful Government like India may surmount. It has been said
that if the Russians had such a question to deal with, the solution would not be
long delayed ; and no doubt they have solved some more arduous problems in the
present generation. The enterprise, vigour, and perseverance which mark all their
proceedings where the extension of their commerce or their dominion and influ-
ence over Asia from Peking to Constantinople (and especially towards the Khanates
of Central Asia) are concerned, may leave us far behind in the race, and render
them formidable adversaries, notwithstanding their merchants are weighted with
distances so vast, that the 700 miles from the Indus to the other side of the
Himalayas sink into insignificance. But Iam not inclined to join in any con-
demnation of our own Government, without taking into consideration the inherent
difficulties of the task, because they have not moved hitherto more rapidly in this
direction. As regards access by Sikkim there ought to be both decision and
prompt action. It is a protected state, and a late despatch of the Lieut.-Governor
of Bengal to the Secretary to the Government of India expresses a hope to be
able to connect the frontier mart at Dewangiri, once a very active trade-mart for
the Tibetans and other adjoining districts, with the plains of India by a good
road this next cold season. He considers it possible “to have a much easier,
leasanter, and more profitable communication with High Asia by this way than
urther west ;” and speaks very decidedly as to the uselessness of any right of
passage or trade through Nepaul or Bhootan. There seems every hope, therefore,
that within a few months something effective will be done to open a trade-route
through Sikkim and make the passes practicable. All that seems to be required is
a branch railroad from the other side of the Kooshteen, where the Eastern Bengal
Railway touches the Ganges, on through fertile Rungpore to the foot of the hills,
and a road through the pass to the border, where a fair could be established and a
trading station maintained.
Any direct access beyond the Thibetan border can only, in the present con-
dition of affairs, be obtained by diplomatic action at Peking. The Chinese
Government have hitherto created all the obstacles; and there is the greater
reason for pressing a less restrictive policy upon the Chinese, that at the head of
. the Assam valley the Mishmi country communicates with Batang, a dependency of
the Szechuen Province of China; and access to this point through the border would
be a much more effective mode of tapping the south-western provinces of China
than any routes through Burmah to Sadan; Now that the Emperor’s minority
is at an end, and the Bageney with it, the time would seem favourable for a strong
and decided effort at Peking to remove the obstruction created by the jealous and
restrictive policy of the Chinese rulers. But while Chambers of Commerce and
Merchants are urging Her Majesty’s Government to incur both outlay of money
and grave political responsibilities for the furtherance of trade and the opening of
new markets for our manufactures, it is necessary that they should be prepared to
do their own part, and push boldly forward with their goods as soon as access can
be gained—because any doubt on this head must necessarily tend to paralyze the
efforts of a Government by the fear of working in vain. One cause of hesitation
about the continuance of the magnificent work commenced by Lord Dalhousie in
1850, by which a great road was to be made from the plains to Shipki on the
borders of Thibet, may have been certain doubts expressed by merchants as to any
trade taking that route. ¥ 1
But I must not detain you longer. I will only glance at the projects for opening
a trade by railway between Burmah and South-western China. The one route, so
long advocated by Captain Spry, would cross over from Rangoon to Kianghung on
the Meikong; and another, recommended by Colonel Fytche when Chief Com-
missioner of British Burmah, would extend from Rangoon to Prome, with a view
to opening a trade wd Bhamo,
160 ; REPORT—1878.
Many memorials have been sent during past years to the Home Government to
urge the undertaking of the first of these for the benefit of trade; but I am not
aware that, important as the merchants have deemed it, the matter has ever been
pressed on the Government by any Member of Parliament in the House of Com-
mons, and I doubt very much such a line proving remunerative. Yunnan, so
far from being, as described by some of the memorialists, both populous and pro-
ductive, has been reduced to a desert waste by the civil war and the destruction
of the Mahomedans, and for long years to come there can be little hope of com-
mercial activity. It can scarcely be expected, therefore, that either the Imperial
or the Indian Government will undertake to make such a railroad themselves, or
to guarantee the interest for others. As regards the Government of India, it has
always held, I think, of late years that the Indian revenue could not justly be
charged with the cost of an enterprise which, however successful, could only
benefit English trade, and very indirectly, if at all, Burmah. If any guarantee is
necessary, therefore, it seems clear it must come from the Imperial and not from
the Indian Government. There is one other consideration: recent news show that
the French in Cochin China haye by no means given up the hope of drawing.any
trade to be developed with the south-west of China by a much more direct and
river-route to a port in the Gulf which they have recently secured for their own
benefit. Although the French have not usually proved formidable rivalsin Eastern
trade, it is possible that, with such advantage of geographical situation, water-
carriage, and proximity, they might seriously check any development of trade in a
less favoured course.
Before concluding I must give you some information as to the papers which are
likely to oceupy your attention during this session. ;
Dr. J. MeCosh will read a paper on an overland communication between India
and China, a subject which he is qualified to pronounce an opinion upon, having
made it his study for upwards of thirty years. As long ago as 1836, whilst
serving in Assam, he furnished the Government with an official report, in which
he pointed out the facility of connecting India and China by a grand trunk road ;
and he read a paper on the same subject before the Royal Geographical Society
in 1860. He advocates the Munnipore route.
Mr. Ney Elias contributes a paper “On Trade-Routes through Mongolia and
Zungaria.” He gained the Royal Medal of this year from the Royal Geographical
Society for his adventurous journey in 1872, asa private traveller, over the countries
described in his paper, and is well known as an accomplished traveller, taking
observations for laying down his route with rare completeness. He states in his
paper that the only trade-route now open between Central Asia and Western China
is that through Mongolia.
Mr. J. Thomson will read a paper on the Yang-tsze as an artery of communi-
cation. Mr. Thomson has been long before the public as a successful traveller and
accomplished photographer of the scenery of distant countries. Some years ago he
visited the marvellous ruins of temples and cities in Cambodia, and published a
magnificent work on the subject, illustrated by photographs. Since then he has
visited China and Formosa, and is publishing, in parts, a work of a similar cha-
racter to his former one on Cambodia.
I believe Mr. Thomson will bring a set of photographs for exhibition.
Baron Richthofen will read a paper “ On the Distribution of Coal in China.”
He will perhaps read a second paper on the general subject of his travels. He
is one of the most accomplished of Chinese travellers, and has traversed pro-
bably the largest extent of country. His published Report to the Committee of
the Shangai Chamber of Commerce on his Explorations in the Provinces of Chili,
Shansi, Shensi, and Sz’chuen is full of the most interesting information regarding
the physical geography, resources, and products of the interior of China. He
is present at the Meeting, one of the distinguished foreign savans invited by the
town and the Association.
Capt. J. E. Davis will read a paper on the results so far of the voyage of the
‘Challenger.’ Capt. Davis was a member of Ross’s great expedition towards the
South Pole, and by his position in the Hydrographical or Scientific branch of the
Admiralty is well qualified to deal with such a subject. The public have been
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 161
informed from time to time of the results of the deep-sea soundings and dredgings of
the ‘ Challenger,’ but Capt. Davis will supply by far the completest information.
The Rey. W. Wyatt Gill will give us an account of “ Three visits to New
Guinea.” Mr, Gill, after twenty-two years spent in missionary life in the South
Pacific, spent a short time at the mission stations in Torres Straits, and visited the
mainland of New Guinea.
Recent Arctic Explorations.—The Spitzbergen and the Smith Sound routes are
the two great rival highways of exploration towards the arctic basin, and discovery
has alternately pushed nearer the pole by the one and the other. Till recently the
Spitzbergen route held the palm, for by it ships had reached to beyond the 8lst
parallel, whilst on the American side no ship had been able to force a passage
higher than the 79th degree of latitude ; but in 1872 the American expedition, led
by Capt. Hall, who has perished in the cause, making its way northward by Smith
Sound, attained the highest point yet reached by ships, the latitude of 82° 16’ N.,
or to within 420 miles of the North Pole. Two expeditions, one from Austria the
other from Sweden, are also in progress on the Spitzbergen side. The Austrian,
under the leadership of Weybrecht and Payer, has passed beyond the limits of the
remotest traffic into the unknown seas to the north of Siberia, and it is probable
that no news of this voyage may reach civilized Europe for many months. The
Swedish voyage had for its object to move northward by sledges from the Parry
group of islands in the north of Spitzbergen, but has failed completely in this often-
tried scheme, and spent the past winter at Morrel Bay, on the coast of the chief
island of Spitzbergen. arly in the spring of this year another fruitless attempt
was made to go north over the hummocked ice. Desisting unwillingly from these
useless efforts, the sledge party turned along the coast of the north-east land of
Spitzbergen to its extreme eastern point, and thence ascending the high inland ice,
made a difficult passage across to Hinloper Strait, from whence the winter-quarters
of the ship were again reached.
With regard to British enterprise in the Arctic regions there is little to report.
Since the termination of the long series of brilliant exploits in the Polar regions at
the end of the search after Sir John Franklin, England seems to have abandoned
the field to rival nations. A few private expeditions to the Spitzbergen seas,
notably those of Mr. Leigh Smith, who has again visited those regions this summer,
alone represent British activity in the Arctic seas. However, the Royal Geo-
graphical Society does not allow the matter to slumber. An endeavour was
made last winter to induce the Government to send out another expedition;
and at the ean time a joint Committee of the Royal and the Royal Geo-
graphical Societies is at work formulating a plan of action with a view to
representing to Government the urgency of despatching an expedition in 1874.
Africa.—Of Dr. Livingstone and Sir Samuel Baker no fresh news has been
received beyond what has been before the public. Two expeditions are now
on their way to Central Africa in search of Livingstone and to cooperate with
him. The Congo Expedition at last date (April 3) had reached Bembe, 130 miles
from the coast, in admirable order. The Hast Coast Expedition had reached
Rehenneko, 120 miles, but with the loss of one of the party, Mr. Moffat, who died
near Simbo. Their plan was to reach Tanganyika, and finish the exploration of
that lake, until Livingstone was met with. I had hoped to have seen Sir Samuel
Baker here, that we might hear from his own lips and in fuller detail what he
has accomplished. I do not quite despair yet; but up to the present hour I have
had no communication from him since his arrival at Cairo on his homeward
journey.
On the true Position and Physical Characters of Mount Sinai.
By Cuarzxs T. Bex, Ph.D., FLR.GS.
The identification of Mount Sinai is still uncertain, Though the great mountain-
mass within the peninsula between the Gulfs of Suez and Akaba is generally
looked on as containing the “ Mount of God,” it has hitherto been found imprac-
162 REPORT—1873.
ticable to fix on any one of its lofty peaks as being incontestably the true Mount
Sinai. The Ordnance Survey of the peninsula recently completed, however ably
performed, has failed to remove the doubts and difficulties attending the subject,
which have thrown discredit on the truth of the Bible history; for, though the
topography of the peninsula has thereby been definitively settled, the relative
importance of the various localities and their bearing on the Scripture narrative
continue just as uncertain as ever.
According to Dr. Beke, the cause of this uncertainty is obvious. The primary
question ought not to be whether this peak or the other peak within the penin-
sula has the greater claim to be considered the true Mount Sinai, but whether
they are any of them entitled to that distinction. In his work ‘ Origines Biblice,’
published in 1834, he contended that Mount Sinai is nowhere within that penin-
sula; and in the present paper he adduces proofs that this mountain is in reality a
volcano, now extinct, situate within the Harra Radjld, a region of igneous origin,
situate on the western side of the Scriptural “ Land of Midian,” now the great
Arabian desert, and at no great distance to the east of the head of the Gulf of
Akaba, or Sea of Edom, which (and not the Gulf of Suez) he looks on as the Red
Sea through which the Israelites passed on their exodus from the Land of
Bondage—the Mitzraim of Scripture not being identical with the Egypt of the
Ptolemies, but lying altogether towards the north-east of it, in proximity to the
country of the Philistines.
At the time of the Exodus Mount Sinai was in a state of eruption, the smoke
and flame from its crater being described by the sacred historian as ‘by day a
illar of a cloud, and by night a pillar of fire,” just as the poet Pindar speaks of
ount Etna as pouring forth “by day a burning stream of smoke, but by night a
ruddy eddying flame;” and the volcano was not extinct in the time of the prophet
Elijah, six centuries later.
Dr. Beke traces the route of the Israelites from Rameses to Succoth, and thence
to Etham, which he identifies with the Wady Yetoum or Ithem of the present
day, a side valley of the Wady Arabah, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba. From
Etham the Israelites turned, and (as Dr. Beke reads the Hebrew text of Exodus
xiv. 21) they encamped “before the mouths of the caverns, between the castle
and the sea, over against its north end,” the Castle thus mentioned being now
represented by the Castle of Akaba at the north end of the Gulf. And after the
Israelites had passed through the sea, their further route is traced to Marah, Elim,
and again to the sea-coast at the entrance to the Gulf of Akaba; whence they
proceeded in the direction of Mount Sinai, being guided by the pillar of a cloud
and the pillar of fire during this portion of their journey, as they had been in that
between Succoth and Etham. Fora detailed statement of his views Dr. Beke
referred to his pamphlet, ‘Mount Sinai a Volcano,’ recently published. In con-
clusion he expressed his desire to visit the volcanic region to the east of the head
of the Gulf of Akaba, where he places the true Mount Sinai, for the purpose of
verifying and completing his identification of that “holy ground,” and so putting
an end, once and for ever, to the doubts and difficulties that have so long existed
respecting this the most venerable spot on the face of the earth; and it not being
in his power to perform so costly a journey at his own expense, he expressed his
confident hope of support from those interested in the settlement of so momentous
a question.
On the Physical Geography of the Deserts of Persia and Central Asia.
By W. T. Buayrorp, F.G.S., C.M.Z.S.
The deserts of Persia consist of vast plains of alluvium, usually much longer than
they are broad, surrounded on all sides by higher ground, and in several instances
having a-portion of their surface covered by salt. No river emerges from any part
of the Persian plateau. All the rain which falls is evaporated or absorbed. “Most
of the streams from the hills which surround the central plateau terminate in salt
marshes, or salt lakes; but there are two remarkable exceptions, the lake or marsh
of Seistan receiving the Helmund river and the lake of Jotcha, which is in Russian
territory : both of these are fresh,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 163
It appears probable that the alluvial desert plains have been formed in lakes which
existed when the rainfall was greater than it nowis. Around the borders of the de-
serts are remarkable slopes of coarse gravel, formed probably of material washed from
the surrounding hills. But the great depressions of the country must have been
formed under different meteorological conditions, and were probably at one time
river-valleys closed by the elevation of ranges of hills in the later Tertiary period
accompanied by a decrease in the rainfall. The desiccation of the country has pro-
bably been gradual ; it is possible that in historic times the rainfall was greater than
it now is, and that the former population of the country was larger. The change
has in all probability been gradual from river-valleys to enclosed lakes and from
lakes to deserts.
It appears probable that a similar change has taken place throughout a large por-
tion of Central Asia. <A large part of Central and Western Asia, from the Black
Sea to Thibet, closely resembles Persia in its physical characters ; and the drying-u
of the lower course of the Oxus may have been primarily connected with the
diminution of the river due to the decrease in the supply from rain.
On the Physical Geography of the Mediterranean, considered in relation to
that of the Black Sea and the Caspian. By Writtam B, Carpenter,
M.D., LL.D., FRS.
Taking as his datum the equality between the evaporation from the surface of
the Caspian Sea, and the amount of fresh water returned to it by rain and rivers
(see p. 165), the author showed the applicability of this datum to prove the
correctness of Dr. Halley's doctrine, that the surface in-current of the Strait of
Gibraltar is due to the excess of evaporation in the Mediterranean area—a doc-
trine which has been recently called in question by Prof. Huxley, who has ex-
ressed the opinion that, looking to the enormous amount of fresh water poured
into this basin by the rivers which discharge themselves into it, “the sun must
have enough to do to keep the Mediterranean down.” The area of the Black Sea
(including the Sea of Azov) and that of the Caspian are nearly equal, each being
estimated at about 180,000 square miles. They lie for the most part between the
same annual isotherms of 60° and 50°, the extensions of the Caspian to the south
of the former and to the north of the latter being nearly equal; and hence we may
conclude that the evaporation from the two seas is nearly the same. Now, as the
whole water of the Volga and of the other rivers that empty themselves into the
Caspian is only sufficient to make up for tts evaporation, it is obvious that the con-
tribution of the Danube, the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Don, and other rivers that
empty themselves into the Black Sea, towards the supply of the Mediterranean, is
only the excess which remains after compensating for the evaporation of the Black
Sea—or (assuming the equality of this with the evaporation of the Caspian) the
excess of the volume of the Black-Sea rivers over that of the Caspian rivers, which
(as will presently appear) must be a very insignificant contribution to the Medi-
terranean in comparison with the area of the latter. ;
How small that excess really is, may be gathered from the experiments on the
Dardanelles and Bosphorus currents, of which the particulars have elsewhere been
given (p. 41). For not only is the outward surface-current extremely variable
in its rate, and liable to occasional reversal, but, when it is at its strongest, its
effect is most counteracted by the inward undercurrent. The proportional force
and volunie of the two currents cannot be estimated from these experiments with
any thing like certainty; but Captain Wharton thinks that the undercurrent
sometimes carries 7 as much as two thirds of the water that the surface-current
carries out. That it ordinarily returns at least half, may be fairly inferred from
the constant maintenance of the average salinity of the Black-Sea water at about
half that of Mediterranean water ; since it is obvious that this proportion could
not be kept up unless as much salt re-enters the basin by the undercurrent as
passes out of it by the upper. Hence, as the salinity of the undercurrent is twice
that of the upper, its volume may be taken at about one half; so that the actual
excess of outflow will be only about one half of the volume of water that forms the
164 REPORT—1878.
surface-current. And thus the whole contribution of the great rivers that discharge
themselves into the Black Sea, to the maintenance of the level of the Mediterra-
nean, is represented by an outflow through the Dardanelles by no means exceed-
ing the amount brought down by a single considerable river.
We now turn to the Mediterranean, and shall again use the Caspian as a basis
on which we may form some kind of approximative estimate as to the proportion
between the evaporation from its surface and the return by river-flow.
In the first place, the area of the Mediterranean, including the Augean and the
Adriatic, is between four and jive times the present area of the Caspian ; so that,
‘taking the evaporation over equal areas of the two seas to be the same, the quan-
tity of return that would be needed to keep up the level of the Mediterranean
would be between four and five times as great as that which suffices to maintain
that of the Caspian. But looking to the fact that the principal part of the area
of the Mediterranean lies east and west between the parallels of 32° and 40° N. lat.,
whilst that of the Caspian lies north and south between the parallels of 36° and
46°, it seems obvious that this difference alone would cause the evaporation of the
Mediterranean to be much greater for equal areas than that of the Caspian. The
ordinary summer temperature of a considerable part of the eastern basin of the
Mediterranean is not much below 80°: Dr. Carpenter has himself seen it ranging
from 75° to 80° between Malta and Alexandria in the early part of October. And,
notwithstanding the curious northern bend by which the summer isotherm of 80°
is carried through Greece?fand Asia Minor, along the southern shore of the Black
Sea, it only just touches the southern basin of the Caspian, the summer tempera-
ture of nearly the whole of this sea being below that of the northernmost parts of
the Mediterranean. The difference is far greater, however, during the winter
months. Taking the lowest winter temperature of the Mediterranean at Prof.
Huxley’s average of 48° (and Dr. Carpenter has reason to believe that this is some
degrees too low for the eastern basin, whilst it is not at all too high for the
western), we find the January mean of the Caspian to range from 40° at its
southern extremity to 30° in its middle basin, while its} northern basin is crossed
by the January isotherm of 20°. Hence, as regards temperature alone, the mean
annual excess is largely on the side of the Mediterranean. But there is another
element not less important—the extreme dryness of the hot winds which blow over
the Mediterranean (especially its eastern basin) from the great African deserts, and
which take up an enormous amount of moisture in their course.
We should not be far wrong, then, in assuming that, to counteract this enormous
evaporation, the volume of river-water poured into the Mediterranean ought to be
at least six times that received by the Caspian. But what is the actual amount of
that supply? Along the whole Africancoast, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the
Nile, there is nothing that can be called a large river. Around the whole Levant
there is the same deficiency. And thus, with the exception of the Nile and of the
Po (a slow-flowing river of very moderate volume), no great body of water is
ouréd into the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, save the overflow of the Black
Sea, which comes down through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. How small a
contribution is made by this overflow to the maintenance of the general level of
the Mediterranean, seems apparent from the fact that the specific gravity of the
water of the Aigean, with which it first mingles, is scarcely, if at all, lowered by
the intermixture of the half-salt stream which discharges itself into the part of it
most remote from its communication with that larger basin. Into the western
basin of the Mediterranean no other considerable rivers discharge themselves than
the Rhone and the Ebro. Thus the sum total of the supply brought into the
whole Mediterranean area by great rivers may be expressed by the Nile, one half
of the Dardanelles surface-current, the Po, the Rhone, and the Ebro, And if we
add to these the “ten submarine springs of fresh water which are known to burst
up in the Mediterranean,” it seems perfectly clear that we cannot make that total
any thing like six times the amount which is brought into the Caspian by the
Volga, the Ural, and the Transcaucasian rivers, and which has been shown to be
entirely dissipated by evaporation. It has been estimated by two French officers,
MM. Régy and Vigan*, who have recently compared the probable evaporation of
* Annales des Ponts et Chaussées, 1863 and 1866.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 1635
the Mediterranean with the rainfall over its area, that the annual excess of the
former represents a stratum of 43 feet; and the largest estimate of the amount
brought in by rivers cannot make up a third of this quantity *. st
With such an adequate vera causa as this enormous excess of evaporation, there
is no occasion to go in search of any other explanation for the Gibraltar in-current.
For it is obvious that if the “marine water-shed” between Capes Trafalgar and
Spartel were to be raised 1000 feet, so as to cut off the Mediterranean basin from
the Atlantic, the excess of evaporation from its surface would produce a pro-
gressive reduction of its level (as has happened with the Caspian), until its area
came to be so far restricted as to limit its evaporation to the amount returned to it
by rain and rivers. But so long as this communication remains open, so long will
an in-current through the Strait of Gibraltar maintain the present level and area
of the Mediterranean. That this in-current persists through the winter (which is
advanced by Prof. Huxley as an objection to the received doctrine) is easily
explained. The temperature of the surface, though reduced to 50 degrees or there-
abouts, is still sufficiently high (especially under dry African winds) to maintain a
considerable amount of evaporation; and it is during the season of this reduced
evaporation that the river-supply is least; for all the great rivers which dis-
charge themselves into the Mediterranean basin are at their lowest during the
winter months, their upper sources being then frozen up, and it is with the
melting of the snows that they become filled again.
On the Physical Geography of the Caspian Sea, in its relations to Geology.
By Wiit1am B, Carrenter, M.D., LL.D., ERS,
The object of this communication was to make known the most important of
the facts contained in the Report of Prof. von Baer on the Physical Geography of
the Caspian—these facts having a special interest for Geologists, and affording also
a reliable datum in regard to the relation between the amount which is lost by
surface-evaporation and that which is returned by rain and rivers.
The Caspian, which is the largest existing Inland Sea without any outlet, is a
“survival” of that great central sea which, at no remote geological period,
covered a large part of Northern Asia; the gradual upheaval of the land haying
separated it from the Euxine on the one side, and from the Sea of Aral on the
other, as well as from the Arctic Sea, with which this marine province was
formerly in communication. How small an elevation has sufficed to cut off this
communication on the northern side, is shown by the fact, that the connexion of
the Dwina with the Volga by a system of canals has opened a way for vessels to
pass between the Caspian and the White Sea. Thus remaining isolated in the
midst of land, the Caspian has undergone a series of very remarkable changes,
which can be distinctly traced out.
In the first place, it is evident (as was long since pointed out by Pallas) that
the former extent of the Caspian was much greater than its present area, The
southern portion of its basin, which lies among mountains whose escarpments
extend beneath the water, is by far the {deepest, a large part of its bottom lying
between 2000 and 3000 feet below the present surface of the water. The middle
portion has also a considerable depth on the Caucasian side. But the northern
portion is nowhere more than 50 feet deep; and this depth is continually being
reduced by the alluvial deposits brought down by the rivers which discharge them-
selves into this part of the basin, notably the Volga and the Ural. These rivers
run through an immense mney of steppes, the slope of which towards the
Caspian is almost imperceptible ; so that if the level of its waters were to be
raised even very slightly, an expanse of land at least equal to its present area
would be covered by it. Now, as the present level is about 80 feet below that of
the Black Sea, whilst ample evidence that the steppes were formerly overflowed
by salt water is afforded by beds of marine shells, as well as by the persistence of
* Sir John Herschel, adopting somewhat different data, came to a conclusion essentially
the same (‘ Physical Geography,’ p. 27).
+ Read in Section C.
166 RrEPoRT—1873,
numerous salt lakes and salt marshes, there can be no question that the northern
basin of the Caspian formerly extended over the whole plain of the Volga below
Saratov; and no other cause can be assigned for its contraction, than the excess of
evaporation over the return of water by rain and rivers.
But such a reduction in the volume of water as must have taken place in order
to produce this lowering of level would have shown itself, it might be supposed,
in an increase of its salinity ; whereas the fact is that the proportion of salt (which
varies in different parts of the basin, and also at different seasons) is on the average
only about one fourth of that which is found in oceanic water, and does not much
exceed one half of the proportion contained in the water of the Euxine, This
reduction, however, is fully explained by the observations of Von Baer, who traces
it to the number of shallow lagoons by which the basin is surrounded, every one
of which is a sort of natural “salt pan” for the evaporation of the water and the
deposit of its saline matter in the solid form, This process may be well studied in
the neighbourhood of Novo-Petrosk on the eastern coast, where what was
formerly a bay is now divided into a large number of basins, presenting every
degree of saline concentration. One of these still occasionally receives water from
the sea, and has deposited on its banks only a very thin layer of salt. A second,
likewise full of water, has its bottom hidden by a thick crust of rose-coloured
crystals like a pavement of marble. A third exhibits a compact mass of salt, in
which are pools of water whose surface is more than a yard below the level of the
sea. And a fourth has lost all its water by evaporation, and the stratum of salt
left behind is now covered by sand. A similar concentration is taking place in the
arm of the sea termed Karasu (Black. Water), which runs southwards from the
north-east angle of the Caspian ; for, notwithstanding the proximity of the mouths
of the great rivers, the proportion of salt there rises so greatly above that of the
ocean, oth animal life, elsewhere extremely abundant, is almost or altogether
suppressed.
his process goes on upon the greatest scale, however, in the Karaboghaz—
a shallow diverticulum from the eastern part of the middle basin, which 1s pro-
bably a “survival” of the former communication between the Caspian and the Sea
of Aral, This vast gulf communicates with the sea by a narrow mouth, which is
not more than about 150 yards wide and 5 feet deep; and through this channel
a current is always running inwards with an average speed of three miles an hour.
This current is accelerated by westerly and retarded by easterly winds; but it
never flows with less rapidity than a mile and a half per hour. The navigators of
the Caspian, and the Turi:oman nomads who wander on its shores, struck with the
constant and unswerving course of this current, have supposed that its waters pass
down into a subterranean abyss (Karaboghaz, black gulf), through which they
reach either the Persian Gulf or the Black Sea. For this hypothesis, however,
there is not the least foundation. The basin, being exposed to every wind and to
most intense summer heat, is subject to the loss of an enormous quantity of water
by evaporation ; and as there is very little direct return by streams, the deficit can
only be supplied by a flow from the Caspian. The small depth of the bar seems to
prevent the return of a counter-current of denser water, none such haying been
detected, although the careful investigations made by Von Baer would have shown
its presence if it really existed. And thus there is a progressively increasing con-
centration of the water within the basin of the Karaboghaz; so that seals which
used to frequent it are no longer found there, and its borders are entirely destitute
of vegetation. Layers of salt are being deposited on the mud at the bottom; and
the sounding-line, when scarcely out of the water, is covered with saline crystals.
Taking the lowest estimates of the degree of saltness of the Caspian water, the
width and depth of the channel, and the speed of the current, Von Baer has shown
that the Karaboghaz alone daily receives from the Caspian the enormous quantity
of three hundred and fifty thousand tons of salt. If such an elevation were to take
place of the surface of the bar as should separate the Karaboghaz from the basin
of the Caspian, it would quickly diminish in extent, its banks would be converted
into immense fields of salt, and the sheet of water which might remain would ke
either converted into a shallow lake, like Lake Elton, which is 200 miles from
the present northern border of the Caspian—or a salt marsh, like those which
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 167
€over extensive tracts of the steppes—or might altogether disappear by drying
up, as seems to have been the case with a depressed area lying between Lake
Elton and the River Ural, which is 79 feet below the level of the Caspian, and
about as much more below that of the Black Sea. It is impossible that a more
“ pregnant instance ” could be adduced of the effect of evaporation alone in main-
taining a powerful current, than is afforded by this case of the Karaboghaz.
That when the basin of the Caspian had been once completely isolated, the level
of its water was rapidly lowered by evaporation, until its area was so far reduced
as to keep down the amount of evaporation to that of the return of fresh water by
rain and rivers, is shown by Von Baer to be an almost inevitable inference from
facts of two independent orders. At the height of from 65 to 80 feet above the
—- level, the rocks which formed the original sea-shore of the southern basin
ave been furrowed out into tooth-shaped points and needles ; lower down, on the
contrary, the rocks now laid bare show no trace of the erosive action of the water ;
so that its level would seem to have sunk too rapidly to allow the waves sufficient
time to attack the cliff-walls effectively. Again, along the shallow border of the
northern basin, the shore for a space of 250 miles is gashed with thousands of
narrow channels, from 12 to 30 miles in length, separated by chains of hillocks,
which pass inland into the level ground of the steppes. In the neighbourhood of
the mouths of the Volga, which brings down a greatly increased volume of water
at the time of the melting of the snows, the excess flows into these channels, and
thus tends to keep them open; so that, when the inundation is over, the sea again
passes up them. Further to the south, on the other hand, the channels, like the
intervening hillocks, are not continuous, but form chains of little lakes separated
by sandy isthmuses. Although these channels run nearly parallel to each other,
yet they have a somewhat fan-like arrangement, their centre of radiation being
the higher part of the isthmus which separates the slope of the Caspian from that
of the N.E. portion of the Black Sea. It is difficult to see how these channels can
have been formed, except by the furrowing of the soft soil during the rapid
sinking of the level of the Caspian water, as happens on the muddy banks of a
reservoir in which the water is being rapidly lowered by the opening of a sluice-
gate.
Now since, in the area of the Caspian as at present limited, an equilibrium has
been established between the quantity of water lost by evaporation and that
returned to it by rain and rivers (for there is no reason to believe that any con-
tinuous change of level is now going on), we can arrive at a better idea of what
the amount of such evaporation really is, from what is needed to make it good,
than we have any other means of forming. The Volga is, next to the Danube, the
largest European river, and its drainage-area is enormous; the Ural is a consider-
able river, probably not bringing down much less water than the Don; whilst the
Kur and the Araxes, which drain a large part of Transcaucasia, cannot together be
much inferior to the Dnieper; and yet the whole mass of water brought down by
these four rivers serves only to keep the present level of the Caspian from being
further lowered by evaporation. ,
On the Equa torial Lakes of Africa. By Signor Gurvo Cora.
On a Portable Globe, and on some Maps of the World. By G. H. Darwin.
On the Scientific Voyage of the ‘ Challenger?
By Captain J. E. Davis, R.N., FRG.
Captain Davis having briefly described the circumstances that led to the
Government undertaking to send the ‘Challenger’ on a voyage of scientific
discovery round the world, and also the ship herself and her fitting for the
voyage, which, he said, were most perfect in every particular, he proceeded :—
The ‘Challenger’ sailed from Portsmouth on the 21st of December, and on her
168 REPORT—1873.
passage down Channel and across the Bay of Biscay encountered the weather
usually met with at that season of the year.
The first deep sounding, in 1125 fathoms off, but to the southward of, Cape
Finisterre, was not very successful. The second trial proved more successful, and
some bright-coloured starfishes and other animals were brought to light, Another
attempt at dredging was made in nearly 2000 fathoms, but whether it fouled the
Gibraltar and Lisbon cable or a rock it mattered little, for after trying seven hours
to extricate it, the rope broke and the dredge was lost, The ‘Challenger’ reached
Lisbon on the 3rd of January.
On leaving Lisbon the SOlisitenser’ sounded in the vicinity of two rocks of
870 and 423 fathoms, and obtained 1270 fathoms near them and 13880 fathoms
between them; and although the presumption is that they do not exist, still,
from what I shall have to remark as I go on, it would be almost presumption
to assert it; and an instance occurred the next day to bear me out in this,
as in dredging off Cape St. Vincent, where the dredge was let down in 525
fathoms, the ship drifted quickly into 900 fathoms, so steep was the incline.
Gibraltar was reached on the 18th; and on leaving it a few days after, pro-
ceeded in a westerly direction, in order to get on the direct line between Lisbon
and Madeira, as a telegraphic cable was to be laid between the two places. It
will be observed that much deeper water was obtained on the way out than at the
extremity of the line. In 10° west longitude 2500 fathoms were obtained, while
60 or 70 miles west of it only 1500, with still shoaler water outside.
The ‘Challenger’ reached Madeira on the 3rd of February,and Teneriffe on the 5th.
Leaving Teneritte for Sombrero Island on the 14th, a course was shaped to the south-
east, and when 57 miles from the peak, 1890 fathoms were obtained. ‘The weather
being fine, the opportunity was a good one for trying Mr. Siemens’s ingenious
differential resistance-coil. It was tested in comparison with the Miller thermo-
meter at 100, 200, 500, 700, 800, and 1000 fathoms respectively ; the difference at
100 fathoms was 2° mus in the Siemens, which gradually changed to 2° plus at
1000 fathoms. With any motion in the ship the difficulty in reading off a delicate
galvanometer appears to be an insurmountable objection to this otherwise valuable
instrument, and in the absence of regular thermometers could not be depended on.
The serial observations of the temperature of the ocean at various depths were now
commenced, Captain Davis here described the modus operandi of obtaining these
observations, and then proceeded as follows :—As might be expected in the vicinity
of volcanic islands, there were great inequalities in the bottom, and 50. miles out-
side, a depth of 1945 fathoms, 1225 were obtained, and near that, to the southward,
2220, showing some steep acclivities and depressions. ‘The bottom specimens
brought up coincided with the soundings; from the shallower sounding, stones,
sand, and shells were obtained; whilst from the deeper waters, Globigerina-ooze.
The water deepened to 3150 fathoms at two fifths the distance on the section, and
then shoaled to 1900 at three fifths the distance, deepening again gradually to 3000
fathoms 300 miles from Sombrero, Thus there appears to be two deep basins or
valleys with a rise between them, and agreeing in contour with a few soundings
obtained more to the southward. The section from Cape Verdes to Bahia will be
most interesting in connexion with this part of the voyage and the two deeps
ound.
Another point of observation in this line of soundings is in the nature of the
bottom. In all the soundings exceeding about 2700 fathoms, the bottom is red
clay, while in the shoaler water of the bank between it is ooze. The ‘ Challenger’
anchored at St. Thomas on the 16th of March and sailed again on the 24th for
Bermuda, first taking some soundings and dredging in the immediate vicinity of
the islands, and then stretching away to the northward towards Bermuda.
On the 26th, when only 80 miles from the land, a sounding was taken of the
greatest known depth in the world, viz. 3875 fathoms—nearly 43 miles. Not ima-
gining that so near the islands so great depth of water could be found, only 3 ewt. of
sinkers were used with the hydra machine ; two thermometers and a water-bottle
were attached to the line: the line was 1" 12™ running out, the last 100 fathoms
taking 3" 18°, The small dredge was let down and this extraordinary depth
dredged with 5 miles of rope; the dredge on coming up brought a small quantity
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 169
of mud, but with little sign of animal life. The thermometers were both broken by
the enormous pressure, the pressure at-that depth being equal to about 704 atmo-
spheres, or 10,600 Ibs. to the square ineh. (The thermometers so broken were
exhibited at the Section.)
From this deep sounding the water shoaled 1000 fathoms at a distance of 110
miles, and then continued without any great alteration until close to Bermuda, at
which place the ‘ Challenger’ arrived on the 4th of April.
The several deep soundings taken round Bermuda prove it to be a peak on which
the coral animals have built the islands; and from the fact of there being con-
siderable magnetic disturbance at different stations on the island, it may be inferred
that, unlike the coral formations of the Pacific, there has been no subsidence of the
mountain. There are two or three other peaks similar to that of Bermuda—for
instance, the Sainthill and Milne banks, one with 100 fathoms, the other with
80 fathoms on it. These are well authenticated soundings; and had the peaks
been a few fathoms nearer the surface, doubtless we should have had two islands
similar to Bermuda.
The ‘Challenger’ left Bermuda on the morning of the 21st April. Proceeding
to the north-west towards New York, the deepest water, 2800 fathoms, was found
about midway between Bermuda and the southern edge of the Gulf-stream. Soon
after noon on the 30th the southern edge was crossed, the temperature of the
surface-water changing suddenly from 65° to 72°.
Great exertions were made to obtain a sounding in the strength of the Gulf-stream,
but the strength of the current prevented its accomplishment; but conclusions were
drawn from the observations made, that at this section of the Gulf-stream it is
57 miles wide and 100 fathoms deep, that the rapid part of the current did not
exceed a breadth of 15 miles, and that the rate of the current is 33 to 4 miles an
hour, and that the temperature of this belt of rapid current exceeded by 3° the
other parts of the stream.
On the return voyage from Halifax to Bermuda Captain Nares sounded close
to the position of the Hope Bank, on which there is said to be 49 fathoms, but
he found no indications of its existence.
On the voyage across the ocean from Bermuda to the Azores there is not much
to comment on. The water suddenly deepened to 2360 fathoms at a distance of
60 miles from Bermuda; and the deepest water on the section was 2875 fathoms,
teins one third the distance from Bermuda, and then shoaled gradually towards
ayal,
The ‘Challenger’ reached Fayal on the 9th of July, and then went to St. Michael’s,
from which place she went directly to Cape-Verde Islands, and arrived at St.
Vincent on the 27th of July.
On Trade-routes through Mongolia and Zungaria. By Ney Etas,
Three Visits to New Guinea. By the Rev. W. Wyatt Git, B.A.
My first visit was in October 1872, when I landed on Tauan, a lofty island sepa-
rated from the mainland of New Guinea by a strait 4 miles wide. Nees to Tauan,
and formerly considered to be a part of it, is the low, fruitful, unhealthy island of
Saibai, 10 miles in length. The interior of Saibai is a vast morass, with myriads
of snipes, curlews, &c. The inhabitants are a fine Negrillo race, very suspicious of
strangers. On both this and the adjacent island the houses of chiefs and warriors
are ornamented with strings of aie of New-Guinea Bushmen. In the principal
village of Saibai stands a lofty cocoa-palm, with two branches growing out of the
parent stem at the same point.
A few days afterwards we steamed on to Katau, a village on the south-western
coast of New Guinea. The coast was covered with stately melancholy mangroves,
very unlike the scrub bearing the same name in Queensland. A conical hill some
miles inland alone relieved the monotony of the scene. The navigation of this
si coast is most critical, owing to the presence of coral-reefs and sunken
, 2
170 REPORT—1873.
rocks. The dwellings composing the village of Katau are but few in number, but
of immense length. They are built on piles, with end verandahs, and thatched
with the leaves of the sago-palm. In one village we entered a dwelling with
sleeping accommodation for upwards of sixty couples! Tobacco is largely culti-
vated. The pipe was 33 inches in length, consisting of a piece of bamboo with a
moyable bowl. The fumes are inhaled. Our interpreters secured a good reception
for us wherever we went.
A second or eastern mouth of the Katau river was discovered as we pressed on
to the village of Torotoram, which is larger than the village we had left. To get
to it we had to wade more than half a mile over a bank of fine black sand. On
our arrival we found that the entire population had fled into the bush with all
their valuables, excepting four or five men, who stood doubtfully in front of a house
watching the movements of the strangers. As soon, however, as it became evident
to these scouts that no hostility was intended, the whole male population returned.
Not a woman, a child, or a decrepit man was seen during our visit.
This part of New Guinea, from the western limits of the Katau district to Bris-
towe Island, is called Mauat by the natives and by the Torres-Strait Islanders,
Opposite Bristowe Island is a deep navigable river, half a mile across, supposed to
be a branch of the Fly. The aborigines of this part of New Guinea call their great
island Duudat. Torres-Strait Islanders corrupt this into Daudi. Australia is
known as Great Daudai, New Guinea as Little Daudai. Although upwards of
seven weeks were spent in New Guinea waters, never once did we hear this famous
island called “ Papua.”
Two small rivers empty themselves into the Straits opposite to two islets not
marked on any chart.
* A second visit was paid to Mauat about a week afterwards. The same feeling
of cordiality prevailed as at the first. One of our party walked into the bush for
two miles amongst luxuriant plantations of bananas and taro. The country was a
dead level, the soil of the richest description. The bread-fruit-tree grows luxu-
riantly. Kangaroos, a i es species of hog (Sus papuensis), dingos, opossums,
and cassowaries abound. At first sight we mistook several highly polished leg-
bones of the “Samu” (cassowary), used for husking cocoa-nuts, for human bones.
Some miles to the west of Mauat lies Baigo, or Talbot Island. The inhabitants
of the mainland near Baigo are numerous, but by no means to be trusted.
On the 19th of November, 1872, we started from Mer for the eastern peninsula
of New Guinea. We sailed through Flinder’s Passage into the open Gulf of
Papua, thus leaving awhile the most extensive coral-reef in the world, inside of
which we had been sailing for two months. Two days afterwards we sighted the
lofty mountain-range which forms the backbone of the peninsula, affording a
striking contrast to the low south-western coast. A great number of palms were
seen drifting with the current, the stems and fronds covered with sea-birds, The
appearance of Yule Island was very park-like, clear grassy spots alternating with
picturesque clumps of trees. The island is 4 miles in length, and of considerable
height. Early on the following morning we anchored in Redscar Bay, close to the
islet of Varivara (the Parivara of the charts).
The inhabitants of the little hamlet of Kido were timid, but very pacifically
inclined. On the following day we discovered the river and village of Manumanu.
The village consists of ninety-four houses, with a population of about 1000. The
houses are two-storied, and are all built on high stakes. The women are exqui-
sitely tattooed, but the men not so extensively. The complexion of these people is
nearly the same as that of the Samoans and Rarotongans, but in stature and
physical strength they are much inferior. Many words are identical in all three
dialects, proving them to be essentially one. It is impossible for any one who has
seen these pleasant, gentle, light-skinned natives of Manumanu to doubt that they
are of Malay origin.
Manumanu river (erroneously called the “Towtou” in the charts) is over a
mile across at its mouth in the driest month of the year. We ascended the river
to a distance of 7 miles, but found the country everywhere to be an immense
swamp. Just beyond is the first interior native village, named Koitapu.
A most interesting fact is now for the first time ascertained, viz. that Manwmanu
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 171
ts the last village on the coast inhabited by the light-coloured or Malay race; so that
from Manumanu river westwards the Negrillo race alone flourish, the Malays in-
habiting the whole of the eastern peninsula of New Guinea.
Notes of recent Travel in Persia. By Colonel Sir Frepertc Gotpsmip, K.S.J.
The paper commenced with a review of Persia at the present day, according to
geographical limits, as compared with Persia of the past, arguing that it may be
said to comprise now quite as much settled and consolidated territory as at any
eriod of its political existence of which we can speak with the authority of
intimate acquaintance. If she has less extent of land than before her latest disas-
trous war with Russia, there is, at least within her recognized limits, less rebellion
and more allegiance. Allusion was made to the various works of reference on the
country, from those of Tavernier and Chardin up to the existing time ; and it was
asserted that to the nineteenth century we were indebted for the most important
additions to our knowledge of the geography and people of this part of Bont
Asia. As regards the diplomatic relations between Persia and the European states,
there was practically none of these had more to do with her than England. We
no longer sent our commissioned officers to teach her the art of war, but we had
for nearly ten years supplied her with commissioned and non-commissioned officers
of engineers to direct and maintain her lines of telegraph. By Convention of No-
vember 1865, this number was raised to fifty, Since that period the number was
increased. In the very recent Convention no specification of numbers of employés
is made at all; and a plain straightforward agreement for maintaining and working
the line has been accepted on both sides for a further term exceeding twenty years,
The routes more particularly described were those traversed by the writer from
Resht to Tehran, from Bushahr to Tehran, and from Mash-had to Tehran. The
first might be stated generally as one fourth low forest, one fourth mountainous,
and one half a tolerably level plain. To Kazvin the scenery is very varied ; but
the latter town, although it has a telegraph-office and post-house, and is interesting
in its history and remains, as an abode of civilized life is orderless and methodless.
From Bushahr to Tehran, the first section of the road, or 170 miles, commences
with a low marshy coast, and rises to a height above 7000 feet among noble
mountains, ending at a lower but still respectable elevation at Shiraz. The second
section is of 265 miles, to Ispahan, and is interesting from the ruins of Persepolis
and other monuments of antiquity, as well as mountain scenery and the presence of
“ Tliats ” or wandering tribes, The third and last section of 250 miles, to Tehran,
has for its attractions the charming mountain-station of Kohrud and the cities of
Kashan and Kum; but between Kum and Tehran is a desert not inaptly termed
that of “the Angel of Death,” so utterly blank and desolate does it appear. From
Mashhad to Tehran there are here and there pleasant or interesting halts; but the
greater part of the 540 miles is monotonous, and some 60 to 100 miles are infested
by the Turkman hordes.
Some account was also given of the cities of Tehran, Ispahan, Mashhad, and
Kazvin, and the following extracts may have interest as conveying recent and
original impressions :—
“T should not say that life in Persia was generally suited to Europeans; but it
promises, at least, to be more so as intercourse progresses, for the drawbacks are
rather social than physical or external. In the north, except for two or three
summer months, the climate is agreeable enough, and even at the hottest time it is
seldom that the nights are oppressive. To those who come from India direct, or
to whom Indian heat is habitual, the change is most delightful. There are days in
autumn, winter, and spring which leave the impression of unequalled temperature ;
and the blue sky, with its tempering haze, as it were a veil of reflected snow
gathered from the higher peaks or ridges of continuous mountain-chains, is too
exquisite a picture to be readily forgotten. In the late spring Fashion moves out a
few miles from Tehran to the cooler residences near the mountains, returning in
the late autunin to the precincts of the capital. These, it may be noted, have been
considerably extended of late years, and are designed for yet further extension... .
12*
ie REPORT—1873.
Persian houses are not comfortable, in the English sense. Although the cha-
racter of native Persian domestic relations involves separate suites of rooms, there
is no privacy in any department; for the women’s part is as much frequented by
women and children as the men’s by the ruder sex of all ages and classes. Servants,
unless kept away by order (a dangerous process with the idler ones), are apt to be
ubiquitous, and turn up at all hours of the day about the house, noisily bickering,
listlessly squatting, or moving with silent solemnity. Visitors used to give notice
of coming, but are gradually and tacitly abrogating the practice; and natives and
Europeans will soon, it is presumed, call upon each other in Persia with as little
ceremony as elsewhere. Nor is it unlikely that the habit of bringing tea, coffee,
and pipes to every visitor will also fall into disuse. The old orthodox custom of a
threefold supply is, to say the least, inconvenient ; for strict fulfilment of a dozen
visits would necessitate the absorption of thirty-six cups of warm liquid and thirty-
six ‘sets’ of tobacco inhalations.’
The paper, moreover, contained many particulars and some statistics of the late
disastrous famine, gathered during the last two of the three journeys above
mentioned.
On a Visit to Koh-Khodja. By Major Brrrsrorp Lovert.
On Assam, and an Overland Communication with China*.
By J. M‘Cosu, M.D., late H.M. Bengal Army.
The subject of this paper is an overland communication between India and
China, between Assam and Yunan, between a navigable branch of the Brahma-
pootra and the Yang-tsi-kiang, between the two most populous empires in the
world—the one numbering 200,000,000 inhabitants, the other 300,000,000. The
author spent the early part of his service in India, in Assam; and wrote its topo-
graphy, a book published by order of Government. After giving a bird’s-eye
view of Assam and its surroundings, its people and climate, of the discovery of tea
in the province, and the rise and fall of its tea-plantations from want of labourers,
he proposes a route direct across from the Brahmapootra through Munnipoor and
Upper Burmah to Bhamo, and thence on through Momien and Talifoo to the
Yang-tsi-kiang. Such a road, even a footpath, if protected by the Chinese, the
Burmese, and the Indian Governments, would afford a ready outlet to the surplus
population of China, and be the means of restoring prosperity to the bankrupt tea-
plantations. Moreover, he expresses a hope that at no distant day the North-
eastern Railway of Bengal shall be extended across from the Brahmapootra to the
Yang-tsi-kiang in the same direction, when the immense trade of the Indus, the
Ganges, and the Brahmapootra, the Ningtee, the Irrawaddy, and the Yang-tsi-
kiang, shall be hoisted on trucks, and rolled from East to West and from West to
East in one grand tide, and that the British merchants shall fill their pitchers from
the stream, and deal out its bounty to the people of the land.
On Reeent Arctic Explorations. By Cremunts R. Marxuam, C.B,
On Discoveries at the Eastern End of New Guinea,
, By Captain J. Morussy, R.N.
On Russian Accounts of Khiva and Turcomania. By E. Detmar Moreay,
On a Journey from Peking to Han-kow. By E, L, Oxennam.
* The original has been printed zz extenso by order of the Secretary of State for India.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 173
On the Distribution of Coal in China. By Baron von RicurHoren.
—
Survey for a Telegraph-line between Berber and Souakim.
By Captain Roxrsy, 2.£.
On Trade-routes in Persia. By Major St. Jonny.
On the Livingstone East-Coast Aid Expedition. By Major Evan Surrn.
A few Notes on the Trade of the East-African Coast.
By Major Evan Suiru.
The Gorges and Rapids of the Upper Yangtsze.
By J. Taomson, /.R.GS.
Mr. Thomson ascended the Yangtsze in the beginning of 1872, having for his
companions two gentlemen, Captains of steamers in the China trade. The party
left I-Chang (a city on the left bank of the river, about 1100 English miles above
Shanghai) on the 7th of February. They engaged a native boat with a crew of
twenty-four men, and proceeded to ascend through the gorges of the Upper
Yangtsze. The river was at its lowest, and in the I-Chang gorge (which is entered
fourteen miles above the city) the great river was left, m many places, with a
waterway of only 100 yards wide between gigantic walls of rock. Mr. Thomson
next proceeded to describe the appearance of the I-Chang, Lupan, Mitan, and
Wushan gorges, and the difficulties and dangers to be encountered in the future
steam-navigation of this section of the Upper Yangtsze, where there are many
rapids interspersed with jagged rocks, on which the native trading-boats are
frequently worked. The most formidable rapid was below the village of Isingtan,
at the mouth of the Mitan gorge, where it was customary with the Chinese traders,
before making the ascent, to unload their boats and have the cargo carried overland
to the top of the rapid. The grandeur of the mountain- and river-scenery at this
part of the journey was minutely described, as well as the appearance presented by
the rapid. The author was here aided by the valuable accessory of a large photo-
graph, which he had taken on the spot. This and other pictures were obtained at
some personal risk, as Mr. Thomson was stoned and otherwise treated as a very
rare and dangerous type of “ Yang-quitsz” (foreign devil), who had come among
them with his picture-taking instrument to extract the secrets out of heaven and
earth. Fond mothers seized their children and carried them away, as it was popu-
larly believed that the solutions used in taking the photographs were made out of
the tender eyes of Chinese children. In the open spaces between the gorges the
temperature was found to be several degrees lower than in the mountain-clefts
which form the gorges. The rapid of Isingtan was running about nine knots, “and
yet the Chinese traders find no obstacle in this, or indeed in any of the other
rapids of the Yangtsze, to the carrying on of a lucrative trade with large-sized
cargo-boats.” These boats, and their appliances for warding off danger, were badl
constructed. Mr. Thomson argues that if the Chinese can do all this, we, wit
science, suitable steamers, and pluck, can do more. | “ Let the river be opened, and
its successful steam-navigation will follow.”
Some interesting details were furnished regarding the working of coal-mines in
the province of Hupeh. Several mines were visited; and Mr. Thomson succeeded
in taking a series of photographs of Chinese coal-mining The paper concluded
with an account of the ascent of the Wushan gorge.
174. REPORT—1873.
ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
Address by the Right Hon. W. E. Forster, W.P., President of the Section.
[Spoken on Monday, September 22nd. ]
Your Council have asked me to take the responsible and honourable position of
being the President of one of your Sections, I am quite sure that that honour
cannot have been conferred upon me owing to any special fitness on my part, but
rather from two facts—the one that I do happen to have taken an interest in the
questions that have come before this Section for many years, and the other that I
am a Bradford townsman and a Bradford Member. As a Bradford man I was so
glad to do what I could to welcome the Association, that I felt I could not refuse
ot try to perform any duty that was imposed upon me; but I must acknowledge
that in attempting to do so I have found special grounds of unfitness. The fact is
that my time and thoughts are so occupied with other pressing matters that I
really have not been able to prepare this address with that care and thought, or to
bestow that pains in expressing what I have to say, that I know is due to so
distinguished an audience. I merely make this remark (for I do not want to take
up your time by apologies) to explain why I have not followed the usual course
and brought forward a prepared written address, and why I have thus been obliged
to ask you to let me make a speech instead of reading a paper. Ido not deny that
the accident of my being connected with the Government does not specially fit me
for this duty. In this Section we deal, and we must deal, with politics. Under
our title, that of Economic Science and Statistics, there is hardly any question of
political discussion, hardly any immediate question of pressing legislation, which
may not be brought within its deliberations. And that has been proved by you ;
for if you look at your own ‘Journal’ you will see that such political questions
(pressing questions, and I may say burning questions) have been successively
brought before you, as the question of the income tax, the amalgamation of rail-
ways, education (of which last I am not unconscious of the difficulties), and many
other matters that excite great interest and might be made use of, but I am quite
sure they will not at this Association be made use of, for party purposes. But it
certainly, as a general rule, does not become any man who happens to have the
honour of being a member of the Ministry to make suggestions with regard to
political measures, unless he is prepared to bring them forward, and press them
upon the responsibility of Government. It rather becomes such members of the
Ministry to hear suggestions, to listen to them, and carefully consider them. A
man who is a member of the Cabinet must also recollect that he must consider his
colleagues, and must be very careful to say nothing that will commit them.
However, care in these matters may be pushed too far; and as I am here now all I
can do is to ask you to forget, as I have tried to do, that I am connected with the
Government, and to remember that in what I now say I commit no one but myself.
I think this question will occur to many of you, as it did to me—Why, in this
Association, do we deal with politics? What business have we to have such a
Section as this? why should we discuss political matters? what has the discussion
of politics to do with the meetings of a scientific congress? There is an immediate
answer to this question ; and that is, that after all there is a science in politics. If
the political theorist—and I do not use the word as a word of reproach—but if the
political thinker misconceives or misstates or mistakes his facts or his statistics, he
as surely fails in evolving any thought of value as does the student of physical
science who generalizes from a partial or imperfect series of experiments. In like
manner, if the practical politician, in attempting to apply the principles of economic
science, breaks the laws of that science (for instance, the laws of political economy),
the result will be that he will pay the penalty in the failure of his political
measures, as certainly as does the practical mechanic or chemist who ignores the
laws of chemistry or those regulating the application of mechanical forces. But it
may be said that although this is true, such is the immense range which our Section
would extend over, that there would be a danger in its taking up too much of our
attention, and that these subjects had better be left to the kindred Association
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 175
which was started as the great development of our Section—the Social Science
Association, of which my noble friend Lord Houghton will be chairman on an
early day, But I do not think there is any danger of our monopolizing too much
attention. After all, a very large number of members of our Association are those
who act with great knowledge and interest in physical science, and who with great
power give information and show anxiety to hear what their fellow members have
to tell them. But I should be sorry to see this Section omitted from our pro-
gramme, I think there is great advantage in bringing together men of science and
politicians. Perhaps one result of this may be that we shall obtain higher scientific
culture. I wish that this may be the case. Over and over again in the work I
haye felt it my duty to try to do, I have lamented my own scientific ignorance. 1
have felt, and I have no doubt others who have attempted it have also felt, that we
could act more successfully if we knew more of the laws of nature. There is hardly
any fact in human intercourse, hardly any influence which a man can bring to bear
on his fellow men that might not be explained, illustrated, and enforced by some
analogy of outward nature—that has not, as it were, its counterpart in the workings
of nature, in the eyes of the man who is fortunate enough to have some real know-
ledge of both men and things. Again, there is undoubtedly an advantage in sub-
jecting political questions to the conditions of scientific debate. It is well that they
should sometimes be treated and debated in that temper and with that simple desire
for the discovery of truth which ought to characterize all scientific discussion,
Then, again, as regards this special Section there is an advantage in the political
theorists or thinkers being brought into contact with the practical politicians; for
when they come together I think the theorist would perhaps learn to appreciate
and estimate more fairly than he sometimes does the immense friction, if 1 may use
the term, with which the practical politician has to deal, and which he finds to
clog and interfere with his efforts. It is not sufficient to enounce and explain the
laws of economic science. In outward nature you have to deal with dead facts, ~
In economic science, affecting the political and social condition of men, you have
to deal with persons who have free will and the power of exercising it and of
refusing to obey the laws which you explain ; and we none of us can forget that we
have to contend with and to take account of the likes and dislikes of men, and the
passions and even the prejudices of men, and that it is not enough for a State to
declare the laws of economic science—of political economy, for example. We
must not forget that many men will not obey these laws, however clearly we may
explain them and point out the penalty of their transgression. Sometimes they
disbelieve in the penalty ; often they ignore it; and not seldom, knowing its exis-
tence, they prefer to incur it. We must take into account the existence of this
friction, and we must be prepared for this result—a very disappointing result, and
a result of which I am sure experimental philosophers would greatly complain if
they were beset with it in physical science ; and that is, that though just in pro-
portion as in any political measure the laws of economic science are broken, there
will be weakness, and probably failure in that political measure, it by no means
follows that just in proportion as the law is kept and adhered to there will be
success. It is not seldom the case that by its very truthfulness a measure excites
so much opposition that it ensures its own defeat. Well, that is a reason which
thinkers ought to bear in mind when they sometimes accuse political men of
delaying to bring forward measures of which they are convinced. It is a ground,
and a reasonable and proper ground, very often for the postponement of a political
measure based upon true principles. Those who are most in favour of such a
measure and most advocate it, feel that they are doing it harm by prematurely
bringing it forward; but some persons push that doctrine too far, and say that it is
a reason and an excuse why a measure should be brought forward upon false prin-
ciples. Now that I do not admit. I believe that nothing really is gained, though
something may sometimes seem to be gained, by any man bringing forward a
political measure upon qeneipies in which he himself disbelieves. He may be
quite sure that in the different opinions of men, if it be at all desirable that such a
measure should become law, there are plenty of people (if he will simply dro
behind and not do that of which he disapproves) who will come forward an
advocate it who do really appnate of it.
But I must now, after these prefatory remarks, go to the special work of this
176 REPORT—1873.
Section. I believe it is usual for the President to refer in his address to the pro-
gress of Economic Science for the past year. Well, I think you will hardly expect
me to do that. If I were to refer to the progress of Economic Science, I should
have to show to what extent, amongst other ways, it has been put forward or not
in legislation ; I should have to defend the Government against charges that might
perhaps be made of its not having been put forward. Well, I believe that you will
feel that I should be taking a very unfair advantage of the post I occupy, and of
the duty you have kindly imposed upon me, if 1 were to make this an opportunity
of defending the Government. And, in fact, I cannot forget that one very impor-
tant branch of Economic Science would be considered to be that with which ] am
myself connected—that of education; and if I were to attempt such a review it
would necessarily partake of a much more personal character than I should desire.
I therefore resist the temptation, although I do not deny that it is a temptation
when I have before me such an audience as this, to vindicate the principles upon
which, on behalf of the Government, I have acted—or, at any rate, to explain (and
I think I should be able to explain with success) the fact that we have acted upon
principles, and not upon motives of expediency. But, talking of a review of pro-
gress, [ should be exceedingly glad if I were able to make any full statement of the
progress which has been made in the economic condition of the English people—
not for the last year only, for we cannot judge by such a short period, but for a
longer time, say from the time when this Section was first formed, which I believe
to be about forty years. Now what, after all, is the great object of our delibera-
tions in this Section? Why do we collect and test and analyze statistics? and why
do we study the principles of economic science, and the mode in which those prin-
ciples are and ought to be applied? Many would reply mainly in order to promote
the economic well-being of the great mass of the community. Well, I should be
exceedingly glad if some member of your Association, well qualified to do so, would
consider whether, at some forthcoming opportunity, a careful comparison could not
be made as to the economic condition of the great mass of the English people at
this time as compared with what it was forty years ago. I have not made that
comparison, I have not had time to collect the necessary statistics; but I think this
statement will hardly be challenged, that (take for example the condition of the
manual labourers of the country, which is after all the largest class of the com-
munity, and must continue to be so) there has been progress the most hopeful for
the future, and the most remarkable as compared with like periods in the past. I
do not think it will be denied that the great body of manual labourers throughout
the country have a greater share of the comforts and enjoyments of life than they
had forty years ago; that they are able to obtain more of the necessaries and com-
forts and even of some of the luxuries of life; that their wages are higher (on
which point I would refer you to the paper read yesterday by Professor Leone
Levi, bearing in some measure on this matter)—not only higher in themselves, but
also as compared with the cost of living. There was great reason that they should
be higher. The higher rate, too, is earned with shorter hours, and by labour, gene-
rally speaking—I won't now speak of every trade, but generally speaking—under
improved conditions from those which existed at the former period.
assing from these purely material conditions, much as there is yet to do in
education, no one will deny that there has been progress in education.- No one, I
think, will deny that there has been progress in general culture; and, speaking
generally, I believe there has been great progress in better and more kindly rela-
tions between this large and important class and other classes of the community,
Well, now, I should be very sorry if these remarks were misapprehended. Do not
suppose me to think that in stating my belief that there has been progress that we
have got to that point at which we can rest and be thankful. I should be very
sorry to be supposed for a moment to be suggesting apathy to ourselves in our
endeavours to improve the condition of the manual labourer, or suggesting or
advising content to him—if by content be meant a cessation of efforts for his own
improvement. I believe there is much in the conditions of labour and the state of
manual labourers throughout the country to which the word content would be by
no means applicable. There is much for others to do for them, and still more for
them to do for themselves. I merely mention this progress as a stimulus for the
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 177
future, not as any ground for rest. This is not the place or the time to dilate upon
what labourers can do for themselves ; and all I would say on that matter is that
when any of us are advised or speak against what we may think to be the besetting
sins of the labouring class, we ought never to forget what are the besetting sins of
our own class. We must also recollect that in the present state of civilization we
must make a great distinction between crime and vice—remembering that crime
and vice cannot be attacked in like manner. We must continue to punish crime,
to bring force to bear upon it; but as regards vice (and I include in it that great
and terrible vice of drunkenness) I believe we shall be obliged to admit that
the time has long passed (indeed I doubt when it ever existed) in which we can
attack vice with success by force, or by any means but persuasion. As regards,
however, what can be done by others, by such a Section as this, by the Legislature,
for the condition of the manual labourers, I believe that, notwithstanding what has
been done, very much more may be done.
I alluded to what appears to be, speaking generally, the improved condition of
the labourer—that is to say, by the help of scientific discoveries man fights nature
with less suffering to himself. There are many of us who can detail the beneficent
results of scientific discovery in one case after another. All I will say is that I
believe these conquests over nature are but the prelude to future triumphs, and that
I look forward to these great and beneficent results being still more apparent in the
future than they have been in the past, from the thought and experiments of scientific
men—that they will enable the products of nature to be realized for the good of
men with less suffering to the individual worker. Take, again, the advantages of
free trade ; and what, after all, is free trade but the simple carrying out of scientific
laws? It means nothing else. There was a dispute in old time as to whether the
manual labourer would gain by free trade. No one would now raise that dispute
fora moment. Not only English labourers have gained, but, from our having learnt
the lesson and having adopted the principles of free trade, even the labourers of
other countries where they have not learnt these principles have shared in the
advantages of free trade, which we in these great centres of commerce have made
our own. I do trust we may now see grounds for supposing that other nations are
learning from our example ; and as their working men have gained by what we have
done, so our working men may gain by what they will do. I can hardly avoid
making one allusion to an event of the past _year—to the very encouraging support
of free trade shown by the action of the French Government. To the Emperor
Napoleon we have all been grateful for using his power for the encouragement of
free trade, and we have to acknowledge his patriotism and his fidelity to knowledge,
and to truthful political philosophy, in establishing some encouraging principles of
free trade in France ; but we know that they were forced upon the French people, and
we did not know what they might do when they had freedom. But in that matter
they have had freedom to do as they thought best, but in conditions of disadvantage
to free trade. The Government (though they had a great statesman who was not
himself convinced upon the matter, and who had great influence) in the past year
declared themselves decidedly in favour of free trade. I cannot doubt that that
fact will have taken hold upon men both in the United States and elsewhere.
But economic science does not apply merely to the interchange of commodities
between nations, but to the interchange of all matters of value. I think we feel
that its principles must be enforced and carried out both with regard to land and
to labour. There should be nothing in law whatever which should prevent the
most entire freedom in selling and buying land; this principle can hardly be dis-
puted, and its mere statement 1s almost sufficient to encourage us in the reforms that
will be necessary to carry it out. The same principle applies to labour; there must
be freedom to sell it and freedom to buy it. Then, again, I suppose sanitary im-
provements must be considered to come within the range of our Section. Well,
there is much, very much, to do in that matter. I think our aims in this direction
are higher (and I take comfort from the fact) than they used to be. We are
aiming not only at preventing death, but at making life better worth living, by
making it more healthy ; and we no longer forget that in fighting our battle against
disease it is not those only who are killed that are to be considered, but also
the wounded. In the terrible inflictions of preventible disease throughout the
178 REPORT—1873.
country the loss of life is very sad; but even more sorrowful, to my mind, are the
numbers of our fellow creatures (fellow countrymen and women) who are doomed
to struggle and fight the battle of life under the most severe conditions because of
the wounds they have received from preventible diseases. And on a matter like
this you will at once see the advantages of this Section. It is most desirable that
all those projects for sanitary improvement which are proposed by political thinkers
or by practical politicians should be at once tested by scientific laws, and by men
who are accustomed to make these laws their special subject. I will not say any
thing more about my own particular Section; I would merely refer to what I
ventured to say after the able address of your President on Wednesday evening.
I would, however, refer to the discussion yesterday-on the papers read by my
friends Mr. Morris and Professor Leone Levi with reference to our expecting in the
increased well-being of the community a greater diminution in the pauperism of
the country than we yet see. I believe there is a diminution, and I am hopeful
that it will be shown to a greater extent in a short period. But I am rather
anxious (I may be thought by some rather heretical in what I am going to say)
that in our objection to the evils that accompany a poor law we should not carry
that objection to the extent of imagining that we could do without any poor law.
The objections to the poor law lie upon the surface. I fear it is true that it does
encourage a want of thrift, and to some extent does deaden or weaken and make
less likely the performance of domestic duties. And there ought to be very great
reason for the poor law if it be possible to make this charge. I think there is great
reason. I do not believe that in the present state of civilization it is safe or right
not to acknowledge the principle of the poor law—namely, that a man shall have a
right to live, and that absolute destitution shall be prevented. Very few of us are
aware of the advantage that the acknowledgment of this principle has been to us.
In comparing our social struggles (our political convulsions) in England with those
of the Continent, I believe that the one great reason why we have got through
them with comparative safety, and have had reform instead of revolution, has been
that the large e of our people have known that this right is acknowledged—
the right to live.
Going back to the progress to which I have referred, we must bear in mind two
facts. Those of you who have studied political economy and are familiar with the
writers on that subject of twenty, thirty, and forty years ago, will remember that
they almost all supposed that there.would be no great improvement without an
increase in the population, or at any rate without a great decrease in its in-
crease, if I may so put it. My. Malthus, Mr. Mill, and many other most able and
excellent political economists, advocated very strongly what they called a pru-
dential check on population as the only means, or the most probable means, of
making progress in prosperity. Well, but our progress has been made without this
check and in spite of the great increase in population. I am a bad statistician, but
I believe the increase during the last forty years has been greater than in almost
any other previous term of forty years. The increase in the population of England
and Wales, in round numbers, has been from sixteen and a half millions in 1831 to
twenty-one and a half millions in 1871, and yet the population is more prosperous.
Again, if there has been great progress on the whole in the well-being of the
labourer, there has also been progress in the well-being of the capitalist. Iam not
going to speak of the special profits of special trades, but I believe it would be easy
to prove that the increase of capital in this country has been much more than has
kept pace with the increase of population. Well, if both classes, capitalists and
labourers, have on the whole bettered their condition, lam not at all surprised to
find that there is, as [ believe, a better feeling between the two. I hope my friend
Mr. Morris, if he is here, will let me make some allusion to his able paper of yester-
day. Ido not agree with all his views; but I wish to treat them in the same
spirit with which he treated the views of others—a spirit of fairness and willing-
ness to appreciate what could be said on the other side. Iam aware it is by no
means a rare feeling, but a very common feeling at this time, that the disputes
between labour and capital are more dangerous and more fierce than they were at
former periods, I must demur to this statement. I think it may be true that
these disputes are sometimes carried on upon a larger scale than formerly, because
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 179
the number of labourers is greater now, and the power of communication is much
easier ; but what I venture to say is this, that these disputes are conducted with
much less fierceness and acrimony than in former times. I also believe that
they, generally speaking, do not last so long. For instance, there are some
Bradford men, I suppose, who can remember the fierce struggle there was against
the introduction of machinery into Bradford—the violent fights that there were at
that time, though it would be almost impossible to have any thing of that kind in
Bradford now. Again, I can recollect almost as a boy I was learning a manufac-
turing business at Norwich, and there was a dispute, and the masters had to walk
through the town looking with suspicion at almost everybody that was coming
near them for fear of having vitriol thrown into their eyes. That, again, is a state
of things that has long passed away. Again, take the Preston strike of twenty
years ago, which I studied somewhat keenly. That was a struggle that lasted longer
than almost any dispute of modern times; and I must add my conviction that there
is not now that foolish struggle against the laws of science that there was in former
times.
Well, then, as I demur to my friend Mr. Morris’s statement, he will not be sur-
et if I say that I demur to the remedy he proposed at the close of his paper.
think he overrates the evil; but whether he does so or not, his remedy (a league
of capitalists and capital throughout the country) is one which I should be most
grieved to see any attempt to apply. Whatever individual labourers may advise
their fellows, I believe that in this country, where the interests of the labouring
men are so varied, however it may be advised, a league of labour against capital is
impossible. There may be talk about it at meetings, and there may be talk about
it in the newspapers, but I do not believe in its possibility, though, if any thin
could make it possible, it would be a league of capitalists against labourers.
think we shall agree that two such opposing leagues would be one of the greatest
calamities from which the country could suffer. I should tremble at the thought
of our industry being divided into hostile forces, and all the industrial workers of
England being distributed into opposing camps. Some persons would say it is
impossible, because the capitalists and labourers would be so unequally matched in
power—that now you have given votes to the labourers, their numbers and the
ower of their votes would make them so much stronger than the capitalists.
ow, I cannot take that ground myself. I think if the two parties were unwise
enough to band themselves in opposition (a thing which I believe they never will
do) they would not be so unequally matched. I believe that money will always
buy men, and capital always find support amongst labourers. I believe they would
not be unmatched in power; and although I know very well that my friend and
others only mention such a remedy for extreme occasions, and would advocate it
on the fairest principles, I believe that if the contest once took place it would be
conducted with equal recklessness on both sides. Under these circumstances I
take some additional comfort from one political measure with which I have had
something to do. If there was any thing like such a struggle between classes
throughout the country, there would be such a disposition on the side of each
party to clutch the power of the law, and to aim at legislative measures as
cannot but make me feel glad that the Government of which I am a member
have done something towards bridling the power of the leaders on each side by
giving to the voters the protection of the ballot. And this brings me to one re-
mark which perhaps you will allow me to make, and it is this: that, putting aside
the possibility of these opposing leagues (and I dismiss them from my mind), I
think that on both sides hes who advocate the rights of labour and those who
advocate the protection of the rights of capital) there is a little too much anxiety
to make use of the law. No doubt there should be perfect freedom in selling
labour, and that implies that there should be perfect freedom in combination,
I believe there was no greater mistake than the attempt to prevent a man from
agreeing with his fellow workmen as to the conditions upon which he should
like to sell his labour. But, of course, we should also say that there should be
perfect freedom to refuse to combine, and that such right eat be respected and
pocheatat. But in our effort to secure that freedom we must not try to get the
aw to do that which it cannot rightly or in fact effectually do. Wecan make use
180 REPORT—1873.
of the law to protect the Queen's subjects against bodily harm and physical
violence, but it is no use attempting to protect men against persuasion or even
against moral intimidation. They can only protect themselves. And if the law
attempts or strives to do that it will surely fail, and probably lead those against
whom the attempts are exercised to think that there is a desire to interfere by
recourse to the law with their reasonable freedom. And I think, in dealing with
this question of the law, we should not have recourse to exceptional legislation.
To illustrate that I may say that very few things have been done by the House of
Commons that I so much regret as the way in which we dealt with trades unions
at Sheffield. I think the law we passed (in order to get at information with re-
gard to trades unions at Sheffield) to obtain an available blue book as to what had
been done at Sheffield was one much to be regretted. We issued a Commission,
and we stated that every man, whatever he had done, might come before that
Commission and give evidence perfectly free from any of the consequences of the
crime he had committed. What was the result? That we had men who had
been engaged in the plotting and planning of deliberate murder, who came forward
and stated what they had been guilty of, and then there was the declaration of the
law which saved them from the consequences of their crime. That did not apply
merely to the case of King’s evidence, where the least guilty would be saved, and
the more guilty punished ; but it wasa paltering with the law, applying as it did to
all who were guilty, affording as it did protection to the murderer, and that in
order that we might acquire information on which to found exceptional legislation.
Such a step will, I hope, never be repeated. Our real hope in this matter must be
that which has caused what I conceive to be the progress that has been made,
namely, the effect of public opinion and education—the slow result of the pro-
clamation of truth as to the relations of labour and capital. By these means alone
we can hope to solve the difficulties which exist ; and I cannot but think that such a
Section as this will be a most useful aid in this important work. I may be told that
this hope is rash when we see the extraordinary ideas which are propagated in Con-
gresses, and reported day by day in the newspapers. Well, I have read with great
interest what has been said in Geneva at both these Congresses, and I have observed
this encouraging fact, that hardly any Englishmen have taken part in them; and
that, when they did, it was on the side of good sense, and to denounce wild and
impracticable ideas, But this is not the first time that we have had these notions
declared before us. :
My noble friend Lord Houghton and myself, in 1848, were in Paris, where we
amused and interested ourselves by trying to learn what we could of French notions
at that time about the relations of society, especially of labour and capital ; and lam
sure the ideas which we now think strange were then stated with even more ex-
travagance, and I think with much more agreement among the general public than
at this moment. The Commune of Paris may be quoted; but I do not think it is
a fair illustration. The Commune had its sad crimes; of that I fear there can be no
doubt; but these crimes and its very existence were not so much the effect of
French notions with regard to Communism. They were rather a reaction against
the central and severe despotism which had prevailed in France, destroying, as it
were, all local powers and trying to crush out local life. I believe that a vastly
larger number of working men are admitting now what we consider to be the
fundamental facts of political economy than was formerly the case. We find they
will now generally acknowledge that there are after all only three ways by which
labour can be better remunerated. The first is by the increase of capital—of the
wages fund. The second is by the diminution of labourers, either by emigration
or by a diminution of population, and that not simply by the diminution of labourers
in a special trade: that is a mistake which they still sometimes fall into; it may
appear to relieve a trade for a time, but it only does so by driving more labourers
into some other trade—making that trade unremunerative or less remunerative
to the labourer, and thus bringing him back to the trade which is more so. The
only way in which they can hope for a remedy under the second head is by a
diminution of labourers generally. The third way in which the conditions of
labour may be improved is that by which the labourer may himself become a
capitalist. Our recent progress has been made almost entirely in consequence of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 18]
the action of the first principle I have named, viz. by the effective industry of
the country—the capitalist and labourer working successfully together, and thereby
making an immense increase in the capital and in the labour fund: but I think
that all attempts to better the conditions of labour in the third way (that of the
labourer becoming capitalist) are most interesting, most hopeful; and it seems to
be a special business of such a Section as this to watch the attempts to carry out
these experiments, and to find out year by year how far they have been successful.
With regard to cooperation, just let me make one remark. There are two kinds
of cooperation, and if we attempt to consider it scientifically we must not mix them
Hs together. There is that form of cooperation in which the capitalist or em-
ployer pays the labourer—not altogether in wages, but by giving him a share of
the profits. I was very hopeful that by such means the relations in question might
be made better; and I am still hopeful, but perhaps not quite so much so as I was,
because I see clearly two accompaniments of this. One is that we cannot, and
must not, expect the labourer to take both sides of the bargain. We must not
expect him to suffer loss, for sometimes there is loss. He cannot, if he is working
from week to week, unless he has himself become a capitalist by saving, do with-
out his daily and weekly wages. Therefore we have to pay him his share of the
profits while we cannot make him responsible for a share of any loss. He cannot,
then, be said to be a sharer in the profit and loss; he is only a sharer in the profit.
Then, again, I think if this were generally done we should find that it would be
merely a mode of payment, though perhaps a more satisfactory mode ; but we might
again have disputes as to the share of the profits he ought to have. This does not
prevent us from watching these experiments with great care and anxiety, and with
great hope. Then there is the other mode of cooperation, which may be called co-
operation proper—that is to say, the cooperation in which labour is counted as
eapital, and the labourer becomes a shareholder, and, putting in some little savings
also, is an actual sharer in the enterprise. Allusion has been made in our discus-
sions to the growth of this kind of cooperation in this district. We know it very
well in Bradford, and especially in the neighbouring towns. We have seen, for
instance, the enormous and most satisfactory success of the Rochdale Cooperative
Store. It is more difficult to apply this principle to production; but I am most
anxious to see the experiments in that direction scientifically observed. I am
told, though I do not know whether the statement is altogether borne out, that
cooperative mills have been tried, and, to a great extent, have succeeded in Lan-
cashire, and that cooperative mills, where established, passed the commercial
crisis with great stability. Experiments of this kind are most interesting, and I
can only say that I welcome them with great hopefulness. As an employer of
labour (for I cannot forget that I am still an employer) I think there is great
advantage in working men thus employing themselves and finding out the position
of the capitalists, and also discovering that there is not always a profit, but some-
times a loss, and that we must not, when we look to men who have made large
fortunes, altogether forget that fortunes have been lost. Again, though I cannot
aspire to be a statesman, yet as a politician and as a member of the Government
of the country, 1 hail the success of these experiments still more hopefully. It
is said that one of the great causes of stability in America, and even in France,
notwithstanding its many convulsions, is the large number of peasant proprietors ;
and I think we should have some share of the same kind of stability in this country
by having a large number of working men with their own stake in the country and
their own interest in its prosperous government. One or two facts have come out
even in our discussion which have shown pretty clearly that it is not at all fair,
nor true, to suppose that the wages of the working man are in all cases, or 1 may
say even generally, so lavishly spent as some persons suppose. If we could only
get a really dependable statistical statement of the increase in the savings of the
working classes in one form or another in the last few years I believe we should
be astonished and delighted. The success of benefit building societies (upon
which we have had a paper in our Section) is only one instance illustrative of this
fact. I feel, however, that I cannot leave this labour question (the condition of the
labourer in England) without one further remark, and that is some allusion to the
movement amongst the agricultural population. There, again, what a progress will,
182 ' REPORT—1878.
after all, be acknowledged by any person however much opposed to the movement.
The progress we haye made is shown in Mr. Arch’s meetings and Mr. Arch’s
speeches: what a progress compared with the rick-burning in the southern
counties when I was a boy, some forty years ago! I cannot enter into the
question now ; but I confess I am not sorry that there is a movement amongst
the agricultural population. I do not in the slightest degree, in making these
remarks, blame their employers. I believe they have acted as other employers
would have done, and in some cases better, for they have been brought more
into contact with their people; but I do think the fact of it being supposed that
no agricultural labourer could combine with his fellow labourers did do some-
thing towards making their wages lower than those of other classes of the
community.
But in watching this movement I think we who, by our position, are not much
interested in it, should watch it with very great sympathy for both sides. The condi-
tion of the agricultural labourer is in many cases that which ought to excite our
sympathy ; but the position of the farmer also is a very difficult one. His profit
is not of that nature that he can make a large increase of money payment without
a good deal of difficulty ; and I therefore think it is a favourable feature in this
movement that there is a third class somewhat connected with it (the landlords)
who are in a position which enable them to act as moderators on both sides,
and whose interests are to some extent involved in the matter. May I just throw
out a hint to the Section, that I think it would be a very good thing if a paper
could be produced before it really bringing the laws of political economy to the
solution of this question—how far the rent that is paid for land affects the question
of the wages of the agricultural labourer ?
There are only two other remarks that I would make on this matter before I
leave it, which concerns not so much the condition of England as what has
happened outside of England, but which cannot but have an effect upon Eng-
land ; and, first, it is this, that if there was an attempt to describe progress in
economical well-beinz for the last thirty or forty years, there would be one great
fact which would be preeminent before all others—the abolition of slavery in the
United States. I am not now entering into the moral evils of slavery ; but it may
not be out of place in me to allude to what would have been the consequences to
economic science if the slave power of the South had succeeded, and in that great
country, the United States, compulsory rather than free labour had been acknow-
ledged to be the corner stone of the social system. I believe that historians will
hereafter admit that the failure of that bold and well-planned attempt to seize hold
of power in the United States in order to promote slavery was almost the greatest
escape which civilization ever had. But however much we may rejoice over that
escape, we must not forget that the spirit of slavery still exists. We hope we
may have struck some blow against slavery this year on the Hast Coast of Africa ;
but I am made more sorrowful than hopeful from what I have seen of the matter
during the last year or two. The efforts made by men of our own tongue, and,
I fear, by men of our own race, to carry on what is practically a slave trade in the
Pacific Islands, are most dispiriting, and demand our earnest endeavours to check
them in every way we can, I will only just allude to the attempt which is being
made in many western countries, in which there is a demand for labour, to forcibly
import Chinese coolies wherever it is possible to do so. Ihave, however, some hope
in regard to both these matters. I believe the moral sense of England has deter-
mined that her name shall not be shamed by the slave trade in the Pacific, and I
hope we shall do our duty in regard to this Eastern traffic. I entertain this hope
because the inhabitants of Eastern nations are becoming more and more able to
take care of themselves. :
This brings me to the other fact which, I think, we ought not to forget, and that
is the remarkable intellectual movement which is now taking place among Eastern
nations—a change which must result in great material advancement. I may allude
to the wonderful reforms in Japan, which have so far appeared to have been carried
out in real substance and with vitality of action, and which would seem to show that
this country is waking up from the dead sleep of ages—a fact which will, I think, be
hereafter acknowledged as the most extraordinary phenomenon of the last two or
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 183
three years. I think we also see something of the same tendency in China, and I
shall be surprised if we do not see some similar movement in our own Indian posses-
sions before long. Even the recent visit of the Shah of Persia (although there was
much in it of not much reality) is, nevertheless, of itself a very interesting fact.
It is a matter of some interest to us to find that the despotic ruler of an Eastern
nation has thought it necessary to pay a visit to the West. It would be hard to
foresee what will be the economic results of this intellectual movement, if it
should go on increasing in extent and activity. It may cause to some extent com-
petition with our labourers ; but I believe that the general result of it will be that it
will tend enormously to the advantage of both labour and capital.
Well, ladies and gentlemen, I have only one more remark to make before I sit
down. ‘There was one event (one sad event) that occurred last year to which I
must allude. It would ill become me to close this address without making some
reference to the irreparable loss which economic science has sustained in the death
of Mr. Mill. That man, from whose lucid writings most of us have learnt what
political economy we know, has been struck down in the full vigour of his thought,
with his power of expression undiminished. I think there is no one who would
dispute that vigour, or who would deny that in his remarkable faculty for the expo-
sition and the illustration of a truth, John Stuart Mill was unrivalled in our time,
and hardly excelled in any other. But his loss cannot be measured by that faculty
of exposition. He was one of those who not merely explained and declared prin-
ciples, but who endeavoured to apply them. He was not content with stating
problems; he did not shrink from the attempt to solve them. I know that many
of us would not in all cases accept his solutions; but who of us is there who would
not acknowledge the perfect sincerity of his motive—the absolute truthfulness of
his action? Many of you knew him well: JI had not that privilege; but I knew
him well enough to feel that the spirit with which, in attempting to apply his
principles, he dealt with social and political questions, was so pure and noble, so
sincere and single-minded, that he spread, as it were, an ennobling atmosphere
around him, and for the time shamed away all mean intrigue and personal preju-
dice or vanity. I hope that those of us who in future try to study or to apply
those principles will always keep before us the example of the author of ‘The
Principles of Political Economy,’
On the Use and Abuse of Peat. By Major-General Sir Jamms AtExanvER, O.B.
The author described the waste of the valuable supply of peat in the county of
Perth, in Scotland, by floating it down the river Forth in order to obtain the use
of the clay subsoil for corn. The store of peat yet untouched was enormous, and
the facilities for dealing with it were profitable. The peat in Shetland was said to
be hard as coal, and the varieties of the Blairdrummond peat were described, The
great consumption of coal was alluded to, and the danger of exhausting the supply,
unless the export was checked by duty. The author next proceeded to describe
the Falkland Islands peat, which was used for ships of war, and noticed the uses
to which peat-charcoal was put for smelting iron. The method of working peat
by peat-machine in Canada was shown by drawings, and a description given of the
manner of working. The author referred to the stores of peat in France which were
as yet unworked, and alluded to a peat-factory which had been forcibly closed in
Treland, but remarked that one was about to be erected at Dumfries.
On some of the Economical Aspects of Endowments of Education and Original
Research. By C. E. Arpteton, D.C.L.
Endowments may be classified according to source, object, or extent.
Questions arising from the consideration of the sowrces of these are mainly extra-
economical. Possible sources are private bequest, taxation, or a private bequest
taken in hand and reapplied by the community.
184 REPORT—1873.
The object of an endowment is always one of importance to the community, or
believed to be so.
‘ ce is always an industry or employment. [Institutions are only the means of
industry.
Tend condition of the employment upon which endowment is spent
may be:—(1) self-supporting, or capable of being made so; (2) partly or tempo-
rarily incapable of maintaining itself; or (3) wholly and permanently incapable.
. Political economy does not necessarily involve non-interference with the law of
supply and demand, but studies the effects both of interference and non-interference.
What then are the effects of the interference with the action of supply and de-
mand involved in endowment in each of the three cases just mentioned ?
1. Where the industry is self-supporting, or may be made so, it is to diminish
the amount of production of the particularindustry. Thisis the main ground upon
which Adam Smith decides that the endowment of the higher education in uni-
versities is to be condemned.
Criticism of his views—question whether secondary and university education are
or can be made self-supporting.
Endowment running to waste where it is unnecessary, affects also injuriously
general production. Delicate economical calculations may arise out of this.
2. Instances of partly self-supporting industries ave primary education and tech-
nical education.
Effect of partial endowment may be to stimulate production within the industry
endowed; whereas without endowment it might fall to the ground altogether.
Primary education is a condition of public security, and therefore of a healthy
economical state,
Technical education, like improved machinery, directly increases the capacities
of producing wealth. ‘
It is probable, therefore, that the return of the outlay in partial endowment of
them will be greater than the diminution of wealth caused by the diversion from
self-supporting industries of the endowment fund.
If primary or technical education ever became, by an alteration of the industrial
state of the country, self-supporting, the continued endowment of them would
then, as in the former case, involve a waste.
It may be questioned also whether the effect of the ‘ladder of endowment,” by
which persons are enabled to rise from lower to higher and the highest grades of
education (however advantageous it may be politically to draw the élite of every
class in the community up to the top), is economically advantageous; for it tends
to draw off the best minds from particular industries, and thus to impair the power
inherent in the latter of improving themselves. The soundest economical condi-
tion, it may be contended, is when the best minds are distributed throughout the
community, and can act beneficially upon every form of production, instead of
being centralized in a single class.
3. An industry is permanently incapable of supporting itself when the com-
modity which it produces is unsaleable. This is the case with original research in
science.
Distinction of useful and liberal studies.
Mill’s statement that the labour of the savant is a part of production, and its en-
dowment a productive part of public expenditure, seems strictly to apply only to
those researches which render inventions and improyements of the means of pro-
duction or distribution possible.
Mr. George Gore’s enumeration of these shows that they are mainly confined to
researches in Physics and Chemistry.
The other physical sciences, such as Natural History, Botany, Ethnology, &c.,
and the study of letters, of language, or of history, however important in themselves,
are not in the same sense industries which have any effect upon the increase of
wealth-producing power.
They supply, it is true, the materials of education, which, as we have seen, is a
remunerative industry ; but science, of whatever kind, is essentially an end in itself,
and therefore not in the majority of cases or necessarily a commodity, 7. e. means to
any thing else.
~
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 185
The idea of an end in itself does not fall properly within the science of political
economy. A form of well-being, such as knowledge or culture per se, is one of the
ends for which all commodities or utilities exist as means.
The inference that if we endow means we should @ fortiori endow the ends for
which those means exist, is a strictly valid one, but an inference not falling within
the province of economical discussion. But the proposition from which it is an
inference may be said to be taken from political economy.
The Poor-Law and its Effect on Thrift. By 8. C.T. Barttry.
On Benefit Building Societies. By J. Antnur Bryys.
These Societies are defined by the writer as agencies for the collection of money
to be advanced upon real securities, and ‘not for the purpose of building in their
corporate capacity. There are “terminating” and “permanent” Societies, the
former passing out of use, the latter growing continually in influence and usefulness.
Terminating Societies labour under difficulties in equalizing the income and the
outflow of their funds, from which the permanent Societies are free.
Members may join a permanent Society, or leave it;at anytime. If an investor,
& member may withdraw his money, with interest and profits; if a borrower, he
may repay the amount he owes. In either case his connexion with the Society is
determined by himself. There are differences in the mode of management, but not
very important; and the “ Bradford Third Equitable ” may be taken as, upon the
whole, a fair representative of these successful institutions.
This Society has 5800 members, who pay regular monthly contributions after the
rate of 10s. per share, and who receive 43 per cent. and profits (usually 1 to 13 per
cent. more) for their money. Ten shillings per month amounts, without profits, to
£120 in 14 years and 3 months. The amount invested, or any part of it, may be
withdrawn at any time on a month’s notice, or the member may suspend his con-
tributions, and permit his money to remain at interest. This saves fines, and often
reserves money which enforced withdrawal would cause to be wasted. The fines
in 1872, on an income exceeding half a million sterling, were only £94.
A second class of members (about 1400), who pay not less than £5 at once, pay
when they please, and are not subject to fines at all. They receive interest and
profits like the first class. Both are subject on withdrawal to a charge of one
shilling for every £5 taken out. Out of the fund so raised the management ex-
penses are paid.
A third set of investors are “loan” depositors. They have special facilities for
withdrawal; they receive 4 per cent. interest without profits, and they are not
charged with expenses of management.
The Society is managed by nine Directors, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. There
are also Solicitor, Surveyors, Auditors, and Stewards. All contributors in the first
and second classes vote in the election of these officers annually, and all are eligible
for appointment. The loan-holders, who number about 7000, are not members,
and do not vote.
The money collected is first used to meet withdrawals, and the remainder is
advanced to borrowers on security of real property. More than £200,000 was so
lent in 1872. At the end of that year, the total amount actually owing to the
Society, and secured by 1642 mortgages, was £835,000. The total income in 1872
was £537,000, which was received in nearly a hundred thousand separate sums, and
its separate payments for withdrawals and advances numbered 16,000.
The Bradford “Second Equitable” has 6277 members, and an income of £265,000.
The “Leeds Permanent” and ‘‘ Leeds Provincial” have together 17,280 members,
and an income of £565,000; the “ Halifax Permanent ” has 6167 members, and re-
ceives annually £174,000, The whole of the Societies in England and Wales are pro-
bably 2500, and the total number of members 1,000,000. ‘The Royal Commissioners
on Building Societies describe them as “ A group of bodies with a subscribed capital
of over £9,000,000; a loan and deposit capital of over £6,000,000, i a a
186 REPORT-——1873.
total assets, having over £16,000,000 advanced on mortgage, and an income of oyer
£11,000,000,”
These Societies have grown spontaneously, rather in the absence than under the
protection of legal enactments, It is the province of Parliament to consolidate into
law the existing practice, which experience has tried and proved to be safe, in-
stead of attempting to remodel it into something altogether different, foreign to the
purpose for which the Societies have been instituted, and not adapted to meet the
wants of their members.
Dwellings for the Industrial Classes. By Wit11am Borty, _
The author discussed sites, plans, and sanitary effects, &c. of cottages, also the
pecuniary advantages of some extensive operations, deduced from observations in
various localities and statistical returns, showing the great requirement and its easy
accomplishment. He noticed and particularized many of the model cottages and
villages in England and Wales, those of the Society of Arts and the Prince Consort’s
at the Exhibition in 1851, those of the Society for the Improvement of the Dwellings
of the Working Classes, the various companies, amongst others that of Sir Sidney
Waterlow and “The Artisans, Labourers, and General Dwellings Company,” ob-
serving that the latter had propounded a scheme solving the problem long wished
for, that of erecting artisans’ and labourers’ cottages on a plan and cost to remunerate
the builder, without being oppressive in the amount exacted from the tenant. They
do away with the evils of overcrowding, imperfect ventilation, bad drainage and con-_
struction—not only so, but they show that a profitable return is secured on the outlay,
The author then gave full particulars, illustrated by drawings of plans, elevations, &c,
Amongst other things, he makes the following almost imperative:— _
1st. South aspect (as most healthy, and in illness contributing to earlier conva-
lescence).
2nd. The offices to be in the rear.
5rd. No cottage to be allowed to be built less than 15 or 20 feet above any
neighbouring watercourse or sea-side high tide.
4th. That each cottage should have an allotted space for a good vegetable garden,
as the cottager growing his own vegetables will teach his children to weed, hoe,
&e., and will not spend his hard-earned money at a beer-house,
On the Influence of Large Centres of Population on Intellectual Manifestation.
By Hype Crarxe.
After considering how far town populations are a means of exhausting those
portions of the rural populations by which they are supplied, an examination was
made of the towns, showing that there was a greater manifestation of intellectual
vigour than in the country. This was assigned to two chief influences, one the
extent of the population, and the other the continuous effect of educational institu-
tions, as shown in collegiate and cathedral towns. Thus the establishment of
large towns with adequate educational provision was treated as contributing to the
national advancement. The gradual development of communities in prehistoric
times and among the lower races was referred to as illustrative of the influence
which the foundation of towns exercises in the history of civilization,
On Peat. By F, Haun Dancuett.
Statistics and Observations on the National Debt and our Disbursemenis from
the Revolution in 1688 to the present time, showing the advisability of
ascertaining our Annual Governmental Capital and Current Expenditure.
By Franx P, Fetrows, F.S.S.
This paper gave statistics of our National Debt from the time of its commence-
ment in 1691, when it was £8,130,000, the interest being £282,000, or about 73 per
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 187
eent:; that it rose to its highest point in 1815, when it was £861,039,000; that it
was in 1868-69 £749,314,000, since which it has been reduced to between
£720,000,000 and £730,000,000.
The given Income and Disbursement for Civil, Military, and Naval expenditure
and interest on debt were, as given in Government Account :—1832 to 1837 about
£50,000,000 yearly ; 1889 to 1843 about £52,000,000 yearly ; 1844 to 1854 about
£57,000,000 yearly; 1855 to 1873 about £70,000,000 yearly. Since 1854 the
Revenue Departments, which up to that time only paid into the Exchequer the
net amounts earned, after paying therefrom salaries and expenses, have by Peel’s
Act paid the whole amount received to the Exchequer, thus swelling the stated
income, and the salaries and expenses haye been voted from the public purse,
Hence about £6,000,000 must be added to the income and disbursements of years
previous to 1854, or the figures must be raised in 1844 to 1854 from £57,000,000
to £63,000,000 in order to compare them fairly with the figures given since Peel’s
Act. Errors constantly arise from this not being known.
Unless, however, we know also (what we do not know and what it was the object
of the paper to urge) the value of the property of the Government in land, buildings,
shops, and stores, &c., how it has increased or decreased during this period, and
how it stands year by year, these figures give no real information as to the state
of our national assets and liability or of our national current expenditure ; and the
paper was read in continuation of other similar papers read before this Association
and the Statistical Society of London with the view of urging that a Capital and
a Current Account should be kept in each Government Department similar to that
now being introduced at the Admiralty, so that we may know year by year what
is the real expenditure of the’Government both for investment or capital and also
for current purposes, neither of which we know now.
The Savings-Bank in the School. By J. G. Frrow, one of the Assistant En-
dowed Schools Commissioners, and Her Majesty’s Inspector of Schools*.
This paper consisted mainly of some facts which the author had recently gleaned
in the course of a visit to Belgium respecting the working of the ‘“ Caisses d’épargne”
in the Communal Schools of Ghent. It appeared that without any Government
influence, but merely through the energetic initiation of one of the professors in
the University of Ghent, M. Laurent, aided by the schoolmasters and mistresses,
the system of saying has been very efficiently introduced into the schools; so that
five sixths of the children in attendance have savings-bank books (Uivrets) and bring
their centimes regularly as they obtain them to the teachers, to be by them deposited,
as soon as the saving amounts to a franc, in the public savings-bank at 3 per cent,
interest. Ghent is a town of about three fourths of the population of Bradford ;
and in it the number of young people under instruction who are depositors has
steadily risen in the course of seven years to 13,032. Statistics showing the gra-
dual growth of the system, under the watchful care of the Communal School
Council, the professors, and the elementary teachers, were given by the writer of
the paper, from which it appeared that in the Free Primary Schools there are in all
7989 scholars (boys and girls), of whom 7583 have savings-bank accounts, the
aggregate sum thus deposited amounting to 274,602 francs, or about £10,984. In
the Infant Schools (Zeoles gardiennes) there are 3039 children, of whom 1920 haye
livrets, representing a sum saved of 66,523 francs or £2651. In those primary
schools which are frequented by the better classes who pay for their instruction, there
are 1079 scholars, 640 of whom have deposited in all the sum_of 22,687 francs or
£907; and in the schools for adults, which are partly held in the evening and
partly on Sunday, there is a total number of 3285 men and women, of whom 2889
are depositors, and whose united deposits amount to 99,252 francs or £3970. Thus,
through the agency of the scholars alone, a total sum of £18,512 has been saved,
giving an average of rather more than 35 francs each to 13,032 depositors. Mr,
Fitch argued earnestly that in England the increase of wages did not increase the
* A fuller account of this experiment is contained in an article, by the same author, in
‘Macmillan’s Magazine’ for March 1874. Ay
188 REPORT—1873.
permanent prosperity of the working class if it merely gave to them more leisure
and a greater number of immediate gratifications, nor unless it were realized in the
form of better furniture, more books, a share in a building or cooperative store, or
some form of provision for the future, which would increase the self-respect and
dignity of the workman. Yet saving was a habit very difficult to acquire, especially
by the recipient of weekly wages accustomed to live from hand to mouth. It could
not be urged on the attention of workmen by employers without some suspicion of
interested motives; it had never been strongly encouraged by the ministers of re-
ligion; it could not well be enforced by any Government authority; it might even
be doubted whether any system of lecturing or theoretic instruction on economics,
either in the school or in the workmen’s institute, would ever be very efficacious.
Economy was an act, a habit, to be learned mainly by practising it ; and if learned
at all, it should be learned early. The school was the right place in which to
acquire this habit. ‘Teachers and school managers were in an unusually favourable
position for helping the poor in this way. They could without difficulty open the
needful accounts with the Post-Office Savings Bank, and their motives were in no
danger of being misunderstood by the parents. The child who foregoes an imme-
diate indulgence, who saves his halfpence in order to procure a better equipment of
books, clothes, or tools on leaving school, and who experiences the delight of finding
interest begin to accrue when his saving amounts to a shilling, has learned a lesson
in self-restraint and forethought which will abide with him for life. The paper
concluded with the description of some of the details by which the introduction of
the plan might be facilitated with the help of teachers, members of school boards,
and others, and by the expression of a strong wish that the experiment so success-
fully made in Ghent might be studied and imitated in England.
On the Hast Morley and Bradford Savings-Bank. By Tuomas Hare.
This savings-bank was opened in the year 1818. The town being then very
small, its early progress was slow. It had reached its climax in May 1864, when
82,500 persons had deposited £1,273,363, including interest, and there remained in
the bank £248,396 due to about 10,000 depositors. From that time to November
1869 the bank declined at the average rate of five to six thousand pounds a year,
owing to the reduced rate of interest and the narrowed limits as to the amount of
deposits ; while depositors would readily avail themselves to any extent of other
modes of investment at a higher rate of interest.
To stay its further decline and extend its usefulness no course seemed open but
to adopt the suggestion of the Savings-Bank Act, and to open a department for the
receipt of deposits for investment on other securities upon which a higher rate of
interest could be paid. Accordingly, rules having been prepared, adopted, and
certified, the new department was opened in April 1870 for the receipt of larger
amounts on interest at 4 per cent. per annum, with power to withdraw twenty
pounds without notice once in three months, and larger sums after notice propor-
tioned to their amounts,
Up to the 18th September, 1873, 3257 accounts had been opened in this depart-
ment, on which 10,736 deposits had been made, and 4001 withdrawals. The
amount of deposits (with interest to April last) was £274,245 18s. 10d., and the
withdrawals £65,559 7s., leaving £208,686 Gs. 10d. due to 2763 depositors,
Of this sum £160,000 in various amounts had been invested with the Bradford
Corporation for limited periods at 4} per cent. per annum. Other sums had been
advanced on mortgage of real property, under the direction of a Finance Committee,
assisted by an eminent firm of solicitors and an experienced professional yaluer.
The two departments are kept perfectly distinct, and together meet the require-
ments of the class of depositors whose benefit was contemplated by the Legislature
in the Savings-Bank Acts. :
On the Income-Tax Question. By T.G. P, Harzerr,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 189
Educational Statistics of Bradford. By Jamus Hanson.
The object of this paper is to furnish a brief statistical account of the state of
education in Bradford. The term education is employed to denote the ordinary
agencies concerned in imparting knowledge and promoting culture in the earlier
eriods of life, After giving a brief history of the establishment of day schools in
radford, the author considers the question of what number of children ought to be
under instruction in Bradford. The Registrar-General estimates that in the middle
of the present year the population of the borough would be 156,609. At 231 per
1000, between the ages of three and thirteen years, we shall have in the borough
36,170 children of school age. Deducting 10 per cent. for sickness and other causes,
there remain 32,553 of school age, constituting the gross number that ought to be
under instruction, What are the facts of the case? One seventh of the children
between three and thirteen belong to the middle and upper classes. Taking one
seventh from 32,553, we have 27,903 as the number of chilean of the poorer classes
that require to be educated in schools where the fee is less than ninepence per week.
The number of children in the fifty public elementary schools which exist in
Bradford are then given, the total on the books being 19,434. The number of
children in the 65 private adyenture schools was found to be, in 1871, 2866 ; and it is
estimated that the number is the same at the present time. This gives a total
number of children in schools where the weekly fee is less than 9d. as 22,300. It
has been found on inquiry, however, that of the seventh part of the entire juvenile
population belonging to the upper and middle classes, 4650 in number, only 2517 are
provided for by middle-class schools, private tuition, &c.; and it may fairly be
concluded that the balance, 2133, are educated in the public elementary schools.
We must then add the 2133 to the number that require to be provided for in public
elementary schools. The figures amended will then stand thus :—
Children between three and thirteen of the working class ,..... 27. ,903
Children sent to popular schools by well-to-do people.......... 2,188
ow ae Total. vs 0.csiieten ae ates 00,086
Children actually in popular schools.....sssesesereseneecenes 22,300
Left without day-school instruction. ..sssssseeeeeeeeeeeeseees 0,786
It must especially be borne in mind that the figures we have hitherto been deal-
ing with simply represent the children on the school-register. Nothing is told us
about the character of the education that is being received by these 22,300 children ;
and yet this is a most vital point in attempting to ascertain the state of education
in acommunity. With one exception the adventure-schools of this kind were in
1871 deemed inefficient by the Inspector of Returns, and were not taken into
account at all in reckoning the school provision of the borough. As to the educa-
tion given in the advanced schools, the author believes it to be equal to that of
similar schools in any part of the kingdom; and in the last twenty years the
standard of teaching in these schools has been very materially advanced. Coming
to the education obtained in the popular elementary schools, we must take into
consideration several circumstances. 1. In the first place, the difference between
the numbers on the registers of the schools and the average attendance is very
great. The numbers on the registers of the fifty schools are, as we have seen,
19,434, while the average attendance only amounts to 12,028. Here is an elimi-
nation of 7406 children at once. An able inspector, Mr. Fitch, has remarked that
“it cannot be said of a school that it is, in any effective sense, educating a larger
number than that represented by its average attendance.” The Bradford schools,
therefore, cannot be said to be really educating more than 12,028 children out of
the 19,484 on the books. The others are irregular attenders, that gain little good
from their casual visits. 2. The difference between the registers and the average
attendance is rendered so large owing to the presence of a great number of half-
timers in the Bradford schools. This feature must be deemed a hindrance to the
effective education of the children of the working classes. There are in the schools
of the borough about 6000 half-timers. ‘The system can only be accepted as a boon
190 REPORT—1873.
where parents and society are indifferent to the education of children, and would
otherwise systematically neglect it. Its educational value has been overrated.
Reporting on this district in 1870, Mr. School-Inspector Wilde justly remarks that
its advantage is the regular attendance which it ensures where work is regular ;
but he observes :—“ The disadvantage of the system is that parents, knowing their
children will be obliged to attend school when they begin to work, do not send
them while young, on the plea that when they go to the mill they will get their
schooling.” “8, The character of the education imparted in the elementary schools
would be most clearly shown if we could know how long the children remain at
school, and what progress they make in their studies. We want to know what
proportion of the 12,028 are os for examination, what they are examined in,
what they know of each subject, and what is the mental culture effected. The
author cannot give exact information on these points. The inspector for the district,
Mr. Baily, has kindly supplied the following facts:—In the forty schools he in-
spected between September 1872 and March 1873 in Bradford the average attend-
ance was 10,333; the number qualified for examination 7601; actually presented
for examination 6319; number of passes, in reading 5092, in writing 5270, in
arithmetic 3859, in one special subject 169, a second special subject 87. Thus out
of the ten thousand in average attendance, only 3859 pass in arithmetic in all the
standards. The inspector is unable to give the numbers in each standard. As
a substitute for such specific information, it may assist us to an approximate con-
clusion if we assume that the Bradford elementary schools are equal to the average
of such schools throughout the country. Applying to the statistics of the Bradford
schools the proportions that we find exemplified in the last report of the department
for the rb of the inspected schools of England and Wales, we should have the
following results. Out of the average attendance in our fifty elementary schools of
12,028, there would be :—
Qualified for examination ..sscsiscesesscccrerssevscereres GUOe
Actually presented for examination.,........ OK uicctooErunte Gell,
Presented in the first three standards, I. to III...... peewee se OUR
or 82 per cent.
Presented in the upper three standards, IV, to VI. .......... 1248
or 18 per cent.
That is, out of 19,434 on the registers, and 12,028 in average attendance, only 1243
would be presented in Standards IV., V., and VI., while 5698 are presented in the
earlier standards, Further, as to those that would pass without failure in any sub-
ject. According to the same proportions, the Bradford schools would pass in
Standards I. to II., 8528, and in Standards IV. to VL, 690; that is, out of 19,434
on the registers, and 12,028 in average attendance, only short of 700 would be
instructed sufficiently to be able to pass without failure in the higher standards.
Now, when we remember that the highest standard only requires in arithmetic a
knowledge of soe ep fractions, and decimals, and a corresponding proficiency
in reading and writing, these facts indubitably show what a miserable state our
system of education isin. 4. In trying to form a judgment of the character of the
education supplied in the public elementary schools in this town, there is one other
feature of the general system that must just be mentioned, although its workings
cannot be brought out here. The author refers to the inherent tendency of fostering
mechanical teaching, mere memoriter knowledge and cramming, rather than the
acquisition of accurate knowledge, the unfolding of the faculties, and the framing
of these to right habits of thought. It would be interesting to know what is the
cost of the agencies which achieve these meagre results. This cannot be given
exactly. Out of the fifty elementary schools now in existence, thirty-eight gained
Government grants last year; the rest are seeking for these grants. These thirty-
eight schools got £6883 17s. 10d. from the Imperial fund last year, and for the
operations of the year the fifty schools will obtain from £8000 to £9000 of the
parliamentary vote. This large amount of public money is spent in Bradford on
what are called “efficient” schools, No teachers, however competent, can secure
a really good education without a regular, continuous attendance for a series of years
ou the part of the children, Our system fails because it wants the condition las
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 191
mentioned; its effects are not permanent; they are so meagre and superficial that,
to a large extent, they are lost: they are evanescent and unfruitful; and_on this
account the system is exceedingly costly, without a commensurate return. If tested
by economic principles, the system would be pronounced unsound and wasteful.
In reference to school accommodation in Bradford, many of the schools would
accommodate more than are in attendance. The present provision in the elementary
schools is for 21,171 children. The eight schools that are being built by the School
Board will accommodate 4800 more ; so that there will be accommodation for 25,971
—say 26,000. It has been shown that there are 30,036 children requiring accommo-
dation; but if we deduct 3000 for half-timers, we shall have 27,036 as the gross
number of children who require accommodation, with a provision of 26,000. There
is, however, accommodation for about 3000 in the private adventure schools. Passing
now to evening schools and classes, there are a great number of night schools held
in private houses and phe schools, of which no statistics can be given. In the
public institutions and elementary schools, a list of which is given, it was found
that there were on the books last year 3027 students, with an average attendance
of 1657. Art- and science-classes have greatly increased of late years through the
encouragement extended bythe Government. A detailed table of the statistics for last
year of all the classes of both art and science in the borough, the subjects studied,
the number under instruction, and the number examined, shows the following
results :—That 595 persons were under instruction in art, and 465 of these were
examined. In science 564 were under instruction, with 613 individual examinations.
Tt thus appears that in the science and art classes together 1159 persons have been
instructed, Another educational agency in extensive operation in Bradford is that
of Sunday schools. From the statistics supplied in the paper, it appeared that
there are on the books of all the Sunday schools in the borough 31,460 children
and young persons, with an average attendance of about 21,000. Statistics as to
the Public Libraries of the town were given, and show that in the libraries of the
Mechanics’ Institute, Church Institute, Female Educational Institute, and the Free
Library, there are 32,225 volumes, with issues last year amounting to 156,000.
And then we must not forget the interesting fact that almost every one of the
eighty-six Sunday schools has a library for the use of the children and teachers ;
and these contain altogether about 47,000 volumes.
On Postal Reform. By W. Hastives.
On Railways Amalgamated in Competing Groups.
By B. Haveuron, O.L., PSS.
The author said that the railways of England had now settled down into some-
thing like a complete and efficient system, suitable for the necessities of the
country. Their cost had been something like £600,000,000, and the period of
time occupied in their construction had been, dating from the commencement of
the construction of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1826), forty-seven
years. The trunk lines were finished, and the question arose, What next? The
answer was natural ; let them arrange and control and manipulate this vast machi-
nery so as to produce symmetry and order out of the seemingly chaotic mass, and
so as to extract a maximum of effective work out of the minimum of efforts. This
was the problem which the English people had now taken in hand. He believed
that the railway traffic of the country was conducted as perfectly as it could he,
considering the extent of our experience, the nature of the instruments we were
obliged to use, and the patchwork character of the general railway reticulation.
One of the methods proposed as a panacea for the existing unsatisfactory condition
of affairs was that of a surrender of the railways into the hands of the State.
Assuming that State management must follow State purchase, the advantages
claimed by its advocates might be stated as follows :—(1) Unification and
symmetry ; (2) economy of working; (3) elimination of Parliamentary charges;
(4) immunity from accidents ; (5) reduction of rates and fares ; (6) increase of
192. : REPORT—1873.
accommodation, especially in the matter of improved train correspondence ; (7)
adoption and adaptation of all the latest inventions; (8) the necessity of the
operation lest the railway companies might become the dominant power in the
State. The objections to State management usually urged were :—(1) Cen-
tralization ; (2) communistic tendency of the act; (8) patronage; (4) the pos-
sibility that the State might get a bad bargain, as other inventions might arise
more economical and conyenient than the present means of locomotion; (5)
the enormous cost of the undertaking; (6) the necessity to buy up the canals,
coasting, steam, and sailing vessels competing with the railways, the docks and
harbours owned by the railways, locomotive factories, coach and waggon factories,
the coal- and other mines used by the railways. With reference to the economy
of working under State control, the author regarded it as extremely problema-
tical. The number of journeys made in 1871 in the United Kingdom was
375,000,000 exclusive of those made by season-ticket holders, of whom there
were 188,392 ; and he estimated that the total number of journeys made in the
year was 409,000,000. During the same period one passenger only was killed for
each 13,630,000 journeys made; and assuming that each passenger made seyenty-
five journeys per annum, and that he was endowed with the faculty to renew
his life at pleasure, he could only be killed once in 181,733 years of travelling.
And supposing that the wounded by railway collisions were to be killed in the
ratio of ten to one, a passenger could only be wounded once in 18,000 years.
These and other figures proved that there was practically no danger for the
railway traveller either of being killed or wounded in a railway collision, It was
to the nearly superhuman efforts of railway officials, high and low, as well as to
the inventive genius of the engineer, that the passenger owed his comparative
safety ; and he might feel assured that State management would not diminish the
present death-rate. Having reviewed the objections usually raised against the
status quo, the author considered those generally made against adopting the op-
posite horn of the dilemma, yiz. Government management. Centralization of
control had some advantages, but they were not such as to neutralize its short-
comings. It was because he was convinced that it was beyond the intellectual
capacity of this country as in this epoch limited, to manage a network of railways
13,000 miles in extent on the principle of unification under State control and
in accordance with the present wants, that he advocated a system of railway groups
as against a Government or centralized management. It was clear that the State
could not enter into a carrying competition with independent companies. The ob-
jections to expropriation on the ground of patronage required no further notice
than this, that the companies employed about 250,000 persons, the nomination of
whom to their several offices would bring with it doubtless the possession of their
suffrages. It was questionable if the railway property could be bought for less
than a thousand millions, if even it could be done at that figure. Truly the friends
of expropriation must be endowed with a romantic boldness of enterprise, and a
faith that would remove mountains, The scheme he had to place before the Asso-
ciation started upon the principle that it was the duty of the Government to
govern, and not to trade; and it adopted, as a foregone conclusion, that the State
ought not, and could not if it would, buy and manage the railways. The inten-
tion of the scheme was that the existing railways, owned at present by 106
different companies, should be amalgamated into four competitive groups, to be
owned and managed by four great companies, taking their shape and direction
from the people of the island, and having a due regard to the terrain as well as to
the importance of the chief centres of trade and manufacturing towns, cities, mines,
docks, ports, harbours, and so forth, as well as to the status of each principal
railway company. He suggested that the four amalgamated groups should pre-
serve the titles of four of the existing companies :—(1) the London and North-
Western group ; (2) the Great Western group; (3) the Great Northern group ;
(4) the Midland group. Neutral territories, except in a very few instances, had
no place in the scheme, as being contrary to its principles, those of competition
pure and simple. The London and North-Western group would absorb the London
and North-Western, Lancashire and Yorkshire, Cambrian, Mid Wales, Caledonian,
Great North of Scotland, South Stafford, London, Brighton, and South Coast, and
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 193
some of the smaller networks to South Wales, Shrewsbury, and Hereford (jointly),
and the Cheshire lines (jointly). The Great Western group he would compose
of the Great Western, South-Western, Shrewsbury and Hereford (jointly),
Cheshire lines (jointly), South-Eastern and some of the smaller lines in South
Wales. The Great Northern group would combine the Great Northern, Great
Eastern, North-Eastern, North British, and the Highland (jointly). The Midland
group would consist of the Midland, Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire,.
Glasgow and South-Western Highland (jointly), Brecon and Merthyr, Bristol and
Exeter, and London, Chatham, and Dover. The four systems might in the fulness
of time become practically four distinct railway networks, each one visiting the
most important commercial centres of the kingdom, and each independent, or
nearly so, of the others. When the systems had attained such a condition, it
might be said that the absolute perfection of the scheme had arrived: that was
to say, a choice of four different routes would be offered to any person travelling
from one place of importance to any other place of importance. The author
proceeded to enumerate the advantages of the system he had thus sketched out.
—
Commercial Panics. By W. D. Henpzrson.
The writer considered the whole question of banking on the “ historic method,”
and showed how it was that various laws had from time to time checked the
natural development of the business of banking. He then pointed out that of all
trades banking was the one which ought to be freest, as it dealt not with commo-
dities, but with the representatives of commodities and the credit of individuals.
After pointing out how it had happened that in England the capital of the banks
was small in proportion to their liabilities, and the specie also small, and that the
Bank of England held the entire specie reserves of the country, he proceeded to
point out that the remedy for the small capital was now in the hands of individuals,
who could either singly or in combination, or in the latter case, under either the
Limited Liability Act or the unlimited, form what banks they pleased. As regards
augmenting the specie reserves he showed that this also was largely in the power
of the banks, and that what was required was chiefly that the London banks should
form a fund of specie to which each would require to contribute, and settle their
clearing-house transactions, not by cheques on the Bank of England, but by
cheques on this fund. He showed how the possession of this fund would steady
the action of the banks in times of pressure, and that it would be open to the
banks, if a great emergency arose, to hand its amount, which would probably be
4,000,000, to the Bank of England. He then considered the one exception to the
general principle of free trade, and admitted that the issue of small notes was
really a monopoly, as the holders of these notes were involuntary creditors. The
assumption of the Act of 1844 was examined, viz. that a circulation of notes
should fluctuate as one of gold would do; and it was shown that this was impos-
sible, and that in Scotland, for example, between May and July, there was a varia-
tion in the circulation of 16 per cent. from what the small note circulation might
be expected to be on this theory, and what it actually was. He advocated the
issue of these notes by the State, provided that the State held a large reserve of
specie to secure their controvertibility. The amount of sovereigns in circulation
was now about £75,000,000, and probably notes issued by the State would take
their place to the extent of £50,000,000. Of this sum one half might be kept in
gold and the other half in consols; and of course, as no interest would be payable
on consols, the State would make a profit yearly of 3 per cent. on £25,000,000, or
£750,000 a year, The writer then pointed out that in times of panic a portion of
this gold might be rendered available. On the principle of the Bank Act of 1844, if
the normal circulation was £50,000,000, it was inconceivable that it should ever
fall below £30,000,000; and the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of
the Exchequer might have power to sell, say, £1,500,000 of gold, and purchase
consols for every 1 per cent. that the Bank rate rose above 8 percent. There
would thus be a margin of £5,000,000 from the small note department, viz. the
difference between £25,000,000 ordinarily held of consols and the £30,000,000
194, REPORT—1878.
which might be held, and in addition £4,000,000 from the London Clearing House
available to allay a panic, and this without any loss to the country, which would
indeed have £21,000,000 of gold to export. ‘The writer then repeated his view
that, except small notes, there should be complete freedom in banking, taking rea-
sonable precautions to prevent fraud, and pointing out that it would be well to
allow all new banks, or banks not now circulating, to issue notes of £20 and up-
wards, as their notes circulated among the wealthier classes, who were quite able
to take care of themselves. He believed that with freedom in banking the banks
would be larger and with larger capital, and safer than at present, and that ex-
treme mercantile convulsions could be avoided, although, of course, pressures
arising from men’s imprudence might always be expected *,
On the Shoddy Trade. By Samunt Juss.
The shoddy manufacture was commenced at Batley, Yorkshire, in the year 1813,
being introduced by Mr. Benjamin Law, of the same place. The produce thereof
are heavy woollen cloths chiefly, and they are used for coatings and other purposes.
The essential raw materials used in the fabrication of shoddy cloths are shoddy
and mungo, in combination with wool and noils.
Shoddy is produced from soft rags, such as cast-off stockings, flannels, carpets,
&e.; and mungo from hard rags, such as worn-out dress-coats, tailors’ cuttings,
disused fine tablecloths, &e. Both these kinds of rags, which formerly were
nearly valueless, are torn or ground up by a machine, the principal feature of which
is a cylinder set with sharp iron teeth, and which revolves at a rapid rate; this
machine is known locally by the name of “ devil.” The effect is, that the rags
are converted into a kind of wool or flock, and hence capable of being mixed with
sheep’s wool.
The supplies of rags are drawn partly from the large cities and towns of the
United Kingdom, and also from various foreign countries. London is the principal
market. Shoddy and mungo, viz. the rags in the prepared state, are largely
2 Abe from the continent of Hurope.
Shoddy varies from 1d. to 1s. per lb., mungo from 13d. to 20d. per lb., according
to quality, colour, staple, &e. The wool used together with shoddy varies from
6d. per Ib. to 18d. per lb., and with mungo from 1s, to 2s. 6d. or 3s. per Ib.
There is a large quantity of fine Australian wool consumed in the shoddy
manufacture.
Shoddy cloths vary from about 1s. 2d. to 12s. per yard, 54 inches wide, and
always appear cheap, whilst as a fact they are an economical fabric, and as such
extensively patronized by the working and poorer classes at home; at the same
time a large export trade is done in them to our colonies and the principal markets
of the world.
Shoddy cloths are of course scribbled and carded, spun, woven, milled, raised,
dyed, and finished much in the same way as cloths made of all sheep’s wool.
The shoddy manufacture has its centre at Batley and the adjoining borough of
Dewsbury, where large mills are in operation, employing thousands of workpeople.
Batley is the principal seat of the trade, and at this time (1873) contains from
fifty to sixty mills engaged in this business.
A considerable number of other places in the district, and at a distance, are
more or less occupied in the heavy woollen manufacture, which have radiated from
Batley as from a common centre. There are no statistics showing the extent of
the trade in the ageregate, though it is desirable there were; it may, however, be
stated that there are without doubt 8000 power-looms used in this trade at Batley.
Speaking of power-looms (that is to say looms driven by steam-power, in contra-
distinction to hand-looms, which were worked manually) they (power-looms) have
* Tt is a little curious that remedies almost identical with what is suggested here were
adopted a day or two afterwards in New York. The banks there ceased to conduct their
exchanges against legal tender, and the Government bought lands; and in each case the
amounts were similar to what is here indicated, viz, £4,000,000 and £5,000,000 re-
spectively. : :
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 195
been used on a large and increasing scale for some twenty years back; females are
chiefly engaged in tending power-looms, intermixed with a few young and adult
men. Female labour has been in great demand in the heavy woollen district since
the introduction of power-looms; and the result is that this kind of labour now
receives about twice the remuneration it formerly did. Men’s wages, though ad-
vanced, have not progressed in any thing like a corresponding ratio; females who
are proficient at the power-loom can earn in full employ eighteen shillings per
week, The employment in the woollen manufacture is, generally speaking, healthy ;
the oil, which is put upon the wool before scribbling, keeps down any dust, and is
wholesome to the operative.
In conclusion, the trade seems destined to expand in future years as it has done
in the past, and to become, large as it is, much larger still, In its first initiation,
and for some time afterwards, the trade was not without detractors; but it has
outlived all opposition, and has become firmly established as one of the leading
manufactures oP the kingdom,
os
Confederated Homes and Cooperative Housekeeping. By Mrs.ik. M. Kine*.
In a short introduction the writer showed that the proverbial attachment of
Englishmen to their homes was not so deep as was supposed; neither were the
comforts of home extended to all members of society. Men in easy circumstances
frequented clubs, ladies left home for balls and parties; men in a poorer class re-
sorted to public-houses, institutes, &c. ; the women, when they could, went out for
a little gossip. The large number of single men and women living in boarding-
houses and lodgings proved that home was to them little more than a name.
One well-known cause of the discomfort of home was the want of good servants.
Some considered the mistresses to blame for them, some the servants; the happy-
medium people said both were to blame; while she (Mrs. King) considered that
neither were to blame, but thought that the position in which mistress and ser-
vant were placed with regard to one another caused this discomfort, producing
discontent on the part of the servants, and the assumption of responsibility by
mistresses as to the life and conduct of their servants, which they could only
so out by depriving the servants of nearly all liberty and free enjoyment of life.
The discontent of servants was owing to the state of semislavery in which they
were kept. Mrs. King urged that servants should be placed in the altered condi-
tion of free workers; and in order to effect this, the home of the employer should
no longer be the home of the employed—that is, that servants should no longer live
in our houses. In order to effect this change, our system of living in isolated homes
must be given up, and one of cooperative housekeeping be substituted ; and instead
of one set of servants working all day and, as occurred often, far into the night, re-
lays of servants should come for a certain number of hours and be replaced by
others. °
Mrs. King called attention to the want of proper schools of cookery, and declared
thatthe attempt to teach it by lectures or showing how to make a few dishes must
prove a failure, the art and science \of cookery being a branch of technical instruc-
tion requiring study and constant practice.
With regard to the mechanical arrangements of the homes, the best machinery for
economizing labour should be made use of; but it would be better not to attempt
to obtain luxuries, the most perfect organization for the supply of the necessaries
of domestic life being one of the greatest luxuries—these mechanical arrange-
ments being for heating, lighting, water-supply, and waste-pipes (speaking-tubes,
yentilation), and “ lifts.”
As water should be carried into all rooms where required, so should all waste
matter be conveyed out of rooms bya turn of the hand of the occupier of the room.
Domestic service was made degrading by giving women degrading work to per-
form, and so effectually preventing women of higher class entering into it.
Mrs. King advocated the education of boys and girls together, and affirmed
that in a home on the plan she recommended a school could be attached in
* Published im ewtenso in the ‘Contemporary Review’ for December 1873.
196 REPORT—1873.
which the system of “mixed education” could be best tried, as the parents
could then daily watch the effect it had upon the character and behaviour of their
children.
In conclusion, Mrs. King said, “The plan of home, domestic and social, life
I have endeavoured in this paper to explain is a wide one, one which, if car-
ried out, would result in many wide reforms—in the emancipation of a class,
in organizing the whole range of female domestic labour, in founding schools
for technical education in the newly organized profession, in producing tenfold
more order, ease, and comfort in home-life, in reducing the cost of living, in
opening a field of honourable employment to women of all classes, in offering
the best means for the care and education of children, and, lastly, showing a
remedy leading to the greater purity and elevation of our social intercourse.
And however I may have failed in working out the details of my plan, it is one
well worth our earnest consideration and attention.”
On the Liffect of the Increase of Prices of certain Necessaries of Life on the
Cost of Living, and its Relation to the Rates of Wages and Salaries, By
Professor Lronr Levi.
On the Economic Use of Endowments. By J. M.D. Muixinsonn, M.A.
On Capital and Labour. By W. Morzts.
On the Bradford Building Trades. By Ancurpatp Nein.
The building-stone trade of Bradford and district is considerable in extent, there
being about 6000 men engaged in stone-getting and dressing in the quarries in the
locality. The produce is about 450,000 tons per annum, and something like
£650,000 in value. The men have no trades’ union, but have as short hours as,
and are better paid than, the workmen employed in the building-trade who have
trades’ unions. They have seldom much difficulty in obtaining an advance of wages
or other requests, as they are guided by the state of the trade. When they see a
good demand for the stone they understand that to be their opportunity, and each
set of workmen asks their employer or master for an advance of wages, shorter hours
of labour, or other advantages ; and they have so timed their applications that the
quarry masters have found it possible to comply with them, and that without injury
to the trade; for although these men have shorter hours and are better paid than
any other men similarly employed in any part of this country, yet the stone found
in this district, being highly appreciated and much used, the trade has improved
notwithstanding the repeated advances made to the workmen. As a large propor-
tion of the stone (fully one half) is sent off by rail or water to London, Manchester,
Liverpool, Birmingham, and other places equally distant from Bradford, the in-
crease of wages to the workmen in this trade is all to the advantage of the Bradford
district, and will be so until the high wages modify or destroy the demand for
the stone. The stone in this neighbourhood is of the sandstone order, but of
various qualities. There is the ordinary coarse sandstone, known to engineers as
the Bramley Fall, and the white beds of Calverley, and the finer qualities of ashlar,
such as Cliff Wood, Bolton Wood, Wrose Hill, and Idle, of which most of our large
warehouses are built. When these stones are used in buildings set on their natural
bed, they will last for ages, The delfstone or fine riving sandstone is also found
in great abundance, in layers from 1 inch to 30 inches in thickness, and in large posts
or slabs. These can be split into a variety of thicknesses, according to the natural
vents or beds of the stone. When split in this way the bed is true, and flags,
landings, steps, or other flat stones are obtained with little labour; and if worked
while fresh, the labour is easily executed ; but when dry, it becomes hard and
difficult to work with hammer and chisel, A great number of the men employed
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 197
at the quarries are engaged in working as masons, preparing flags, steps, sills, land-
ings, and a variety of masons’ work. These men work mostly by piece or contract,
and earn from 30s. to £3 per week. The stone so prepared, except a portion of
the flags and landings, is all sent out of Bradford, as the Bradford Building Trades’
Union masons object to stone so dressed being used in this district.
There is little machinery at work in the stone trade of this district as yet ; for
although stone-dressing and moulding-machines have been at work on the Bath,
Portland, and other soft stones in the southern counties, they are not adapted to
work the hard stone of this district. Little progress has been made in dressing
Bradford stone by machinery, the great grinding-power of the stone on any tool
being a considerable difficulty. Low speed can only be used, and the result is slow
progress with the work. Yet something is done in this way, and at half the cost
of hand-labour. [The author has constructed a dressing-machine for cutting and
squaring stone, and also a rubbing-machine for dressing quoins and plane sur-
faces; a full description of these machines was given to the Mechanical Section of
this Association.] At present few masters have introduced machinery into their
workshops; and at present not more than 10 per cent. of this class of work is
done by machinery. The small amount of scaffolding used by builders in Brad-
ford is a peculiarity, and must attract the attention of strangers. Our large mills
and warehouses are raised without the aid of the forest of poles or heavy timbers
to be seen in other large towns. There are about 1400 building masons in
Bradford. They are nearly all in the union, They have 73d. per hour, and work
493 hours per week. They discourage overtime; and it is very seldom resorted
to, it being felt in Bradford, both by master builders and men, that 493 hours is
sufficient labour for any week, and not more than nine hours in any one day.
There are about 1000 carpenters and joiners, machine-joiners, and steam-sawyers
in Bradford. One half are in trades’ unions; and, so far as the author can form an
opinion, the better class of workmen in this case are unionists; and he has never
known the union interfere except for good. Their wages are 73d. per hour, time
and overtime, as in the case of masons. They have always welcomed the use of
machinery, and made the best of it. Much good machinery has been introduced
into this trade; and Bradford is not behind any town in the country for the quality
and variety of the machinery in use, some being as yet inexclusive use here. All
the heavy work in carpentry (roof-framing, floors, dovetailing of beams, joists, &c.),
as well as all the heavy work in joinery, is done by machinery in a first-class
manner, making the labour of the joiner easy, care and skill being more in request
than hard work. The machinery in this trade executes fully 60 per cent. of the
labour in preparing carpenters’ and joiners’ work (the fixing, of course, having still
to be done by hand-labour)—the result being that although wages have risen in
this trade upwards of 60 per cent. during the last twenty years, yet the price of
finished work, exclusive of fixing, is not more than it was before that time. We
have 260 plasterers in Bradford. They are nearly all in the union. They are paid
3d. per hour, and work 503 hours per week. There are about 200 plumbers and
glaziers and 50 slaters, with hours and pay similar to those of the jomers. There
are 750 masons’ labourers, all in the union. They are paid 6d. per hour, and work
492 hours per week. There are about 1800 men engaged as excavators, carpenters’
labourers, and assisting the other trades; and, with the exception of 120 plasterers’
labourers, they are not in the union; but the average wages will be about the same
as the union labourers, and their hours of labour the same as those of the respective
trades with which they are connected. There are about 400 painters, paid 63d. per
hour; grainers and ornamental writers from 7d. to 9d. per hour. They work 522
hours per week, and overtime as required. There are 300 smiths and mechanics
directly connected with the building and stone trade. They have the same hours
as the joiners and masons, and receive 7d. per hour. About one half are in the
union. There is little clay for hand brick-making in this district, it being largely
mixed with stone and shale. Machinery has had to be resorted to for grinding,
either in the dry or plastic state. After being ground in a plastic state, itis some-
times moulded by hand, sometimes by machinery; but when ground dry, of course
it is always moulded or compressed into brick by machinery. There are about 600
men and lads engaged in this trade, their working hours being the same as masons,
198 REPORT—1873.
The lads have 23d. per hour, the men 53d., and some are paid by the piece, and
make on the average &d. per hour. All the bricks are burned in Hoflman’s,
Morand’s, Baker's, or other permanently built kins. These kilns do not emit
smoke, and are therefore well adapted for burning bricks in towns. They also
economize coal, the saving compared with the manner of burning bricks before
their introduction here being equal to 300 per cent. in value, Still bricks are 30
per cent. dearer than they were twenty years ago, arising out of the expensive
plant, higher rate of coal and wages, and the greater care taken in their ma-
nufacture, the bricks being of a superior quality than formerly. Although stone
is largely in use in this district, even for the commonest purposes, yet the number
of bricks used and the amount of capital employed is a hundred times greater
than twenty years ago, The author estimates that the turnover in the trades
for the erection of buildings in Bradford only amounts to about £850,000 per
annum, There is considerable capital invested in the trade; and Bradford builders
have a fair reputation for good work, and frequently extend their operations to
places at a great distance, the woodwork being almost all made here, and in
some instances the stone has been dressed and fitted for large buildings sixty
miles away.
The waat of well-instructed men as masters, foremen, and leading men being
strongly felt in the trade, induced the master builders of Bradford in 1869 to esta-
blish a trade technical evening school for the young men engaged in the business.
The object of the school is to instruct the men in a scientific knowledge of their
trade; but it has been found necessary to have classes for reading, writing, and
arithmetic, as numbers of the apprentices have been neglected in their elementary
education, and it is hard to teach technical science to those who read with diffi-
culty, and whose knowledge of arithmetic is uncertain. There are four teachers in
the school, three of whom hold Government certificates; and we have during the
past year put them under Government inspection, so that we obtain payment on
results, We have had in all £28 from that source. But we are in an unfortunate
position with our technical education. The class of instruction given and required
seems not to have been understood by the Science and Art Department ; and up to
now they have ignored the most important knowledge, that knowledge which will
enable a workman correctly, scientifically, and in the best manner to obtain the
true lines from which he can with confidence produce the most complicated piece
of work, such as wreaths, twists, curves, and other forms required in staircases,
handrails, and masonry ; the intersections and forms of mouldings haying different
angles; the manner of obtaining the length of angle-rafters, and the lines for
cutting the same; the cut and lengths of purlins against angle-rafters, especially
where the rafters and purlins are moulded; a true system of developing circles in
all their varieties ; the true lines for the formation of each stone in a circular upon
circular arch: every stone in this form of arch has an irregular side, all requiring
very careful formation, and which can only be obtained by a true development of
geometric lines; this is also the case with skew arches when properly executed,
and when built in large ashlar. There is much information of this description
needed by a first-class workman, and it is, so far as the author knows, a know-
ledge peculiarly their own. It has not been taught in schools. Architects,
as a class, know very little of it; it is workmen’s lore; it has been left to them,
and some 10 per cent. of workmen have a fair knowledge of such subjects ;
yet few, if any, are what 90 per cent. might be if such schools as the Bradford
Builders’ Technical Schools existed throughout the country, The Government
Examiners for Certificates in Building Construction, so far as can be perceived, are
unacquainted with the existence of this peculiar scientific workmen’s geometry;
and it would be well if they were to take counsel with men who are practically
engaged in our technical schools—men who uot only theorize, but go into actual
practice in the school. We have followed theories in our school with actual con-
struction, If our pupils are studying the skew bridge, circular upon circular arch,
wreaths of wood or stone, roof construction, or such like, the bridge or arch is con-
structed as a practical illustration of the geometric principle or theory. Technical
schools can never have efficient help from Government until this technical know-
ledge is better understood by the Science and Art Department. Architectural
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 199
drawing is well understood, and we find that. provision is made for successful
students in it; but in this difficult, and to workmen more important branch of
scientific technical drawing there is no help whatever. The author states that
from the opening of the school an ayerage of fifty young men have attended
the classes four nights a week from seven to nine o’clock, ‘The charge is from 3s.
to 5s, per quarter, The majority of the masters pay for their apprentices. The
schools can accommodate a much larger number than attend, yet the results
are good, Young men are being properly educated for managers, foremen, or first-
class workmen. It will be found that a good training in the school will fit a man
for good employment, A youth so instructed will be a better citizen as well
as a better workman. Some say if you educate men they will not work. This is
so if they are educated not to work. If itis impressed on a lad in his training that
he is to have an education to save him from working he will not work; but if, on
the other hand, he is brought up with the idea that he must have an education
when a boy that it may enable him to work when a man, to work with intelli-
gence and skill, then it will be found that he is more industrious than he who
received little or no education, Those who fear that educated workmen will not
work are very frequently the same men who cry out against the shortening of the
hours of labour, and hold out the increasing competition with Germany and German
workmen as a reason why we should continue the long hours and increase our
industry in every possible manner so that we may preserve our country’s trade
and commerce. Do they forget that these strong competitors are all educated,
and far above what we in this country are likely to be for years to come? Is it
not our want of education we have to fear ?
The author concluded his paper with observations on the influence of trades’
unions on the building trades,
On the Relation of the Banking Reserve of the Bank of England to the Current
Rate of Interest*. By R. H. Inverts Pareraye, F.S.S8,
This paper gives a complete analysis of the returns respecting the Bank of
England in the Appendix of the Report from the Select Committee of the House
of Besetirons on the Bank Act of 1857, and the one published this year, containing
a similar statement, continued to the close of 1872. By following out this analysis,
it becomes clear that the average rate of discount charged by the Bank of England
depends in general terms on the pain borne by the reserve of the Bank to the
liabilities. Between 1844 and 1872 the average deposits of the Bank have risen
from £13,000,000 to £28,000,000, the banking reserve from £8,000,000 to
£12,000,000, the balance of London bankers from £900,000 to £7,000,000, the
ayerage of bills discounted from £4,000,000 to £6,000,000, temporary advances
from £1,000,000 to £3,000,000, and the note circulation from £20,000,000 to
£25,000,000.
It will be observed that the proportion borne by the reserve to the liabilities had
diminished since 1844 from 58 per cent. at the earlier to 42 per cent. at the later
date. Meanwhile the proportion borne by the balances of the London bankers to the
banking reserve of the Bank of England, which was 10 per cent. in 1844, had in-
creased to 62 per cent. in 1872; and the minimum rate of interest, which averaged
for the years 1844-56 £3 1éds. 3d., increased on the average for 1857-72 to £4 3s
The details of the proportion of the reserve to the liabilities at each change in the
rate of discount for the years 1844-72 were given in Tables; and these show that it
is the proportion of the reserve of the Bank, the immediate supply of money, which
governs the current rate of interest. This furnishes a remarkable and exact instance
of the working of the law of demand and supply. The amount of money generally
in the country has greatly increased. The amount of banking deposits has alsc
largely increased. The amount of banking reserve has not increased in a like pro-
portion ; and itis the amount of the supply immediately available which governs the
price of the commodity required. ‘
* Published in extenso in the ‘Journal of the Statistical Society,’ Dec. 1878; and als
separately by E, Stanford, London.
200 REPORT—1873.
On Purity and Impurity in the Use and Abuse of Water.
By Major-General Mituineron Synaz, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.GS., F.R.DA
Opinion of a Turkish lady on western habits in the use of water. The contrast
presented by Turkish to western habits of obedience to religious injunctions in re-
spect to cleanliness of person, The systematic corruption of rivers would be impos-
sible consistently with eastern habits in the use of water. Western nations, even
when they use water for personal ablution, reclothe themselves in uncleansed gar-
ments: their houses are externally filthy and often so internally. The use of
water for assuaging thirst an instinct rather than an act of reason. Analogy between
sobriety and cleanliness. On the indirect effects on social life of habits of cleanli-
ness, on the wage-taking classes and on the capitalist. On the progress of the
age and the direction of that progress: its dealings with water. On sewer-pollu-
tion. On the difference between the clean and the unclean. On the science of
purification. The effects on air, water, and earth of contact with man. The ele-
ments of the ancients. Fire. On “waste,” the meaning in which the term is em-
ployed. The art of purification. Purification not attained by dilution of the
impure, which is only spreading impurity: it can be attained only by transmuta-
tion, the ceaseless miracle of creation. The contrast between transmutation and
water-carriage of refuse, which sets all the laws of transmutation at defiance: it
multiplies the volume of waste and causes dangerous evils, and destroys the value of
a natural fertilizer. The cost of “ main-drainage ” of London. The purification of
water. The standard of purity is a restoration to normal condition. The conse-
quences of adopting the standard in remedying water-pollution : its easy applica-
tion. The difficulties caused by sewage-corruption of water increased by the volume
employed. Reclamation or restoration to the normal state should take place within
the limits of the locality which causes the defilement. On the power of intangible
proportions. ‘The easiness of water-pollution ; but its dire consequences. The pro-
perties of charcoal. The deodorant and disinfectant powers latent in impurity dis-
covered by Mr. Stanford: it is the restoration of the impure to the condition of
the pure.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
Address by W. H. Bartow, Esq., C.E., F.R.S., President of the Section.
Tr appears to have become an established custom that the Presidents of the several
Sections of the British Association should say a few words by way of address prior
to opening the proceedings of the Meeting ; and while I feel that I should neglect
a duty if I did not comply with this usage, yet I know that I shall have need of all
your indulgence and support while I endeavour to fulfil it.
I should have felt some difficulty in the selection of a subject were it not that
the genius Joct naturally suggests some subject connected with manufactures.
It has been remarked by an eminent writer that there is no single circumstance
which distinguishes our country so remarkably from all others, as the vast extent
to which we have carried our contrivances of tools and machines for forming all
those articles and conveniences of which so large a quantity is consumed by almost
every class of the community. And I think it would be difficult to select a locality
where the results of thought and study, the achievements of genius, and the effects
of strong good sense and long practice in the mechanical arts are more plainly
aere than they are in the place where we are now met and in the surrounding
istrict.
_It is, however, not alone in tools and machinery that this country has attained a
high position ; it stands preeminent also in the utilization of waste or incidental
products, and in the production of new materials,
In the observations which I haye to address to you I shall not attempt a general
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 201
survey of a subject so vast and so varied as the manufactures of this country, nor
shall I attempt to describe the many new and beautiful inventions and mechanical
appliances which form a distinguishing feature of the age in which we live ; but 1
shall endeavour to draw your attention to one of the new materials, namely
modern steel—a material which, though of comparatively recent origin, has already
become an important industry, and whose influence in the future seems destined to
vie in importance with that resulting from the introduction of iron.
I have used the term “ modern steel,” because, although the great movement in
simplifying and cheapening the process of producing steel is necessarily associated
with the name of Mr. Bessemer, yet we have further important steps taken in a
forward direction as to the production and treatment of steel by Dr. Siemens and
Sir Joseph Whitworth and others, both in this country and abroad.
It is now seventeen years since Mr. Bessemer read a paper at the Meeting of the
British Association at Cheltenham, which was entitled “On the Manufacture of
Tron and Steel without Fuel.”
Not long afterwards I attended one of the early experiments made by Mr.
Bessemer in London. On that occasion most of those who were favoured with an
invitation to be present saw for the first time that wonderful process in which, by
the simple aid of a blast of atmospheric air and the addition of a little manganese,
a.caldron of melted cast iron was, in the space of some twenty minutes, converted
nto a material which approached wrought iron in so far as it was malleable, but
differed from it in other ways, the precise character and quality of the material
produced being at that time not fully known.
I was kindly permitted by Mr. Bessemer to take away with me one of the small
ingots cast on that occasion, and had it made into a bar in the workshops of the
Midland Railway at Derby with the object of testing its strength.
Just as the bar was finished it broke under the hammer, and an attempt to weld
it together again, treating the metal as iron, failed. This led to a consultation
among the smiths who had assembled round this mysterious bar, and after some
further trials the metal was unanimously pronounced to be s¢eel.
Among those who attended that experiment at Mr. Bessemer’s works, there
were not wanting some of that class who, though they admitted the genius and
intelligence which devised the process, and expressed their admiration of it as a
scientific curiosity, were nevertheless very incredulous as to its ever becoming
practically useful; and it was not without much labour and skill in surmounting
the difficulties of the case, indomitable perseverance in overcoming rooted prejudices,
and great courage in undertaking the necessary expenditure, that Mr. Bessemer
succeeded in producing that most valuable new material now known as “ Bessemer
steel,”
It is satisfactory to know that Mr. Bessemer has often expressed his firm con-
viction that had it not been for the publicity given to his invention through the
paper which he read before the Mechanical Section of the British Association in
1856, and the great moral support afforded him by men of science whose attention
was thereby directed to it, he believes that he would not have succeeded in over-
coming the strong opposition with which his invention was met in other quarters.
About this time, or perhaps a little later, a material was produced called “ puddled
steel,” and about the same time the metal known as “homogeneous iron.”
The movement which had begun in the production of cheap steel was further
assisted and developed by the regenerative furnace of Dr. Siemens, by the intro-
duction of the Siemens-Martin process of making steel, and further and most
important progress is suggested by the recent process introduced by Dr, Siemens in
making steel direct from the ore. a
According to the returns published by the Jury of the International Exhibition
of 1851, the total annual produce of steel in Great Britain at that time was 50,000
tons. At the present time there are more than 500,000 tons made by the Bessemer
process alone, added to which Messrs. Siemens’s works at Landore produce 200,000
tons, besides further quantities which are made by his process at Messrs. Vickers,
Messrs. Cammells, the Dowlais, and other works.
1 shall not, however, detain you by attempting to trace up the history and
progress of steel, nor attempt to notice the various steps by which this branch of
1873. 14
902 REPORT—1873.
industry has been brought to its present important position. My object is to draw
attention to this material as to its use and application for structural and engineering
urposes.
r he steel produced by the Bessemer process was at a very early stage employed
in rails and wheel-tires. In both these applications the object sought was endurance
to resist the effects of wear, and toughness to prevent fracture by blows. There
does not exist at present sufficient information to determine accurately the relative
values of steel and iron when used for these purposes. As used for wheel-tires,
steel had to compete with iron of the highest quality, but it is nevertheless intro-
duced on most of our railways. The iron used in rails was not of such high quality,
and the difference in duration shows a very marked advantage in the employment
of steel, the duration of steel rails being variously estimated at from three to six
times that of iron.
Steel is also extensively used for ships’ plates, and by the War Department for
lining the interior of the heaviest guns; while Sir Joseph Whitworth and Messrs.
Krupp make guns entirely of steel, though for these purposes the metal is of
different quality and differently treated, in order to withstand the enormous con-
cussions to which it is subjected.
And, further, we have steel used in railway-axles, crank-axles for engines, in
boilers, in piston-rods, in carriage-springs, and for many other purposes.
But, notwithstanding these various employments of steel, there has been, and
there continues to be, a difficulty in applying it to engineering structures in this
country.
The want of knowledge of the physical properties of steel haying been the subject
of remark at a discussion at the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1868, a Committee
Cas of Mr. Fowler, Mr. Scott Russell, Captain Galton, Mr. Berkley, and
myself) undertook to conduct a series of experiments upon this subject. Our
services were of course rendered gratuitously ; but the expenses of carrying out this
inquiry, and the samples of steel to be tested, were liberally furnished by the firms
of Messrs. Bessemer, Messrs. Jno. Brown & Co., the Barrow Hematite Company,
the Bolton Iron Company, Messrs. Cammell & Co., Messrs, Lloyds, Fosters & Co.,
the Newark Bridge Company, Messrs. Naylor, Vickers & Co., Messrs. Turton &
Sons, Messrs. Firth & Sons, and Messrs. Siemens.
The experiments recorded consist of four series.
The first were made for the Committee by Mr. Kirkaldy with his testing-
machine in London, and were chiefly directed to ascertain the relation which
subsists between the resistances of tension, compression, torsion, and transverse
strain.
In this series of experiments twenty-nine bars, 15 feet long, were used, each
bar being cut into lengths, and turned or planed into suitable forms for the
respective tests, so that a portion of each har was subjected to each of the aboye-
mentioned tests,
The tensile resistance varied in the different qualities of steel from twenty-eight
to forty-eight tons per inch, and the experiments established conclusively that the
relation subsisting between the several resistances of tension, compression, and
transyerse strain is throughout practically the same as in wrought iron; that is
to say, that a bar of steel whose tensile strength is 50 per cent. above that of
wrought iron will exhibit about the same relative increase of resistance under the
other tests.
They further showed that the limit of elasticity in steel is, like that of wrought
iron, rather more than half its ultimate resistance. The total elongation under
tensile strain, and the evidences of malleability and toughness, will be referred to
hereafter.
The second series recorded in the book published by the Committee gave the
results of tempering steel in oil and water. ‘They were made by the officers of the
gun-factory at the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and show a remarkable increase
of strength obtained by this process. This property of steel is now fully recognized
and made use of in the steel which forms the lining of the largest guns. !
The third series of experiments was made by the Committee upon bars 14 feet
long, 13 inch in diameter, with the skin upon the metal as it came from the rolls.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 203
The object of these experiments was specially directed to ascertain the modulus
o elasticity. They were made with the testing-machine at H.M. Dockyard at
oolwich, which machine was placed at our disposal by the Admiralty. The
bars were obtained, with some exceptions, in sets of six from each maker, three
bars of each set being used in tension and three in compression.
Bars of iron of like dimensions were also tested in the same way, in order to
obtain the relative eflects in steel and iron. In these experiments sixty-seven steel
bars were tested whose tensile strength varied from thirty-two to fifty-three tons
per inch, and twenty-four iron bars varying from twenty-two to twenty-nine tons
er inch.
The amount of the extensions and compressions were ascertained by direct
measurement, verniers being for this purpose attached to the bar itself, 10 feet
apart, so that the readings gave the absolute extensions and compressions of this
length of the bar.
These experiments, which were very accurately made, showed that the exten-
sion and compression of steel per ton per inch was a little less than wrought iron,
that the extension and compression were very nearly equal to each other, and that
the modulus of elasticity of steel may be taken at 30,000,000, which result agrees
with the conclusions arrived at by American engineers on this subject.
This property of the metal is important in two respects. T'irst, because inas-
much as the extension per ton per inch is practically equal to the compression, it
follows that the neutral axis of a structure of steel, strained transversely, will be
in the centre of gravity of its section, and that the proper proportion to give to
the upper and lower flanges of a girder, when made of the same quality of steel
throughout, will be the same as in wrought iron. Secondly, because the modulus
of elasticity of steel is practically equal to that of wrought iron, and the limit of
elasticity is greater, it follows that in a girder of the same proportions as wrought
iron, and strained with an equal proportion of its ultimate tensile strength, the
deflection will be greater in the steel than in the iron girder, in the ratio of the
strength of the metals; so that if it is necessary to make a steel girder for a given
span deflect under its load the same amount as an iron girder of the same span, the
steel girder must be made of greater depth.
The fourth series of experiments were made by the Committee on riveted steel,
and show clearly that the same rules which apply to the riveting of iron apply
equally to steel; that is to say, that the total shearing area of the rivets must be
the same, or rather must not be less, than the sectional area of the bar riveted.
Having thus obtained a knowledge of the behaviour of steel under different
strains, we may trace in what manner its employment would operate on the
weight of metal required for large engineering structures. But before doing so
I would call your attention to the question of the absolute tensile strength.
Taking Mr. Kirkaldy’s experiments in conjunction with those made by the
Committee, there is a great range of strength exhibited, commencing as low
as that of the best iron, and extending to about fifty-three tons per inch.
This great range of strength is due to the different qualities and make of the
steels tested, and must not be mistaken for irregularity of strength in the manu-
facture; on the contrary, in the experiments made by the Committee, in which
three bars of each make were broken, the strengths, with the exception of one set,
are as uniform as in the iron bars similarly tested.
It is also to be observed that in applying steel to engineering structures we may
dismiss from consideration those superior qualities which are of high price and
made in comparatively small quantities. I propose therefore to confine my cbser-
vations to the mild steels, such as are made by the “ Bessemer,” the “ Siemens-
Martin,” and other processes, having a tensile strength varying from thirty-three
to thirty-six tons per inch, a material which is made in large quantities and at
moderate cost.
Following the same rule as is adopted for wrought iron (namely, that the maxi-
mum strain on the metal shall not exceed one fourth of the breaking weight), we
may consider steel of this quality capable of bearing at least eight tons pér inch,
instead of the five tons per inch estimated for like purposes in iron.
We know from established mechanical laws that the limiting spans of structures
14*
204: REPORT—1873.
vary directly as the strength of the material employed in their construction when
the proportion of depth to span and all other circumstances remain the same,
We know also that, taking an ordinary form of open wrought-iron detached girder
(as, for example, when the depth is one fourteenth of the span), the limiting span
in iron, with a strain of five tons to the inch upon the metal, is about 600 feet ;
and it follows that a steel girder of like proportions, capable of bearing eight tons
to the inch, would have theoretically a limiting span of 960 feet.
' This theoretical limiting span of 960 feet would, however, be reduced by some ~
ractical considerations connected with the minimum thickness of metal employed
in certain parts, and it would, in effect, become about 900 feet for a girder of the
before-mentioned construction and proportions.
The knowledge of the limiting span of a structure, as has been explained else-
where, enables us to estimate very quickly, and with close approximation to the
truth, the weight of girders required to carry given loads over given spans; and
althouch the limiting spans vary with every form of structure, we can obtain an
idea of the effect of introducing steel by the relative weights of steel and iron
required in girders of the kind above mentioned.
Assuming a load, in addition to the weight of the girder, of one ton to the foot,
the relative weights under these conditions would be as follows :—
Weight of steel Weight of iron
Span, girder. girder,
tons. tons.
200 57 100
300 150 300
400 320 800
Again, taking such a case as that of the Menai Bridge, which consists of two
spans of 500 feet over the navigable waterway.
This structure is composed of four wrcught-iron tubular girders, each weighing
about 1500 tons, or 6000 tons in all; and in order to avoid the difficulties of
scaffolding, each of these tubes was built on the shore, floated off on pontoons, and
lifted bodily into its place by hydraulic machinery.
This great work was erected when the application of wrought iron to engineering
works was in its infancy, and when wrought iron was the only available material
for such a purpose.
With such materials only at command, and in the then state of knowledge of
structures, the accomplishment of this bridge, capable as it is of carrying railway
trains across clear spans of 500 feet, was an achievement far in advance of the
time in which it was done, and worthy of the name of its great designer, Robert
Stephenson.
But if this work had to be constructed now, and were made an open girder of
steel instead of plate iron, the weight of metal required would be little more than
one third of that used, and the cost of erection, the time required for its execution,
and the total cost of its construction would be most materially reduced.
It is not alone in the relative weight or in the relative cost that the advantage
of the stronger material is important, but with steel we shall be enabled to cross
openings which are absolutely impracticable in iron.
It will naturally be asked why it is that steel is not used in these structures, if
such manifest advantages would result from its employment.
The reason is twofold :—
Ist. There is a want of confidence as to the reliability of steel in regard to its
toughness and its power to resist fracture from sudden strain.
Qnd. Steel is produced of various qualities, and we do not possess the means,
without elaborate testing, of knowing whether the article presented to us is of the
required quality for structural purposes. A third reason, arising probably out of
those before mentioned, is found in the fact that in the regulations of the Board of
Trade relative to railway structures, although rules are given for the employment
of cast iron and wrought iron, steel has not, up to the present time been recog-
nized or provided for,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 205
Now, as regards the question of toughness and malleability, and referring again
to Mr. Kirkaldy’s experiments, it appears that in the tests uf “ Bessemer steel”
eighteen samples were tried under tensile strain, the length of the samples being
in round numbers 50 inches, and the diameter 1-382 inch; and that when these
were subjected to ultimate strain, the elongation at the moment of fracture was
in the most brittle example 2? inches, but generally varied from 43 to 93 inches.
In the experiments on transverse strain, in which the bars were nearly 2 inches
square and only 20 inches between the points of support, all the “ Bessemer
steel” samples, except two, bent 6 inches without any crack. Again, in the
experiments made by the Committee on bars 14 feet long aud 14 inch in diameter,
out of twenty bars of the milder quality of steel, sixteen extended more than 8 inches,
and of these ten extended more than 12 inches.
As another example of the malleability of steel, I may mention that I have
seen a piece of rail, weighing 80 lbs. per yard, and 12 feet in length, held by one
end and twisted at the other, until it made 63 complete revolutions before it
broke. The fracture occurred at one end, leaving about 11 feet of the rail in the
twisted form which had been given to it.
In this twisted state the rail was laid on two bearings 3 feet 6 inches apart,
and subjected to the blow of 1 ton weight falling 30 feet, and it bore one of these
blows without breaking.
[ have also used a considerable quantity of steel rails, the test to which they
were subjected being 1 ton falling 20 feet on a 3-feet 6-inch bearing, and out-of
the whole number tested there was not one which broke with this test. The
effect of the blow was to produce a set of about 23 inches ; and if the rail was then
reversed and struck on the other side, it became nearly straight again. As a rule,
the rails yielded to the third blow; but I have seen seven blows given without
producing fracture.
On the other hand, five of the bars tested by the Committee were of inferior
malleability.
We have also instances in which steel rails break with the jar produced by
being thrown off the waggons on to the ballast; and there is no doubt of the fact
that steel is made and sold which is cold-short, and not reliable for use tor
engineering purposes. This irregularity appears to arise mainly from the dif-
ference in the chemical constituents of the metal or ores employed, or in the process
pursued by different makers.
Another element of uncertainty appears to be that, in these modern and rapidly
made steels, the precise time allotted to the several stages of the process, the
degree of heat-employed, and a variety of other circumstances have to be carefully
observed, and any inaccuracy in carrying out the required conditions affects the
quality of steel produced.
Nevertheless it is known that in the Bessemer process, if ores or metal of suit-
able chemical qualities are used and the process of manipulation is properly per-
formed, the quality of metal produced is certain and regular in its results.
In the processes of Dr. Siemens there is not the same necessity for purity in the
ore or metal required, the nature of the process being, I believe, such as to
eliminate some of the ingredients which would prevent toughness being obtained,
while tests may be made during the process of manipulation so as to ascertain
that the metal is of the quality sought before it is run off into the ingot-mould.
Where large castings and metal of great solidity are required, as in making large
guns, there is the method pursued by Sir J. Whitworth, whereby the metal is
intensely compressed while in a fluid state.
The pressure employed is 20 tons per inch, and its effect in producing solidifica-
tion is such as to shorten the ingot about 13 inch for every foot of length.
' The treatment by compression is especially important where metal is required in
large masses and of great ductility, because the larger the mass and the greater the
ductility, the larger and more numerous are the air-cells, and the effect of the pressure
is to completely close these cells and render the metal perfectly solid.
By this process mild steel can be made with a strength of 40 tons to the inch,
having a degree of ductility equal to that of the best iron.
The more highly carbonized qualities, whose strengths range from 48 up to 72.
206 . REPORT—1873.
tons per inch, show a decrease of ductility somewhat in the same ratio as the
strength increases.
Without going into the numerous achievements of Sir Joseph Whitworth re-
sulting from the employment of steel, in connexion with the extreme accuracy of
workmanship produced at his works, or doing more than mention the flat-ended
steel shot and shell which pass through iron plates when fired obliquely or pene-
trate ships’ sides below the level of the water, [ would call attention to those
applications of steel which bear upon its strength and toughness.
In the first place, there are small arms made entirely of steel, of wonderful range
and accuracy, capable of penetrating 34 half-inch planks, which is about three times
the penetrating power of the Enfield rifle.
Secondly, there are the large guns, also entirely of steel, throwing projectiles from
250 lbs. to 310 Ibs. in weight, and burning from 40 to 50 lbs. of powder at a charge,
with which a range of nearly 6} miles is obtained.
. In both these cases the degree of strength and toughness required in the metal is
much greater than is necessary for engineering structures.
It is unnecessary to occupy more time in multiplying examples of the toughness of
steel. It is well known to manufacturers, and must also be well known to many
others here present, that steel of the strength of 33 or 36 tons periuch can be made,
and is made in large quantities, at moderate price, possessing all the toughness and
malleability required in engineering structures.
I will proceed, therefore, to the second part of the subject—namely, the want of
means of knowing thata given sample of steel is of the quality suited for structural
purposes.
With most other metals chemical analysis is in itself a complete and sufficient
test of quality, but in steel it is not so. The toughness of steel may be altered by
sudden cooling ; and although the effect of this operation, and generally the effects
of tempering, are greater when the quantity of carbon is considerable, yet it acts
more or less in the mild qualities of steel; so that we cannot rely entirely on the
aid of the chemist, but must fall back on mechanical tests. And in point of fact,
seeing that the qualities required are mechanical, it is no more than reasonable that
the test should be mechanical ; for this includes not only the test of material but
of workmanship.
Now there are two descriptions of mechanical testing, which may be distin-
guished as destructive and non-destructive—the one being beyond and the other
within the elastic limit of the material. The destructive test is that usually applied
to a part of an article manufactured, as, for example, a piece cut off a boiler-plate
and tested by absolute rupture, or by bending or otherwise, whereby the strength
and quality of the material in the plate is known.
The non-destructive test is that usually applied to the finished work, as in the
test of a boiler by hydraulic pressure, or the testing of a gun by the proof-charge.
The strain in this case is made greater than that which will arise in the daily use
of the article, but is not so greatly in excess as to be beyond the elastic limit of the
material.
As regards engineering structures, this second test is easy of application; but it
affords no sufficient criterion that the metal possesses that degree of toughness
necessary to resist the action of sudden strains.
It may be said that engineers may ascertain for themselves, by inspection and test-
ing at the works, that they are being supplied with the material that they require ;
but assuming that the tests and mode of testing were in all respects satisfactory to
them, and that the metal supplied was of the right quality, we have still to comply
with the conditions prescribed by the Act for the Regulation of Railways, and we
must satisfy the Government Inspector.
It is not to be supposed that he can attend all the required tests at the works ;
and the question remains, How is the Inspecting Officer of the Board of Trade to
be enabled to distinguish the quality of metal in a finished bridge, when he is called
upon to give a certificate that it is safe for public traffic ?
If we could adduce clear and distinct evidence that the metal used for a bridge
was of a quality which would bear 8 tons to the inch with as much safety as
common iron can bear 5 tons, there can be no reasonable doubt that the Board of
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 207
Trade would make suitable provision in its regulations for the employment of such
material.
The difficulty lies in the want of something whereby the quality of the metal
may be known and relied upon with confidence by others besides those who made
the article.
In gold and silver this is accomplished by the stamp put upon them, in guns and
small arms we have the proof-mari, but in iron and steel we have nothing whereby
the one quality of inetal can be distinguished from another; and until some sufli-
cient means be devised for this purpose, it is difficult to see how we are to escape
from the position in which we are now placed—namely, that while we possess a
material by which we can increase considerably the spans and diminish the weight
and cost of engineering works, we are restricted to make designs and construct our
works by a rule made for wrought iron, and adapted to the lowest quality of that
material.
As the rule made by the Board of Trade in respect of wrought-iron railway strue-
tures may not be generally known, I here give it :—
“Tn a wrought-iron bridge, the greatest load which can be brought upon it, added
“to the weight of the superstructure, should not produce a greater strain on any
“ part of the material than five tons per inch.”
It will be observed that this 5 tons per inch is the governing element, irrespec-
tive entirely of the quality of metal used; and it is obvious that a rule so framed
must act as a discouragement to any endeavour to improve the quality of metal,
while it tends to induce the employment of the cheapest and most inferior descrip-
tions which can be made under the name of wrought iron.
In endeavouring to seek an amendment of the rules, which will permit of the
employment of steel or other metal of higher strength than 5 tons to the inch, I
feel bound to say that I do not consider that the Board of Trade is alone responsi-
ble for the position in which the question now stands; and, as regards the Govern-
ment Inspecting Officers, I can only say that in the numerous transactions I have
had with them, and although differences of opinion have occasionally arisen, yet,
considering the responsibility which rests upon them, I have found them anxious
to afford all reasonable facilities so far as their instructions permitted.
The first step to be taken is to put our testing on a systematic and satisfactory basis.
The second is to establish some means whereby metal which has been tested
can have its quality indicated upon it in such manner that it can be practically
relied upon.
The experiments before referred to establish, sufficiently for all practical pur-
poses, that the relation or proportion between the resistances to tension, compres-
sion, torsion, and transverse strain is about the same in steel as in wrought iron.
The testing required is therefore reduced to that necessary for ascertaining two
properties only, namely the strength and the toughness or ductility.
he strength may be readily ascertained, and no difficulty arises on that head.
The whole question turns upon the test for ductility, or the resistance to fracture
by blows or sudden strain ; and it must be admitted that the tests employed for
this purpose are not framed on any regular or satisfactory basis.
I may mention as an example the test of rails by a falling weight.
Tn the first place, as usually applied, it is made a destructive test, the weight and
fall being such as to bend and render the rail unfit for use, however good its quality
may be.
Sesondly,; being a destructive test, it is applied only to 1 or 2 per cent. of the
quantity ; and if this amount bear the test, the remainder are assumed to be like
them. I have recently had occasion to know, in a case which came before me re-
specting iron rails, that this assumption may be entirely fallacious.
Again, we find 10 to 18 ewt. falling 5 feet used for iron rails, while 1 ton falling
20 feet and sometimes 30 feet is specified for steel, and yet both descriptions
of rail are called upon to perform the same work when laid down in the road.
I believe the falling weight, or, in other words, the test by impact, to be a good
and searching test for detecting brittleness; and it has the advantage of being
cheap, quick, and easy of application, but it is questionable if it is applied in the
best manner.
208 REPORtT—1873.
Except in cases of accident, when an engine or train leaves the line, rails of the
weight now used in permanent way are never known to be bent by the passage of
trains, but brittle rails will break.
The weight on the driving-wheel of a large engine is about 8 tons; the amount
of vertical fall in passing along the line is necessarily very small; and we know by
experience that this large weight with this small fall is sufficient to break inferior
rails, while it leaves the good ones unbent and uninjured.
What we require of the test by impact is that it should be so arranged as to do
what the engines do, detect the brittle rails without destroying the good ones ;
whereas, as now applied, it destroys the 1 or 2 per cent. of the rails submitted to
the test, however good they may be, while it gives no information whatever
regarding the remaining 98 or 99 per cent. of the quantity.
Another test for toughness or ductility which is very useful is the extension of
the metal beyond the limit of elasticity.
In testing his fluid-compressed steel, Sir Joseph Whitworth employs this test
upon a piece of the metal 6 inches in length. For a length of 2 inches at each
end a screw is cut for the purpose of enabling the hydraulic apparatus to bring the
strain to bear on the sample. The remaining 2 inches between the screwed portions
is accurately turned down until the sectional area is exactly 3 an inch.
The sample is now subjected to strain, and the recorded extension occasioned by
the strain at the moment of rupture is treated as percentage or proportion of the
2 inches between the screws, and is described as the percentage of ductility.
But it is obvious the measure of ductility so obtained has reference to the par-
ticular length and dimensions of the specimen, and would be altogether varied if a
long bar were tested instead of a short one.
There is, however, another evidence of ductility which, within certain limits, is
independent of length—that is, the diminution of sectional area which takes place
at the point of rupture; and the ratio which the original sectional area of the bar
bears to the sectional area of the fractured end appears to afford a more definite
measure of ductility.
Thus in the experiments of My. Kirkaldy, previously referred to, it appears that
in bars 50 inches long and 1:582 inch diameter, the sectional area of the fractured
end was in some cases less than five tenths of the original section.
In the bars broken by the Committee, which were 14 feet long and 12 inch in
diameter, it was in the best samples under six tenths, while the best qualities of
wrought iron similarly treated showed a ratio of about five tenths.
It is to be observed that such a degree of ductility as is presented by these
samples is not needed in engineering structures, the wrought iron frequently used,
and I may say generally used, for these purposes being of much less ductility.
Without, however, attempting to say what description of test may be found the
best for ascertaining the property of ductility, it may be observed that what is
required for this test is a definite basis to act upon, and that the samples should be
so made as to render the test cheap, expeditious, and easy of application.
The next requirement is that when a piece of metal has been tested, and ites
ualities of strength and toughness ascertained, there should be some means of
enoting its quality in an authentic manner.
To a certain extent this is already done in iron by the mark of the maker; but
something more than this is necessary to fulfil the required conditions in steel.
What is termed steel, is iron with a small proportion of carbon in it. These two
ingredients are necessary to constitute steel; and there may or may not be present —
in very small quantities graphite, silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus.
In connexion with the experiments made by the Committee, 14 of the samples
were tested by Mr. E. Richards, of the Barrow Steel Works, 5 of which were kindly
repeated by Dr. Odling.
Although there are some discrepancies in the results which we cannot account
for, yet some of the characteristics are brought out clearly.
It appears that manganese may be present to the extent of four tenths per cent.
without injury either to the sieaeth or ductility, but sulphur and phosphorus,
except. in extremely small quantities, are fatal to ductility.
in the samples tried by the Committee and Mr. Kirkaldy, the quantity of carbon
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 209
varied from 3 per cent. to nearly 1 per cent.; yet with this small variation in the
carbon the strength ranged from 33 tons to nearly 53 tons per inch; and the duc-
tility, represented by the ratio which the fractured area bore to the original section
of the bar, varied from five tenths in the tough qualities, until in the harder
samples there was no diminution perceptible.
All these materials are called steel, and have the same external appearance ; but
possessing, as they do, such a range of strength and such a variation in ductility,
it becomes absolutely essential that there should be some classification or means
of knowing the respective qualities among them.
The want of such classification casts an air of uncertainty over the whole ques-
tion of steel, and impedes its application. To this want of knowledge is to be
ascribed the circumstance that many professional men regard the material as
altogether unreliable; while large consumers of steel, in consequence of the un-
certainty of the quality they buy in the market, seek to establish works on their
own premises and make their own steel.
This step has already been taken by one of the large railway companies, and is,
as I am informed, contemplated by one of the principal constructive departments
of the Government.
My attention has been recently and forcibly directed to the importance of steel
through haying been called upon, in conjunction with Mr. Bidder, Sir John
Hawkshaw, My. Harrison, and Dr. Pole, to report upon the magnificent work
designed by Mr. Bouch for crossing the Firth of Forth. This great work consists
of a stiffened suspension bridge in two spans, each of 1600 feet between the
supports.
To construct this work in iron, with a working strain of 5 tons to the inch, would
involve such weights of material and magnitude of strain as to render it virtually
impracticable ; but in tough steel, capable of bearing 8 tons per inch, it is praticable
to accomplish it and even larger spans.
Mr. Bouch has designed the chains of this bridge to be made of steel; and in
addition to the honour which must attach to his name as the originator of this
great and important work, he is further entitled to the merit of being the first
engineer to break through the restrictions which confine our engineering structures
to wrought iron, and to brave the difficulties which surround the employment of
steel for railway works in this country.
I ought, 1 know, to apologize for detaining you so long on this one question of
steel, but I consider that the difficulties under which it is placed are affecting
interests of considerable importance.
Not only is a large and useful field for the employment of steel practically
closed, but the progress of improvement in engineering structures is impeded
both in this country‘and in other parts of the world where English engineers
are engaged.
For in consequence of the impediments to its employment in England, very few
English engineers turn their attention to the use of steel. They are accustomed
to make their designs for iron, and when engaged in works abroad where the
Board of Trade rules do not apply, they continue for the most part to send out the
old-fashioned ponderous girders of common iron, in cases where the freight and
difficulties of carriage make it extremely desirable that structures of less weight and
more easy of transport should be employed.
- In conclusion, and while thanking you for the patience with which you have
heard me on this subject, I would observe that we possess in steel a material which
has been proved, by the numerous uses to which it is applied, to be of great
capability and value; we know that it is used for structural purposes in other
countries, as, for example, in the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge in America, a
bridge of three arches, each 500 feet span ; yet in this country,where “modern steel”
has originated and has been brought to its present state of perfection, we are
obstructed by some deficiency in our own arrangements, and by the absence
of suitable regulations by the Board of Trade, from making use of it in engineering
works.
And I have considered it right to draw your attention to the position in which
this question stands, well knowing that I could not address any body of gentlemen
210 REPORT—1878.
more capable of improving and systematizing our methods of testing, or better able
to devise effectual means for removing the impediments to the use of steel, than are
to be found in the scientific and practical men who form the Mechanical Section of
the British Association.
On the Lisbon Steam Tramways, 1873. By W. H. Bartow, Jun.
This paper was a description of the Lisbon steam tramways. The peculiarity of
their construction is, that the permanent way consists of only one central rail, on
which double-flange bogie-wheels, supporting the weight of the trai, rm. On
each side of this central rail are longitudinal timbers, 9 inches broad, on which run
the side wheels of the engine and carriages, said side wheels having no flanges.
The driving-wheels of the engine are 14 inches broad, giving great adhesion in
running on the timbers.
This construction possesses great facilities for ascending steep gradients and going
round sharp curves. The ruling gradient was 1 in 20; the curves principally in use
are from 3 to 2 chains radius.
The author of the paper had travelled on the tramway at Lisbon, constructed as
above, at a pace of twelve miles an hour, and in some places had travelled twenty
to thirty miles an hour, and could therefore testify to its efficiency, while its
economy spoke for itself.
The carriages are further balanced on the central bogie-wheels, so that they run
like a bicycle; when running fast the side wheels are scarcely used.
The author remarked on the want of a construction of this nature for localities
where the traffic would not justify the outlay necessary for constructing an ordinary
railway; and, further, that it was a good construction to lay down, pro tem., to
develop the resources of a district, and gradually to be superseded by a regular
railway. In France and in Portugal it is used as a tramway and laid along the
public roads, and has been found to answer admirably.
On the Manufacture of Cards for Spinning Purposes*. By Danter Bateman.
On the Saint-Gotthard Tunnel. By C. Brreuron.
On the Hydrostatic Logt. By Rev. E,. L. Burton.
—
On Huggett’s System of Manufacturing Horse-nails.
By ¥.J. Bramwe1, C.E., PRS.
The author, in the commencement of his paper, remarks upon the fact that while
for many years past ordinary nails have been made by machinery, and in more
recent times even the screws which are used by carpenters (commonly called “ wood
screws’) have been so made, the horse-nail has remained in the domain of handi-
craft, although its simple form and appearance would lead to the belief that it was
at least as fit a subject to be the product of mechanical skill as is the carpenter's
nail, and far more fit a subject than the carpenter’s screw, requiring, as this latter
does, a number of delicate and complicated processes, all of which processes, how-
ever, are now most successfully performed by a succession of automatic machines.
The author then shows that the horse-nail, notwithstanding its apparently simple
character, has a speciality in its use which demands in it special qualities and
involves a special manufacture.
The speciality in its use is that, unlike the carpenter’s nail and screw, which are
employed to penetrate mere inert and dead matter, the horse-nail has to be driven
* Published im eatenso in the ‘Engineer’ for Oct. 5 1873. + Ibid.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 211
into something alive; further, that while the nail must be so tough that it can be
with certainty bent over at the point to “clinch” it when in the hoof, it must still
be sufficiently stiff to penetrate the horny substance of that hoof, and to penetrate
without risk of wandering from the true direction, as were it to do so it would be
very likely to pass into the interior of the hoof and to lame the horse; and, as a
final peculiarity, that the horse-nail when driven in is not there once and for all,
but in the course of a few weeks it has to be withdrawn, and that there must be
no risk of breakage in this withdrawal.
The author then states that about seven years since the Messrs. Huggett set
themselves to devise means of making horse-nails by machinery, and that, having
secured the support of Mr. Moser, a factory was provided and machines were made.
These, as machines, answered well; but the nails produced, though fair to the
eye, were unsound: after endeavouring for a long time to remedy the defect, the
attempt was abandoned, so far as that particular class of machine was concerned,
and the whole of them were pulled up and thrown into the scrap-heap. The
Messrs, Huggett then again applied themselves to their task and invented
another machine, which turned out nails, not only perfect in appearance, but also
perfect in fact. Thereupon a large factory was filled with machinery; but again
failure and loss were to result, not from the imperfection of the nail, but from the
inability of the machine to withstand the wear and tear incident to the particular
nature of its action. Once more the scrap-heap was the destination of property
which had cost thousands of pounds.
For a third time the Messrs. Huggett set themselves to invent a mode of
making horse-nails by machinery, which they trusted would not only produce a
thoroughly good nail, but would endure the test of daily use.
About three years since Mr. Moser consulted the author and asked him to advise
as to whether or not a third adventure of capital should be made.
Having thoroughly investigated the subject, including in this investigation an
inquiry into the causes of the two former failures, the author came to the conclusion
and advised that a trial (a commercial one, but on a small scale, to the extent of
about £5000 of outlay) should be given to this third invention of the Messrs.
Huggett. The advice was followed, and the result has been highly satisfactory,
the working of the process having proved a complete success.
The author then proceeds to describe the mode of manufacture now followed in
carrying out this third invention.
The material used is the Swedish charcoal iron nail-rod, which is heated in a
Siemens Regenerative Gas-furnace, a double furnace having two working doors
(attended by two men) at each end.
Six pieces of the nail-rod, in lengths of about 2 feet 6 inches, are charged into
the furnace at each working door. Thirty seconds suffice to raise them to a high
welding-heat.
The workman who has charged a parcel of rods then (by means of a pair of
tongs) takes out the pieces one by one and jerks them endways down an inclined
shoot, by which they are conducted to a pair of rolls, which seize them in suc-
cession as they are presented and roll them through. The author then points out
that these rolls, and the operations they perform upon the iron, are of the very
highest importance in the manufacture, that, in fact, they lie at the root of it.
The author then describes that the rolls are pattern-rolls, and are so constructed
that when working together they leave a channel or groove for the passage of the
nail-rod, which passage, while parallel and of uniform size, so far as regards its
sideway dimensions, varies in its height as the revolution of the rolls brings round
the different parts of their patterned surfaces. By the action of the patterned
surfaces, the rod which had entered the rolls a piece of mere parallel iron about
2 feet 6 inches long, leaves them as a rod of nail-blanks 7 feet in length, and made
up of numerous alternate prominences and depressions, occurring at distances apart
corresponding to the length of two nails, each prominence being intended for two
heads and each depression for two shanks.
Obviously a change of shape so violent must be done at a high heat; and,
looking at the small section of the iron, the only way to retain the heat during
the whole rolling is to run the rolls at a great velocity, so that there shall
212 . REPORT—1873.
not be time for the iron to cool. With this view the rolls are driven at as
many as 550 revolutions per minute, giving (the rolls being about 7 inches in
diameter) a surface speed of about 1000 feet.
The author then mentions how consecutive work is kept up by the two men
taking care to alternate their charges of rods into the furnace, so that while those
first put in are being rolled a second lot are heating. The operations of feeding
and of rolling each take thirty seconds.
The author then enters into certain mechanical details as to how the rolls are
arranged to support the endway strain put upon them by the attempt of the plastic
iron in the grooves to spread sideways under the vertical pressure.
The author then points out that it is an essential condition of obtaining good
work from pattern-rolls that they should not be overheated, that they should not
be injured by the nearly fluid oxide adhering to the heated iron, and that the
objects produced should be able to leave the rolls with facility. He then describes
how the Messrs. Huggett attained all these desiderata by causing a stream of coal-
tar to impinge upon the very channel or working chamber of the rolls, which
stream abstracts the heat, affords a lubricant, and at the same time supplies a film
(a lat microscopic one) of carbon between the heated iron and the surface of
the rolls,
The author next remarks upon the necessity of keeping such implements as
pattern-rolls in perfect repair, and states that with this object it has been wisely
determined never to allow the rolls to run for more than “one shift” without
adjustment; this being done daily, and being performed by the aid of appro-
priate tools, is a simple and expeditious operation, not more than 7}, of an inch
in thickness having to be removed.
The author then proceeds to describe that the heated rod of nail-blanks, after
they are shot out of the rolls into the receiving-tray, are pulled straight, and that
when cold they are presented, edgeways up, to the action of a pair of plain surface-
rollers, which press on the top of the prominences, and thus diminish their height
and proportionately increase their breadth, by which means the metal in the
prominences is made to project in the direction of the width of the shank of the
nail, as well as in the previous direction, that of its depth, and is thus disposed in
the most suitable manner to be subsequently formed into the heads.
The author then reverts to the employment in this manufacture of the Siemens
Regenerative Gas-furnace, and points out how essential it is that for rolling
(such as that which has been described) there should be none of that variation of
size which must occur by waste in an ordinary furnace; and he shows how, by the
ability which the Siemens furnace affords of giving not only a non-oxidizing but
even a reducing flame, the risk of waste is reduced to a minimum; and states, so
successful has the application of this apparatus been to this particular manufacture,
that the total of furnace and rolling-mill waste is only 3 per cent., which, looking
at the small size of the iron heated, and the large proportion the surface bears
therefore to the weight, is an almost incredibly favourable result.
The author then, proceeding with the description of the manufacture, states that
the flattened rods of nail-blanks are next taken to the cutting-machine, which has
three pairs of cutters, so that at each stroke it severs the rod through the pro-
minences, so as to cut out of each the future heads of two nails, and severs it
through the thin parts to produce the shanks of those nails, and the cut being on
a level forms at the same time the rudimentary point, while the third pair of
cutters shears off a small portion from the point, and thus regulates the nail to the
exact length.
The author then describes the peculiar contrivances by which perfect squaveness
of cut is obtained in these particular machines.
The separated nail-blanks, it is stated, are then examined, and any that may be
imperfect are thrown out. After this the perfect blanks are subjected to friction
one against another in a slowly revolving cylinder called a ‘ Rumbler,” after which
they are annealed, certain precautions rendered necessary by the character of the
material and the nature of the article to be produced being taken.
The author then describes the next process, the one that gives the true shape to
the head. This, it is stated, is done in a machine having a vertically reciprocating
—
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 2138
plunger, carrying the heading-tool, which operates upon the upper end of the blank,
spreading it out so as to fill a cavity of the shape of the head. Such a cavity is
formed in each one of a pair of dies, twelve in number, inserted about the periphery
of a strong bolster-wheel carried on a horizontal axis. The blanks to be headed
are fed by the attendant into the dies, and by the intermittent motion of the wheel
are brought at the right time under the action of the heading-tool. There is a
contrivance by which the halves of the disks are grasped firmly together while the
pressure is being put on the head; but this grasp is taken off after the head is
formed, so as to allow the headed blank to be readily discharged.
An efficient but simple mode of repairing the heading-dies is then pointed out.
After the heading the blanks are again annealed, and they are then taken to the
final machine, the shaping-machine.
The author describes that this machine is almost identical in its construction
with that of the “‘ Header,” the difference being that the heading-tool in the vertical
punch is replaced by one of a proper form to give the flat-way shape, while a pair
of side presses are added which produce the side-way finish.
After this operation the nails are submitted to a final examination, then to two
consecutive “rumblings,” the first one being with a gritty substance to produce
extra attrition ; and after these two “rumblings” the nails are taken to a revolving
cylinder, like a coffee-roaster, in which they are heated to such a temperature as
to produce a deep blue colour. They are then ready for the market.
The author concludes his paper by stating that the works, which are situated at
Nine Elms, near London, are provided with machinery which is now turning out
five tons of nails per week, that he understands that the machinery is speedily
about to be very much added to, to increase the production ; and he then expresses
his opinion that the result of the invention will be not only, as he trusts, a profit
to the spirited inventors and to the capitalist (Mr. Moser), but also a benefit to
the public, and a benefit even to the persons now employed in the hand manu-
facture of horse-nails, which, being a trade that demands scarcely any plant, is
earried.on in the cottages of the workpeople, is very badly remunerated, is the
subject of very great disturbances, in the way of trade disputes, and is altogether
in a most unsatisfactory condition, so far as regards both the remuneration and
comfort of the workpeople.
On the Nant-y-glo Coal-cutting Machine. By Dr. W. J. Curr.
: Progress of the Through Railway to India.
By Hyver Cranks, C.4., P.SS., Corr. Mem. Vienna Institution of Engineers.
In continuation of last year’s Report it was stated that in European Turkey 341
miles are open from Sarem Bey to Philipopoli, and Adrianople to Constantinople,
with a sea branch to Dedeh-Aghadj, in the archipelago. Beyond Constantinople,
in Asiatic Turkey, the line is at work to Ismid. The only gap is now between the
Austrian railways and Sarem Bey.
The alternative line is open from Banyaluka to Doberlin in Bosnia, and from
Keupruly to Salonika.
Reference was made to the old Persian concessions having passed into the hands
of Baron de Reuter, and to the preparations being made for proceeding with the
Russian connecting section from Reshd, on the Caspian, to Teheran.
On Brain’s System of Mining by means of Boring-machinery, Dynamite, and
Electric Blasting. By Samunt Davis.
Further Results on the Working of Locomotives with Heated Air and Steam.
By R. Eaton,
214 REPORT—1873.
On the “Duty” of Arrastres in reducing Gold Ore in Italy.
By C. Lu Neve Foster, B.A., D.Sc., F.GS.
After defining “duty ” as the percentage of the total gold contents extracted by
the machines, the author proceeded to give the results of experiments carried on
by him for three years (1869-72) at the Piedimulera Reduction Works, situated at
the foot of the Val Anzasca, and belonging to the Pestarena Gold-Mining Company.
The machines used for reducing the ore are improved arrastres, on a plan invented
by Messrs. T. and J. Roberts and H. Hoskings.
The ore for amalgamation, containing from 9 to 13 dwts. per ton, was very care-
fully sampled and assayed before it went to the arrastres. The average result for
the first year was, that the arrastres extracted 73°3 per cent. of the gold in the ore,
in the second year 78°5 per cent., and in the third year 82 per cent. The author
called attention to the fact that the average duty of the six winter months, when
the average temperature of the water supplied to the mills was 89° F., was always
higher than the average duty of the six summer months, when the average tempe-
rature of the water supplied ‘to the mills was 52°F. He considered that the fall in
duty for the summer months was due to the water being charged with mud from
the glaciers, whereas in winter the water was quite clear. The fact, however, was
instanced to show that high duties are quite compatible with cold water.
On the Irrigation of the Casale District. By P. Lu Neve Foster, Jun.
g y
On the Mechanical Treatment of Fibrous Substances, By 8, C. Lister.
On Napier’s Pressure Log*. By James R, Navier, FBS.
On Stone-dressing in Bradford. By ArcuipaLp Neri,
There is little machinery at work in the stone trade of the district ; for, although
stone-moulding and -dressing machines have been at work on Bath, Portland, and
other soft stones of the southern counties, they are not adapted to work the hard
stone of this district, the great grinding-power of the stone on the tools being a
considerable difficulty. We have the ordinary steam stone-saws, that are very
useful, enabling the builder to cut the stone in such a manner as always to secure
that when set in the building it shall be on its natural bed. At the same time
it is a great economizer of material, saving fully 10 per cent. Coulterand Harpin’s
and the ordinary rubbing-tables are in use, and answer well for flags, landings, and
common work. Still we want machines that will perform the more expensive
portions of masons’ work, such as moulding, sinking, and circular work, The
author exhibited sketches of four machines which he had coustructed—two for
working stone, and two for wood. Though simple, they are yet capable of doing
a considerable amount of work. In No. 1 the stone is placed on a travelling table,
and carried against the cutters held on a revolving wheel. ‘The stone is then cut
to a true face. The grind on the tool is considerable, but the expense in steel and
sharpening is not so much as in the ordinary masons’ chisel. The work is done
at one third the cost of hand labour. No. 2 machine is for rubbing stone to a true
and smooth face. The stone is roughly punched to a shape and fixed on a table.
This table is moved before the face of a revolving plate, while weights draw the
stone up against the face of the plate. Sand and water are put on, and the work
is done at about one third the cost of hand labour. This machine is simple and
cheap, and requires little power to drive it. The author concluded by exhibiting
drawings of two machines for working wood.
* Published 7m exfenso in the ‘Engineer’ for Oct. 3, 1873.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 215
On the Sand-Blast Process for Cutting and Ornamenting Stone, Glass, and
other Hard Substances. By W. E. Newton, C.E.
Tn this process a stream of sand is introduced into a rapid jet of steam or air so
as to acquire a high velocity, and is then directed upon any hard or brittle sub-
stance so as to cut or wear away its surface.
For work, such as cutting or ornamenting stone, where a considerable quantity
of material is to be removed, a steam-jet of from 60 to 120 Ibs. pressure has gene-
rally been used as the propelling agent. The sand is introduced by a central tube
of about j-inch bore, and the steam issues from an annular passage surrounding
the sand-tube. The impetus of the steam then drives the sand through a chilled iron
tube 4-inch bore and about 6 inches long, imparting velocity to it in the passage,
and the sand finally strikes upon the stone, which is held about 1 inch distant
when a deep narrow cut is desired, but may be 10 or 15 inches distant when a
broad surface is to be operated on.
This chilled iron tube is the only part of the apparatus which is worn away by
the cutting-action of the sand ; it is so arranged as to be easily replaced, and lasts
about ten hours.
To produce ornaments or inscriptions on stone, either in relief or intaglio, a
stencil or template of iron or caoutchouc is held on or cemented to the stone, and
the sand-jet is moved with an even and steady motion over the whole surface, so
that all the exposed parts may be operated upon and cut to the same depth.
The skill and time of the artist may be devoted exclusively to making the stencil
or template ; this being prepared, the most elaborate and intricate designs can be
cut as rapidly as the most simple. A template of cast iron-;8; inch thick will serve
to make 100 cuts %; inch deep in marble, and will then be worn down to about qs
inch thickness. Malleable iron templates last about four times as long as cast iron.
The durability of caoutchoue as compared with stone, under these circumstances,
is remarkable. A stencil made of a sheet of vulcanized caoutchoue about zs inch
thick, exposed to sand driven by 50 Ibs. steam at 2 feet distance, has lasted with
scarcely perceptible wear while 50 cuts were made in marble, each cut being about
zinch deep, or about 123 inches in all, or 200 times the thickness of the caoutchouc.
With a supply of steam equal to about 1} horse-power, at a pressure of about
100 Ibs., the cutting eflect per minute was about 12 cubic inch of granite, or 4 cubic
inches of marble, or 10 cubic inches of rather soft sandstone. To cut a face or level
surface on a rough stone, the sand-jet is made to cut a groove about 1 inch deep
along the whole length of the stone ; the overhanging edge is then broken off with
the hammer, and the jet is advanced an inch and a new groove is cut, and its
overhanging edge is broken off, and so on.
To cut a deep channel, as in quarrying, two jets set at divergent angles are used.
These jets make parallel grooves about 3 inches apart, leaving between them a
narrow fin or tongue of stone, which is broken off by a tool; the jets are then
advanced and new grooves cut. The sides of the channel are parallel, and it is
made wide enough to permit the whole jet-pipe to enter, so that it may be cut to
any desired depth, say 8 or 10 feet.
When effects of a more delicate nature are desired, as when engraving on glass,
only small quantities of material are to be removed; the blast of air from an ordi-
nary rotary fan will then be found sufficient as the propelling medium. :
Sand driven by an air-blast of the pressure of 4 inches of water will completely
ind or depolish the surface of glass in ten seconds.
If the glass be covered by a stencil of paper or lace, or by a design drawn in an
tough elastic substance, such as half-dried oil, paint, or gum, a picture will be
engraved on the surface by the impact of the sand on the exposed parts,
Photographic copies, in bichromated gelatin, from delicate line engravings, have
been thus faithfully reproduced on glass,
In photographic Shae in gelatin, taken from nature, the lights and shadows
produce films of gelatin of different degrees of thickness. A carefully regulated
sand-blast will act upon the glass beneath these films more or less powerfully in
proportion to the thickness of the films, and the half-tones or gradations of hight
and shade are thus produced on the glass.
216 REPORT—1873.
If we apply the sand-blast to a cake of resin on which a picture has been pro-
duced by photography in gelatin, or drawn by hand in oil or gum, the bare parts
of the surface may be cut away to any desired depth. The lines left in relief will
be well supported, their base being broader than their top, there being no under
cutting, as is apt to occur in etching on metal with acid.
An electrotype from this matrix can be printed from in an ordinary press as from
a stereotype plate.
The sand-blast has been applied to cutting ornaments in wood, cleaning metals
from sand, scale, &c., cleaning the fronts of buildings, graining or frosting metals,
cutting and dressing mill-stones, and a-variety of other purposes.
On the Burleigh Rock-drill. By Joun Puant, F.G.S.
On the Resistance of the Screw Propeller as affected by Inmersion*.
By Prof. Osporne Ruynoxps, M.A.
On the Friction of Shot as affected by different kinds of Rifling.
By Prof. Osnornze Reynotps, JA.
On the Economical Generation of Steam. By Roserr Surcrtrre.
The steam-boiler as at present constructed seems to be only partially adapted
for the economical generation of steam, and this because it is expected to fulfil
somewhat dissimilar conditions. It is required as a generator, as a reservoir, and
receptacle, and it must resist a pressure always in excess of that which it is intended
to put upon the steam-engine. Asa reservoir for steam it must have cubic capacity,
which of itself diminishes its power of resisting pressure ; and to enable it to resist
pressure the plates must be made stronger, and the additional thickness of metal
which is thus interposed between the fire and the water diminishes the efficiency
of the boiler as a generator of steam.
As the pressure is increased, the cubic capacity of the boiler must be reduced,
thus restricting the reservoir room; whilst if the reservoir space be enlarged, its
capability of resisting pressure is diminished ; it is thus found that incompatibilities
are involved, and that in trying to accomplish one object, another of primary im-
portance must be sacrificed.
It would therefore seem that the boiler ought to be treated as a compound
machine, and be constructed with adjuncts, so that each part may perform its appro-
riate functions, and separately contribute to the efficiency of the boiler in its three-
old capacity as a generator, as a reservoir, and as a vessel capable of containing
steam at a great pressure.
Where intermittent and irregular motion only is required, large steam spaces
may not be of much importance; but in spinning-mills, where extreme and unin-
termitting steadiness of motion is required, considerable steam space is indis-
pensable, for the reason that a reservoir of force is as necessary in the boiler as a
reservoir of motion is necessary in the fly-wheel of the steam-engine.
The boiler which combines the maximum of advantages with the minimum of
drawbacks for mill purposes seems to be the ordinary double-flued Lancashire
boiler, strongly made and double-riveted and about seven feet in diameter, and
with the flues well filled with Galloway tubes, upon which the heat impinges at
as ie and being intercepted is at once communicated to the water inside
the boiler.
This boiler is in itself a good generator ; it affords the requisite reservoir room for
steam, and can be made to stand a considerable pressure. It is simple in construe-
tion, and accessible in all its parts for cleaning and other purposes; but of itself it
* Published in the ‘Engineer’ for Oct. 3, 1873.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 217
cannot intercept and utilize all the heat which is produced, no inconsiderable
ortion of which escapes into the waste-flue, and thence to the chimney. This
eat should be intercepted and utilized by a series of pipes placed in the flue, so
that the minimum quantity may find its way to the chimney. Wrought-iron
steam-tubing is the best for this purpose; it will stand a great pressure, and the
metal being thin, the waste heat is at once communicated to the feed-water inside
the pipes ; and, further, wrought-iron pipes do not incur much liability to fracture
on account of alternating temperature, or from any uncertain or violent action of
the pumps, or misadventure from other causes.
In thus endeavouring to utilize fuel to the utmost, other difficulties present
themselves. The chimney-draft is produced by hot air; and if this heat is arrested,
chilled, and absorbed by coming into contact with obstacles in the shape of pipes,
the surfaces of which are kept comparatively cold by the feed-water inside, the
chimney-draft is correspondingly diminished and injured; and if the heat were
altogether absorbed, there would be no chimney-draft at all; therefore, in many
cases, the injury to the draft is the direct measure of the utility of the appliances
for the absorption of the waste heat. In this contingency it is well to have recourse
to the fan-blast to improve the draft, and thus to supply the requisite quantity of
oxygen by mechanical means.
[ have learnt from experience that machine firing with the aid of the fan-blast is
the most effective. The fuel is supplied continuously, ignition is more regular and
intense, and the chill and consequent destruction of heat caused by frequently
opening the furnace-doors is avoided. Steam is raised with a greater certainty
and at less cost both in fuel and wages by this mode of. firing. There is also an
economy in grate-bars, and greater facility in preventing and consuming smoke.
To assist the fireman in preventing smoke, it is well to have a reflector of plate
glass fixed in some convenient place outside the building, so that he may see at any
moment and at a glance how the chimney top is behaving. No eflicient work can
be performed without good tools, and these in return require the care and watchful
intelligence of the workman.
We cannot economize fuel to the utmost without proportionately diminishing the
power of the boiler as a generator of steam. If the boiler be furiously fired without
any regard to economy in fuel, all other things being equal, more steam will be
raised, though at a greater cost, than if the firing were done carefully. If the heat
be extracted to the utmost possible extent, the boiler of necessity does less work,
and the steam raised is less in quantity ; and a similar fact appears in the economical
utilization of steam in the steam-engine. In the boiler, as in the engine, conflicting
conditions arise, that whilst we seek to satisfy the one, we of necessity sacrifice the
other. In the production of heat it may also be borne in mind that the engine is a
valuable adjunct to the boiler, to which it may be made to restore a portion of its
waste heat, which has already done its work as a motive power.
The Economical Utilization of Steam. By Roserr Surciirre.
The primary object which the steami-engine has to secure in spinning- and
Weaving-mills is extreme regularity and steadiness of motion; compared with this
economy in fuel, important though it be, is a subordinate consideration. Thus,
whilst theory tells us to use one engine only with enlarged cylinder area, a pair of
engines working at right angles give a steadiness of motion and equability of
pressure unattainable in the other case; hence the pair is adopted, and the theo-
retical advantages of a single engine are discarded. When steam is used at a high
degree of expansion with a single engine, the irregularity of motion is in many
eases painfully apparent. Weight and velocity in the fly-wheel may diminish
the defect, but cannot entirely neutralize it; but with a pair of engines we can
work with high expansion combined with great steadiness of motion. Where
steadiness of motion is not of primary importance, economy in fuel may be the
first consideration. In this case we may work with a single engine with steam
ut upon the piston at high pressure, cut off early in the stroke and wrought to a
igh degree of expansion. But here our finest calculations are rudely interrupted
1873, 15
218 REPORT—1878.
in practice. The engine at a certain pressure and a certain cut-off and at a certain
velocity may be calculated to do its work at the greatest economy in steam; but
if the exigencies of trade require more work to be got out of the engine, these con-
ditions are at once disturbed, and the theoretical mechanic tells me that I am not
upon the best footing. The precaution must also be taken that the engine must
in all cases be above its work; but whether above or below its work a theoretical
drawback is involved: if underweighted to begin with, the load, as a rule, is
bit by bit increased until it is overweighted; and this, not that the manufac-
turer is ignorant, but that he has sacrificed theoretical advantages to the exigencies
of his trade,
Where steadiness of motion is required, it seems preferable to use a pair instead
of a single engine; and it is advantageous algo to use the steam expansively up to
a certain point, although by so doing the mechanical result obtainable from the
engine is proportionately diminished. Where high pressures are used it is better
to have a compound engine, using the steam throughout the double stroke by
means of a smaller cylinder exhausting into a larger one. To arrange differently
involves a great waste of metal in the engine, and very heavy pressure i Se the
bearings, especially when close to the dead centres; for the engine must be con-
structed to resist the maximum strain, even though it be during an inconsiderable
portion of the stroke only. Iam acquainted with a case where hich pressure, high
rate of expansion, combined with great steadiness of motion were required ; and in
order that this threefold object should be accomplished, a pair of condensing-engines
were compounded with a pair of high-pressure engines, the four engines working
all in a block, each engine receiving only its own strain, and all coupled together
by means of the pinions upon the line-shaft. Here we have four engines dividing
amongst them, with the most satisfactory results, the work which might be done
by a ae engine of larger dimensions. The strain is equalized over the different
cranks, fly-wheel, shafts, segments, wheels, and bearings ; there is the most exqui-
site steadiness of motion, great economy of fuel, and a complete absence of break-
downs and accidents. These four engines have now been working in combination
several years without accident or breakdown ; and this, in itself, is no slight advan-
tage. Greater economy in steam might be realized by cutting off earlier in the
stroke, and more work might be got from the engine by cutting off later; but it is
not always easy, neither may it be desirable, to alter existing arrangements. The
fact which has already been noted in the boiler reappears in the steam-engine—
that by economizing fuel to the utmost less work is got out of the boiler, so by
economizing steam to the utmost, less work is got out of the steam-engine. If the
pressure upon the piston be 60 lbs. to the inch continued throughout the entire
stroke, the maximum amount of work is got from the engine ; but in this case there
is no gain from expansion : but if the initial pressure be 60 lbs., and the cut-off be at
one eighth of the stroke, the gain from expansion is considerable; but the average
pressure is 23 lbs. only, being considerably less than half the work which the
engine is able and which it was constructed to perform. very part of the engine
will have been made to stand safely the maximum pressure of 60 lbs., without
which it would break to pieces at once; the difference between this and the
minimum is so much strength thrown away. Thus we find that, like every thing
else in the world, economy itself must be purchased, and sometimes at too great
a cost; for even as regards expansion there is a limit at which it ceases to be
profitable.
The steam-engine may be made into a valuable adjunct to the boiler as an instru-
ment for the generation of heat, by retaining and restoring to the boiler a consi-
derable portion of the waste heat, which has already done its work as a motive
power. Primarily this is done by using a portion of the injection-water; but the
beneficial result may be considerably enhanced by causing this water to travel
through a series of copper pipes which receive the impact of the steam on its
passage from the cylinder to the condenser. A considerable amount of waste heat
may thus be recovered and utilized, and the injection-water itself is also correspond-
ingly economized.
Compounding under its different aspects is here recommended ; nor is there any
thing in it opposed to scientific or mechanical simplicity. Compound the boiler
SS
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 219
proper with its attendant economizer; compound the steam-engine by its high
pressure and condensing-cylinders; compound the motion, and thus render it
more equable, by having a pair of engines; and compound the condenser in order
to recover and utilize the waste heat from the steam and return it to the boiler in
the feed-water additionally heated. These plans and combinations have success-
fully stood the test of a lengthened experience, and they are hereby recommended
for public use.
On the Centre-rail Railway. By W. Cavn Tuomas.
This differs from other projects bearing a similar title, in which carriages ana
engines are swung, pannierwise, on either side of a raised rail, beam, or wire.
Mr. Thomas has utilized the scientific principles which maintain the bicycle
and its rider balanced when in motion. In Mr. Thomas’s central-rail railway the
engine and carriages are on a level with, or above, the central rail, and run upon
double-flanged wheels ranged in one line down the longitudinal centre of the train.
Balance-wheels, which may be applied in several different ways, are only used to
prevent undue swaying What the train is in motion, or to preserve its balance
when starting or stopping.
The central rail in combination with two lines of wooden sleepers, parallel with
and slightly lower in their level than the central rail, to receive the touch of side
balance-wheels, is the form recommended for the colonies. In this case three lines
of metals, of the same level, are laid for some little distance in and out of stations.
On the Prevention of Incrustation in Steam-Boilers. By Joun Waveu.
On the Advancement of Science by Industrial Invention.
By Tuomas Wenster, Q.C., F.B.S.
On the Assimilation of the Patent Systems of Great Britain and of the
United States. By Tuomas Wesster, 9.C., B.S,
On a Form of Channel Steamer. By Joun Wurre.
On the History, Progress, and Description of the Bowling Ironworks*.
By Josnrx Witucock, Chief Engineer.
There are several indications in the Bradford district that iron was manufactured
here at a remote period of antiquity. It is believed that the Romans both got and
worked ironstone in the neighbourhood. Dr. Richardson, the eminent botanist,
writing to Hearne nearly 200 years ago, stated that iron was made in the neigh-
bourhood of Bierley, two or three miles from Bradford, in the time of the Romans,
as upon a heap of cinders being removed to repair the highway there, he had dis-
covered a quantity of copper Roman coins. The ironstone cropped out in several
laces, and in many others it lay very near the surface, so that with making “bell
BS ” there would be no difficulty in getting the ironstone. Within a few miles of
radford there are at work the old established and still flourishing works of
Kirkstall Forge, which claim to have been the first establishment to use rolls
for slitting iron into nail-rods, this process having been carried on there so far
back as the year 1594, Thus Bradford and the district may claim to have made
Roman implements of warfare, and most probably Saxon, Norman, and old English
‘ones likewise. In fact this department was carried on up to a very recent period,
when the Bowling and Low-Moor Works manufactured cast-iron guns and mortars,
* The parer will be published ix extenso by the Bowling Ironworks Company.
15*
220 REPORtT—1873.
At or about 1784 James Watt was completing his invention of a rotary motion
steam-engine, the introduction of which was only required to inaugurate a new era
in the history of the iron trade. It was about this time that the Bowling Iron-
works were commenced, the first furnace being blown in in the year 1788. Even
before that date, however, we have records of some part of the works being in
existence, and doing a limited trade in foundry and smith work. But as works
for the smelting of ores, they date from the year 1788, three years in advance of
the sister works at Low Moor. This was the beginning of the trade of the best
Yorkshire irons, now so famous for their qualities through the entire civilized
world. The Bowling Ironworks may properly be considered, therefore, the pioneer
of that great prosperity which has rendered Bradford famous amongst the commer-
cial marts of the world.
The population of the borough when the Bowling works were started could only
have been about 10,000, as thirteen years later (in 1801) it was not more than 13,264,
whereas the present population is over 150,000, The establishing of works of this
kind, at which employment for a considerable number of men would be ensured,
must at that period have been regarded as an event of much importance. John
Sturges, of Sandal, Wakefield, an ironmaster of repute, was the first to broach the
idea of establishing ironworks on the ground they now stand, and to his know-
ledge of the necessary minerals to produce a superior iron is to be attributed the
choice of the situation.
The engine originally erected for blowing purposes was burnt down a few years
after it had been at work, and was replaced by the one called the ‘Old Blast
Engine ” now existing. This was considered to be a great improvement upon the
first one, as the valve-gear was made self-acting. Below the engine, and con-
structed in massive masonry work, was made the air-chamber for equalizing the
pressure of the blast. A bar-mill and a plate-mill were started soon afterwards,
and were also driven by a steam-engine, a considerable portion of which was con-
structed on the spot. We find it stated in Smiles’s ‘ Lives of Boulton and Watt’
that notice was given to the Bowling Ironworks, near Bradford, of proceedings
against the company for the recovery of dues. On this the Bowling Company
offered to treat, and young Watt went down to Leeds for the purpose of meeting
the representatives of the Bowling Company on the subject. On the 24th February,
1796, he wrote his friend Matthew Robinson Boulton as follows :—“ Enclosed you
have a copy of the treaty of peace, not amity, concluded at Leeds on Saturday last
between me, Minister Plenipotentiary to your Highness on the one part, and the
Bowling Pirates in person on the other part. I hope you will ratify the terms, as
you will see they are founded entirely upon the principle of indemnity for the past
and security for the future.” On referring to the private ledger of these works of
pe Aa we find that the treaty of peace referred to was purchased at the price
0 : en:
The substratum around Bowling is part of the most extensive and valuable coal-
field in England, stretching from Derby or Nottingham to this district, a distance
of sixty miles, and ranging about eight miles broad. The seam of coal called the
“better bed,’ which is one of the valuable elements necessary for the production
of the best quality of iron, is seated upon a peculiar hard siliceous sandstone termed
“ oalliard,” immediately above the black-bed coal, and resting upon it is an argil-
laceous stratum of the mean thickness of two yards, in which lies imbedded, in
irregular layers, the valuable ironstone of this district. The stone wears a dark
brown appearance, and yields about 32 per cent. of iron. Both coals are cakine
coals, and moderately hard. The ash of the black-bed coal is of a dark purple gold
colour, similar to roasted pyrites. This coal contains a very large percentage of
pyrites in a state of intimate mixture in the coal, so that it cannot be seen; the
ash fuses readily, is slightly alkaline (due to lime), and contains sulphide of iron
and a very large quantity of oxide. The works comprise six cold-blast furnaces
from which about 360 tons of pig-iron are run per week, five refineries, twenty-one
puddling-furnaces, forty heating-furnaces, an extensive forge, a tyre-mill for rolling
steel and iroa weldless tyres, one guide-mill, one bar-mill, with 15-in. rolls, and
two plate-mills. A third new plate-mili is nearly completed. The powerful
reyersing-enzines to give motion to this mill are on the principle introduced by
es
—.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 221
Mr. John Ramsbottom, late of Crewe Works; and when the mill is completed,
plates can be rolled of the largest superficial area ever yet attempted. There
are also extensive steelworks for making crucible steel, having about 100 pot-
furnaces, which are now in process of extension and improvement by the erection
of new furnaces on the Siemens and Siemens-Martin principle, to be worked
by Siemens’s regenerative gas-furnaces. Engineering works comprise foundry,
smithy, boiler-fitting, millwright, wheelwright, and fitting shops.
The Bowling Company itself supplies almost all the coal and ironstone which it
consumes, its collieries extending five or six miles in various directions, and the
main pits being connected together and with the ironworks by tramways worked
with wire ropes. The total length of these tramways is 21 miles, the number of
pits 42, and the number of hands employed in them is more than 2000. To work
the pits 61 steam-engines are required, having cylinders varying from 7 to 70 inches
in diameter, and to supply them with steam 81 steam-boilers are required of from
10- to 50-horse power each. In the ironworks are 3 blast-engines, with blowing
cylinders varying from 76 to 84 inches in diameter, and 14 engines of from 20- to
G0-horse power, to give motion to the various machines, besides numerous small
engines driving separate machines and pumping water for the boilers. The number
of steam-hammers is 13, and helve-hammers 2. The supply of steam is main-
tained by 33 boilers, of from 20- to 50-horse power each. The number of hands
employed at the ironworks is upwards of 1000, thus making a total of upwards of
3000. The yield per cent. on the raw ore is 32 per cent. of iron, and on the calcined.
ore 42 per cent. of iron. The following are the relative quantities of minerals for
producing one ton of Bowling pig-iron:—Raw ore, 3 tons 3 ewt. 3 qrs. 27 lbs. ;
calcined ore, 2 tons 7 cwt. 1 qr. 26 Ibs.; limestone ore, 18 ewt. 2 qrs. 12 lbs.; coke
ore, 2 tons 5 ewt. 0 qr. 9 lbs. The quantity of pig-iron used to produce one ton
of bar-iron (finished) is 1 ton 12 cwt. 1 qr. 25 Ibs. The limestone is obtained from
Skipton, and is called locally “Skipton old rock.”
The following is an analysis of Bowling pig-iron :—
per cent.
Carbon as praphite.,....cseeeseeersees S361
Carbon combined ...... busts: aster fell: atte 393
Sulit’ \e6eaobedu pdonacdes fe SEBO op ae 1:382
liar Sh see ao adeae ope piety cis oe icioheh uy ¢ . 92:952
Manganese ........ Me sieae baba Otis ako: derateds 1-475
MEMOS PWOMUS eessn cideceieleisindels Gisi<inete ase « 602
Silly Gag Reooeh ned oodomen Cpe oe oes 065
PUGATL INS west or istnisie rosa. 5 Heeret ae anya ats av 2, trace
100°152
The sulphur in all the samples varies only very slightly, and may in fact be con-
sidered identical, the difference in the results not being more than those due to the
errors of experiment. The phosphorus in all the samples exists in precisely the
same quantity, the whole of this element present in the ore combining with the
iron. The author exhibited a sketch of the original blast-furnace at Bowling, now
in existence, and working to within two or three weeks, presuming it might be
interesting to some of the members of the Association. He has heen told by some
of the oldest inhabitants of Bowling that there was only one tuyere at first; but
two have now been used for many years, the nozzles being 24 in. diameter, and
the pressure of blast supplied to this and the other furnaces 32 ounces. The iron
for plates and bars is taken direct to the refineries or oxidizing hearths. The
metal is placed upon the hearth, covered with coke, and a blast is forced over the
surface. Two tons of refined or plate metal are produced from each charge, which
isrun into moulds cooled by water, the refined metal being ahout 2 inches thick
and 12 feet long by 4 feet broad. From the refineries the plate, or refined metal,
is taken to the puddling-furnaces for conversion into malleable iron in the usual
manner, by charges of about 3cwt. at a time, and each puddling-furnace is charged
ten times a day. The quality of the iron necessitates more attention from the
puddler than the commoner classes of iron; and to insure the extra attention and
222 rnePport—1873,
a uniform quality, a premium is given to the puddlers who haye produced the best
specimens during a turn. The puddled iron is taken under the steam-hammer to
knock out the slag and impurities, and is made into what are called “stampings”
and “nobblins.” The stampings are broken into several pieces under fall-hammers,
piled, heated, taken under a steam-hammer, and made into blooms or billets, in
which state they are taken to the bar- or guide-mill, reheated, and rolled into round
or square bars, angle-irons, rods, or such other shapes as may be required, The
nobblins are piled, heated, taken under the steam-hammer, and made into blooms
or slabs of various sizes, and afterwards to the plate-mill, where they are reheated
and rolled into plates. From stampings are made the Bowling-iron weldless tyres,
A hole about 5 inches in diameter is punched through the centre of the bloom,
forming it into a ring of iron. The ring thus made is hooked on the back of an
anvil, and is hammered with a suitably aha hammer-head to raise up the flange,
the ring being constantly rotated on the beck between the blows of the hammer,
so that all parts may be evenly worked. At the end of this process the ring begins
to have some rodemiblenes to a tyre, and is then rolled out.
The steelworks were erected in the year 1866, and the steel manufactured is
crucible steel, produced in the ordinary manner in furnaces heated by coke. The
iron used is scrap from Bowling plates, and its conversion into steel is effected by
the addition of suitable quantities of carbon, chiefly introduced by Spiegeleisen,
and also by a mixture of steel scrap. Of the steel produced, a part is used for
making tyres from ingots in a similar manner to iron tyres and general forgings ;
and a considerable portion is used for making castings of all descriptions, where
strength, with lightness, is the desideratum. Arrangements are now being made,
and are partly completed, for applying Siemens’s gas process for melting the
crucible steel in suitable furnaces; and a Siemens-Martin’s furnace is also in
course of erection for the conversion of pig-iron into steel, which will produce four
tons of steel at one operation. ‘
The engineering is done in an extensive range of buildings, where the whole
of the work and new plant required to keep the collieries and works described in
repair are made. This department is also devoted to the construction of engines,
boilers, &c. for the market. In the model-room (one of the finest in the country)
is a model from which the first wheel was cast for Blenkinsop’s locomotive. The
boiler-shop is now being extended, so as to be capable of promye from two to
three boilers per week, besides all descriptions of plate-flanging. The foundry
has been recently rebuilt upon the old site.
The distinguished qualities of the Bowling iron are hardness with great plia-
bility, homogeneity and uniformity of texture, capability of withstanding the action
of fire and of receiving a brilliant polish, it being used extensively in the Sheffield
trades on account of the last-named virtue. Works established in the infancy of
the iron trade, and producing a superior quality of metal (quality being always
preferred to quantity whenever the alternative presented itself), must naturally be
disposed to conservatism. Besides, repeated experiences have proved the necessity
of keeping to the original mode of working with the minerals and iron. It is
rarely known to what purposes or tests the iron may be put to on leaving the
premises ; but it is known that it will have to withstand usage such as no common
iron or any other iron but charcoal iron perhaps could do, and it was for the latter
that the Howling iron was originally manufactured as a substitute. Keeping in
view the production of a uniform quality, changes of whatever description have
been jealously regarded, and those that have been made have only been arrived at
by very gradual stages.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 223
APPENDIX.
Notes of some Experiments on the Conducting-powers for Heat of certain Rocks,
with Remarks on the Geological Aspects of the Investigation. By Prof. A. 8.
Herscurt and G. A. Lesour, /.G.S.
A subject of considerable interest in a physical and geological point of view, as
illustrating the questions of underground temperature that have recently occupied
the attention of a Committee of the British Association, presented itself as open to
much more extensive experimental investigation than perhaps, from the absence
of any immediate practical applications of its results, it has hitherto been thought
worthy to receive. The object which the authors of this communication proposed
to themselves was to determine experimentally the actual conducting-powers for
heat of as many well-defined and commonly occurring species of geological rocks as
they could conveniently obtain, and submit to the test of some suitable and practical
method of experiment. A collection of more than twenty specimens of rocks of the
best-marked descriptions were for this purpose selected at the well-known Marble
and Stone Works at Newcastle-on-Tyne, of Messrs. Walker, Emley, and Beall,
who at the same time undertook to reduce the blocks (together with some addi-
tional materials obtained elsewhere) to a uniform size and shape, to which they are
all gauged with the greatest care. The plates are circular, five inches in diameter
and half an inch thick, and were thus chosen as being nearly of the same dimensions
as those employed by Peclet in his investigations of the conducting-powers of
various substances for heat. Considerable labour and risk, however, is incurred in
working plates of granite and the harder stones of such thinness ; and (as the result
has shown) the measurements of their heat-conducting powers woul have been
rendered both more exact and easier had a thickness of about one inch instead of
half an inch been adopted for the plates. A list of the specimens employed is
annexed below ; and it will be seen that among rocks of very wide distribution but
of more friable materials, as chalk, coal, sand, or marl, and some more recent sedi-
mentary contributions to the earth’s crust, no attempt to include them in these
measurements has yet been made.
The purpose of the present note is simply to establish from the preliminary ob-
servations the general BAD conducting-powers of the harder rocks, and to corro-
borate, in the case of a few examples that were numerically reduced, the conclusions
of a similar description that were obtained by Peclet.
Description of the Apparatus.—In order to heat the rocks, a flat-topped circular
tin boiler was provided of the same diameter as the rock plates, upon which they
could be laid so as to be exposed on their lower side to the heat of boiling water.
The steam produced by the water at the bottom of the boiler rises through a central
tube to the top, where it circulates in a steam-space formed hy a perforated dia-
phragm placed round the top of the tube, and it emerges from the side of the boiler
at the bottom of the annular space formed between the boiler and the central tube.
The upper part of the boiler is surrounded to about an inch in depth (the depth
of the steam-space) by a thick ring of wood resting upon a projecting ledge of the
boiler, and protecting it, as well as the slab of rock placed inside it upon the flat
lid of the boiler, from loss of heat to the surrounding air. The ring of wood pro-
jects above the rock so as to receive a flat-bottomed tin vessel (shaped like a conical
flask) of water, of the same diameter as the rock plate at the base, and contracting
at the top to a narrow neck, in which a thermometer is inserted by a cork. When
the apparatus is in use, a light packing of cotton-wool is inserted between the
wooden ring and its contents, to keep them more effectually from contact with the
outer air.
Mode of conducting the Experiments, and thetr Results. —The‘heat-conducting power
of a substance being measured by the quantity of heat that passes through a plate
of it of known thickness and cross section at a given difference of temperature
between its two faces of which the interval can be measured, it might at first be
224. REPORT—1873.
supposed that by including the rock to be tested between the temperature of boiling
water on one side, and that of spring-cold water in the thermometer flask on the
other side, the required conditions of a known difference of temperature would be
attained, while the rate of ascent of the thermometer in the colder vessel at the
same time marks the quantity of heat transmitted. But so far are the two surfaces
of the rock specimens from taking up the temperatures of the metal plates with
which they are in contact, that, with the rough means of determining their real tem-
eratures which were first employed, no sensible difference whatever could be observed
ied them! The small difference which without doubt exists is sufficient to
transmit the small quantity of heat which passes, and the whole rock plate assumes
very nearly the mean degree of temperature between that of the boiler on one side,
and of the cold-water flask onits otherside. In this state of uncertainty regarding
the effective difference of temperature, it is quite obvious that no conclusions of the
nature of a numerical comparison can be made between the various rock sections ;
but a trial of each was yet made in the apparatus in order to determine the rate of
flow of the transmitted heat.
Out of six specimens thus tried, slate plates cut parallel to the plane of cleavage
transmitted the heat faster than any of the others. When the flow of heat had
become uniform, the water was raised 1° F. in thirty-two seconds. With marble,
sandstone, granite, and serpentine, about thirty-nine seconds were required to raise
it by the same amount. The greatest resistance to the passage of heat was offered
by two specimens of shale (grey and black) from the Coal-measures in the neigh-
bourhood of Newcastle, which occupied forty-eight or fifty seconds in raising the
water one degree, or half as long again as the time taken by the plate of slate.
The black shale is highly fossiliferous, and it allows heat to pass more slowly
than the other harder and more compact grey species of the same kind of
rock.
These experiments were not extended further, as uncertainty regarding the real
temperatures to which the surfaces of the plates were exposed introduced an un-.
known element into the question of their conducting-powers. Some experiments,
however, were made, which makes it probable that this difficulty can be removed.
It was found that the flow of heat is very little diminished by lifting the slabs of
rock off the heating plate, and also separating them to various distances from the
thermometric flask by introducing felt wads of a few different thicknesses between
the surfaces. A film of air (as already observed by Peclet, or of water if steam or
water is used to heat the plates) adheres to and protects their surfaces by its bad
conducting-power from becoming hot or cold, and thus opposes a certain resistance
to the passage of the heat. It is not improbable that the resistance thus produced
is the same for fresh cut and smoothly ground surfaces of all the different kinds of
rock; and by using different thicknesses of one of them its amount might be deter-
mined and employed as a correction in estimating the conducting-powers of all the
other kinds of rock subjected to the trials. Although the results of this method
would certainly be of the greatest interest in connexion with many practical con-
trivances for transmitting heat from liquid or gaseous to solid bodies, and the
reverse, yet a less circuitous method, as affording the desired results more speedily
to present them to the British Association, seemed to be preferable, and the follow-
ing direct observations were therefore adopted in their stead.
A slender iron wire was joined at its two ends by twisting them on to two pieces
of similar platinum wire, which were connected by long copper wires with the
terminals of a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer provided with a millimetre scale.
When the two platinum and iron junctions were warmed to different degrees, the
galyanometer showed the difference between their temperatures on its scale. The
twisted junctions were fastened on the tops of two small corks, so that they could
be pressed against the surfaces of the rock; and in one arrangement the corks were
attached to the heating and cooling plates of the heat-apparatus, and the thermo-
electric couples were thus supported by the corks so as to touch the rocks. In this
position they recorded the state of temperature of the plate of stone in situ, while
the heat conducted through it was at the same time being measured by the ther-
mometer, The divisions of the galyanometer scale were themselyes estimated in
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 225
Fahrenheit degrees by inserting a double tin lid between the corks, under the two
opposite faces of which water of different degrees of temperature was made to cir-
culate, and the temperature of the water was made known by thermometers inserted
in the lids. The other arrangement consisted in fixing the corks to the ends of a
pair of wooden tongs, so that the rock plate could be pressed between them as soon
as it was taken off the heater. It was in a first trial of this last arrangement that
no perceptible signs of heat-difference could be observed between the rock-faces.
To increase the actual difference, however, the edge of one of the stone plates was
surrounded with a band of paper, and the upper surface was then covered with
mercury, upon which the thermometer-flask was placed, this having also been filled
with mercury instead of water to accelerate conduction. On taking the rock (a
plate of white marble) out of the apparatus after this treatment, and testing its
thermal difference with the galvanometer, it was found that one surface was about
7° F. hotter than the other, while the flask containing 9 lbs. of mercury was
heated 1° F. in about ten seconds. This corresponds to the passage of 330 heat-
units per hour through a 1-inch plate of the same rock (1 square foot in surface-area),
with the same difference of temperature on its opposite sides of about 7°F. Fora
difference of 1° the transmission of heat in the same time would be 47 heat-units,
while the value obtained by Peclet for fine-grained white marble was 28 heat-units
per hour. It is evident that some of the difference of temperature between the sur-
faces of the plate subsided and disappeared in lifting it out of the heating-apparatus
and transferring it to the galvanometer, so as to make the conducting-power of the
plate appear to be about halfas great again as its known value. The galvanometer,
which at first marked 7°, rapidly sank to zero as the rock was moved about between
the cork projections.
The other disposition of the iron-platinum couples (on corks fixed to the heating
and absorbing plates) touching the rock-surfaces during the heating operation, was
found to introduce errors in the opposite direction by showing, apparently from the
conducting-power of the cork supports, greater temperature differences of the sur-
faces than can reasonably be supposed to have existed. Thus with the same plate
of white marble a temperature difference of 50° F. was recorded, instead of 7° F,
asin the former case; while 264 heat-units per hour was the rate of conduction
through a plate of standard size for that difference, corresponding to only 51 heat-
units for a difference of one degree, and not exceeding a fifth part of the value found
by Peclet. The same process was tried with the two kinds of shale, and showed, as
before, that their conducting-power is much less than that of fine-grained marble,
the quantities found for their conducting-powers being 24 and 2 heat-units per
hour, or less than half as great as that of marble. The heat-conducting power of
ordinary calcareous stone is similarly found by Peclet to be about half as great as
that of fine-grained marble, the latter varying between 22 and 28, and the former
between 11 and 13; and the results of further trials will, without doubt, confirm
more closely the exact values which he assigns.
Had time allowed the experiments to be repeated with a new arrangement of
the apparatus, the sources of error peculiar to each of the above methods would
have been readily removed, as their origin is in each case easily explained; and
another series will be undertaken with the excellent collection of rock sections that
have now been provided for them. In drawing up this description of the first trials
to which they were subjected, it is sufficiently interesting to observe that not only
the relative values but also the absolute quantities of the heat-conducting powers
of different substances obtained by Peclet are approximately confirmed, since certain
kinds of stone are found to have less than half the conducting-powers of other kinds ;
and in the case of marble the quantity of heat passing through a square-foot plate
one inch thick per hour, with a difference of 1° F, between the opposite faces, was
found in two trials (giving the conductivity respectively in excess and defect) to be
between 42 or 47 and 5 or 7 heat-units, while the value of certain marbles found
by Peclet varied from 22 to 28 heat-units, The corresponding numbers obtained
by Peclet for certain metals, as copper, iron, and lead, are 515, 288, 113 heat-units
per hour, or many times greater than those of terrestrial rocks. The latter
occupy an intermediate place between the metals and such substances as the various
226 REPORT-——1873,
kinds of wood, of which the conducting-power is between 1 and 2 heat-units
per bourne fees os poe, ‘ :
The following is a list of the rocks of which circular sections of the above uniform
size have been provided for this examination :—
1. Grey (Aberdeenshire) granite. 13. Kilkenny fossil marble.
2. Red Cornish serpentine. 14. Frosterly fossil marble.
3. Green Cornish serpentine. 15. Cumberland (Dent) marble.
4, Whinstone. 16. Congleton second gritstone.
5. Gannister. 17. Red Galashiels sandstone.
6. Slate (parallel to the cleavage). 18. Kenton sandstone.
7. English alabaster. 19. Heworth sandstone.
8. Italian white-veined marble. 20. Prudham sandstone.
9. Sicilian white-veined marble. 21. Fossiliferous black from near
10. Devonshire red marble. shale. New-
11. Cork red marble. 22, Common grey shale. castle.
12. Irish green marble. A: @ieesdase,
The foregoing observations are not only of very great interest from a purely
physical point of view, but I venture to think havea certain geological importance,
especially as regards underground temperature and all the numerous geological
problems depending on it. Even with the meagre array of actual readings which
it has been possible to arrive at in time for this Meeting, certain results have been
obtained which give, I think, great promise of the value of these investigations when
we carry them on with the modified apparatus already described. It will scarcely
be necessary at this early stage of the work to do more than call the attention of
the Section to its theoretical bearings as regards geology.
In the first place, it seems to be proved by our experiments that the conducting-
pe of different rocks varies strictly according to their lithological character.
ery crystalline rocks, such as granite and serpentine and statuary marble, allowed
heat to pass rapidly through them; slate plates, with their uncrystalline compact
structure, had a still higher degree of conductivity. The crystalline nature of a
rock alone is not, therefore, the lithological test of its conductivity. The lowest
powers of conductivity were found to belong, among the specimens experimented
on, to shale; the black shale, which was lower than the grey, is softer and more
argillaceous than it, the grey shale having a considerable admixture of arenaceous
matter and mica. The difference, however, between these two was so slight that,
in the present preliminary researches, when much must be allowed to error, it may
be left out of consideration altogether, It would appear, then, from these facts,
that a certain compactness, accompanied by cleavage, is favourable to the passage of
heat through rocks ; and if it be admitted that what is true for small thicknesses
is also true for great ones, we may be justified in supposing that the vast masses of
clay-slate, and perhaps to a still greater extent their more metamorphosed and
crystalline schists (which we know to extend to great depths), are so many points
of weakness which must have their influence in the secular cooling of the earth.
On the other hand, points of resistance may be assumed to exist and to be formed by
the great sedimentary accumulations of shale, and probably also of clay and other
argillaceous unaltered rocks. In a column, therefore, composed in part of cleaved
clay-slate and in part of shale, the easy passage of the internal heat outward through
the first would be checked through the other in the ratio, roughly speaking, of 5 to 8.
This becomes a stupendous difference when we apply it to the thicknesses we are
acquainted with. If we imagine a thick covering of shale or clay, or some other
rock with a very low conductivity, which has arrested in its course the heat passing
up to it through underlying rocks with a high degree of conductivity—if we imagine
such a surface-covering removed (as we know that they frequently have been) by
denudation, it is evident that the equilibrium of the heat-resisting covering of the
earth will be altered, not only at this particular spot, but also wherever the material
removed is being redeposited. We may say, in other words, that we stand nearer
the great central source of heat when we stand on slate than we do when we stand
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 227
on shale. When the experiments in hand have been repeated and largely added to,
it is hoped that this accession or loss of conducting-power in connexion with
the ordinary agents of geological force may be (perhaps only approximately)
expressed numerically. One might even suppose that the disturbance of heat-
transmitting equilibrium has something to do with the distribution of volcanic and
thermal phenomena. Without, however, treading further on such dangerously
speculative ground, we may hope, by dint of careful experiment of the kind now
brought before the Section, to throw some light on the curious discrepancy which
is constantly being noted in observations of underground temperature taken at
different places, the rate of transmission of heat (for which we hope to make in
time lists and tables) being manifestly intimately connected with that subject.
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INDEX I.
TO
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Ops ECTS and rules of the Association,
Xvii.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxiv.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of the Sections, xxx.
List of evening lectures, xl.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, xlii.
Treasurer’s account, xliii.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the Annual Meetings, xliy.
Officers of Sectional Committees, xlvi.
Officers and Council for 1873-74, xlvii.
Report of Council to the General Com-
mittee at Bradford, xlviii.
Recommendations adopted by the Gene-
ral Committee at Bradford :—invol-
ying grants of money, lili; applica-
tions for reports and researches, lvi;
resolutions referred to the Council by
the General Committee, lviii ; commu-
nications to be printed in extenso, lix ;
resolutions referred to the Parliamen-
tary Committee, lix.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, lx.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxii.
Arrangement of General Meetings, lxix.
Address by the President, Prof. A. W.
Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S., Ixx.
Adams (Prof. J.C.) on the rainfall of
the British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257.
—— (Dr. Leith) on the Maltese fossil
elephants, 185.
(Prof. W. G.) on science-lectures
and organization, 495,
Andrews (Prof.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
Ansted (Prof.) on underground tempe-
rature, 252; on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257.
Balfour (Prof.) on the influence of
forests on the rainfall, 488; on science-
lectures and organization, 495.
Barnes (Rev. H. F.) on the desirability
of establishing a ‘‘ close time” for the
preservation of indigenous animals,
346
Bateman (J. F.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257.
Beddoe (Dr.) on the preparation of brief
forms of instructions for travellers,
ethnologists, &c., 482.
Boycott (Dr.) on the method of making
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 219.
Brabrook (EK. W.) on the preparation of
brief forms of instructions for trayel-
lers, ethnologists, &c., 482.
Bradford Waterworks, C, Gott on the,
451.
Bramwell (F. J.) on dynamical and elec-
trical units, 222; on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 413; on
science-lectures and organization, 495.
Brigg (J.) on the Labyrinthodonts of the
coal-measures, 225.
British Isles, rainfall of the, for the
years 1872-73, 257.
Brooke (C.) on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1872-73, 257.
eee (J.) on earthquakes in Scotland,
94,
Brown (Prof. Crum) on the determina-
tion of high temperatures by refracted
rays, 461; on science-lectures and
| organization, 495,
230
Bryce (Dr.) on erratic blocks or boul-
ders, 188; on earthquakes in Scot-
land, 194; on fossils from North-
western Scotland, 412.
Buchan (A.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-78,
257; on the influence of forests on
the rainfall, 488.
Busk (G.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 198.
Carboniferous-limestone corals, fifth re-
port on the structure of, 479.
Cayley (Prof.) on mathematical tables,
1; on instruction in elementary geo-
metry, 459.
Chemical constitution and optical pro-
perties of essential oils, report on the,
214,
Chemistry, report of the committee for
superintending the monthly reports of
the progress of, 451.
Cleghorn (Dr.) on the influence of forests
on the rainfall, 488.
Clifford (Prof.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometry, 459.
“Close time” for the preservation of
indigenous animals, report on the
desirability of establishing a, 346.
Coal, W. Firth on the application of
machinery to the cutting of, in mines,
175.
— -measures, the Labyrinthodonts of
the, report on, 225.
Corals, carboniferous-limestone, fifth re-
port on the structure of, 479.
Corfield (Prof. W. H.) on the treatment
and utilization of sewage, 413, 438.
Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on erratic blocks
or boulders, 188.
Cyclones and rainfall, C. Meldrum on a
periodicity of, in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 466.
Davidson (T.) on the structure of car-
boniferous-limestone corals, 479; on
the Sub- Wealden exploration, 490.
Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the exploration
of Kent’s Cavern, 198 ; on the explo-
ration of the Settle Caves, 250; on
the Sub- Wealden exploration, 490.
Denton (J. B.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 413.
Dewar (J.) on the determination of
is temperatures by refracted rays,
461.
Dohrn (Dr. Anton) on the foundation of
zoological stations, 408.
Dresser (H. E.) on the desirability of
establishing a “close time” for the
REPORT—1873.
preservation of indigenous animals,
546
Duncan (Prof. P.M.) on fossil Crusta-
cea, 804; on the structure of carbo-
niferous-limestone corals, 479.
Dyer (Prof. T.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
Earthquakes in Scotland, fourth report
of the committee on, 194.
Elliot (Sir W.) on the preparation of
brief forms of instructions for travel-
lers, ethnologists, &c.,482; on science-
lectures and organization, 495.
Elliptic and hyperelliptic functions, W.
H. L. Ruseell on recent progress in,
307.
Erratic blocks or boulders, report of the
committee on, 188,
Essential oils, report of the committee
on the chemical constitution and opti-
- cal properties of, 214.
a a (R.) on fossil Crustacea,
(04.
Kyans (J.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 198.
Everett (Prof.) on dynamical and elee-
trical units, 222; on underground
temperature, 252.
Field (R.) on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1872-73, 257.
Firth (W.) on the application of ma-
chinery to the cutting of coal in
mines, 175.
Flint and chert implements found in
el Cavern, W. Pengelly on the,
Flower (Prof.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
Forbes (Prof. G.) on earthquakes in
Scotland, 194.
Forests, the influence of, on the rainfall,
8.
Fossil Crustacea, report of the committee
appointed for the purpose of continu-
ing researches in, 804,
Fossils from North-western Scotland,
second report of the committee ap-
pointed to collect, 412.
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on dynamical and
electrical units, 222; on science-lec-
tures and organization, 495,
Fox (Col. A. AL Lane), on the prepa-
ration of brief forms of instructions for
travellers, ethnologists, &c., 482; on
science-lectures and organization, 495,
Frankland (Prof.) on the monthly re-
ports of the progress of chemistry,
4 .]
INDEX I. 231
Franks (Mz.) on the preparation of brief
forms of instructions for travellers,
ethnologists, &c., 482.
Froude (W.) on machinery for recording
the roughness of the sea and measure-
ment of waves near shore, 495,
Fuller (Prof.) on instruction in elemen-
tary geometry, 459,
Gadesden (A. W.) on the method of
making gold-assays, and of stating the
results thereof, 219.
Galton (F.) on the preparation of brief
forms of instructions for travellers,
ethnologists, &c., 482; on machinery
for recording the roughness of the sea
and measurement of waves near shore,
495.
Geikie (Prof.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188; on underground tem-
perature, 252 ; on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
Geometry, elementary, report of the
committee appointed to consider the
possibility of improving the methods
of instruction in, 459.
Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 413.
Gladstone (Dr.) on the chemical con-
stitution and optical properties of
essential oils, 214; on the determina-
tion of high temperatures by refracted
rays, 461.
Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera--
ture, 252; on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257; on observations of luminous
meteors (1872-73), 349,
— (J. W. L.) on mathematical
tables, 1.
Godwin-Austen (R. A.) on the Sub-
Wealden exploration, 490.
Gold-assays, report of the committee on
the method of making, and of stating
the results thereof, 219,
Gott (C.) on the Bradford Waterworks,
451.
Graham (Rev. Dr.) on underground tem-
perature, 252.
Grantham (R. B.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 413,
Greg (R. P.) on observations of lumi-
nous meteors (1872-73), 349.
Gaifftth (Sir R., Bart.) on erratic blocks
or boulders, 188,
Harkness (Prof.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188; on the Labyrinthodonts
of the coal-measures, 225; on fossils
from North-western Scotland, 412;
on the structure of carboniferous-
limestone corals, 479.
Harland (T.) on the desirability of esta-
blishing a “close time” for the pre-
servation of indigenous animals, 346,
Harley (Rey. R.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
Harting (J. E.) on the desirability of
establishing a “close time” for the
preservation of indigenous animals,
346.
Hawksley (T.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73, 257.
Hayward (R. B.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometry, 459.
Herschel (Prof, A. 8.) on observations of
luminous meteors (1872-73), 349,
High temperatures, report on the deter-
mination of, by means of the refrangi-
bility of the light evolved by fluid or
_ solid substances, 461.
Hirst (Prof.) on instruction in elemen-
tary geometry, 459.
Hope (W.) on the treatment and utili-
zation of sewage, 413,
Huggins (Dr.) on constructing and print-
ing catalogues of spectral rays, ars
puget upon a scale of wave-numbers,
249,
Hughes (Prof.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188 ; on the exploration of
the Settle Caves, 250.
Hull (Prof.) on erratic blocks or boulders,
188; on underground temperature,
252.
Hutchinson (R.) on the influence of
forests on the rainfall, 488.
Huxley (Prof.) on the foundation of
zoological stations, 408; on science-
lectures and organization, 495.
Indigenous animals, report on the desira-
bility of establishing a “close time”
for the preservation of, 346.
Instructions for travellers, ethnologists,
and other anthropological observers,
report of the committee appointed to
prepare brief forms of, 482,
Jenkin (Prof. F.) on dynamical and
electrical units, 222; on science-lec-
tures and organization, 495,
Jolly (W.) on erratic blocks or boulders,
188; on fossils from North-western
Scotland, 412.
Joule (Dr.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
Kelland (Prof.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometry, 459,
232
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, ninth report |
of the committee for exploring, 198. |
——, W. Pengelly on the flint and chert
implements found in, 209.
fee (Dr.) on erratic blocks or boulders,
8.
Labyrinthodonts ofthe coal-measures,
report on the, 225.
Lankester (Dr.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
(EZ. Ray) on the foundation of
zoological stations, 408.
Lockyer (J. Norman) on constructing
and printing catalogues of spectral rays,
arranged upon a scale of waye-num-
bers, 249; on science-lectures and or-
ganization, 495.
Lubbock (Sir J., Bart.) on the explora-
tion of Kent’s Cavern, 198; on the
exploration of the Settle Caves, 250;
on the preparation of brief forms of
instructions for travellers, ethnologists,
&c., 482.
Luminous meteors, 1872-73, report of
the committee on observations of, 349.
Lyell (Sir C., Bart.) on the exploration
of Kent’s Cavern, 198; on under-
ground temperature, 252.
Mackie (S. J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 252.
Maltese fossil elephants, concluding
report on the, 185.
Markham (C, R.) on the preparation of
brief forms of instructions for travellers,
ethnologists, &c., 482.
Mathematical Tables, report of the com-
mittee on, 1.
Maw (G.) on underground temperature,
252.
Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on dynamical and .
electrical units, 222; on underground
temperature, 252.
Meldrum (C.) on a periodicity of cyclones
and rainfall in connexion with the sun-
spot periodicity, 466.
Merrifield (C. W.) on machinery for |
recording the roughness of the sea
and measurement of waves near shore,
495.
Meteors, luminous, 1872-73, report of the |
committee on observations of, 349;
doubly observed, 350; large, and |
aérolites, 368 ; meteoric showers, 385 ; |
' papers relating to meteoric astronomy, |
396 ; corrected radiant-points, 403. |
Miall (L. C.) on the Labyrinthodonts of
the coal-measures, 225,
Mills (Dr.) on the method of making |
REPORT—1873.
gold-assays, and of stating the results
thereof, 219.
Milne-Holme (D.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188. ;
Mitchell (Dr. A.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188.
Monk (T. J.) on the desirability of esta-
blishing a “close time ” for the pre-
servation of indigenous animals, 346.
Mylne (R. W.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257,
Newton (Prof) on the desirability of
establishing a “close time” for the
preservation of indigenous animals,
346,
Nicol (Prof.) on
boulders, 188,
erratic blocks or
O'Callaghan (Dr.) on science-lectures
and organization, 495. :
Optical properties of essential oils, re-
port on the chemical constitution and,
214.
Pengelly (W.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188; on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 198 ; on the flint and
chert implements found in Kent's
Cavern, 209; on underground tem-
perature, 252.
Phillips (Prof. J.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 198; on the Labyrin-
thodonts of the coal-measures, 225;
on the exploration of the Settle Caves,
250 ; on underground temperature,
252; on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1872-73, 257. -
Pole (Dr.) on the rainfall of the British
Isles for the years 1872-73, 257.
Prestwich (J.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188; on underground tem-
perature, 252; on the Sub-Wealden
exploration, 490.
Price (Rey. Prof.) on instruction in
elementary geometry, 459.
Rainfall, C. Meldrum on a periodicity
of cyclones and, in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 466.
, note on the influence of forests on
the, 488.
of the British Isles for
years 1872-73, report on the, 257.
Ramsay (Prof.) on erratie blocks or
boulders, 188 ; on underground tem-
perature, 252; on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
Reynolds (Prof. Osborne) on constructing
the
INDEX I.
and printing catalogues of spectral rays |
arranged upon a scale of wave-num-
bers, 249.
Roberts (W. C.) on the chemical con-
stitution and optical properties of es-
sential oils, 214; on the method of
making gold-assays, and of stating the
results thereof, 219.
Rolleston (Dr.) on the foundation of
zoological stations, 408.
Roscoe (Prof.) on the monthly reports
of the progress of chemistry, 451; on
science-lectures and organization, 495.
Russell (W. H. L.) on recent progress
va elliptic and hyperelliptic functions,
307,
Sadler (J.) on the influence of forests on
the rainfall, 488.
Salmon (Dr.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometry, 459,
Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 198,
Schafarik (Prof. A.) on the visibility of
the dark side of Venus, 404.
Science-lectures and organization, re-
ort of the committee on, 495,
Sclater (Dr.) on the foundation of
zoological stations, 408.
Scotland, fourth reporton earthquakes in,
Sea, report on machinery for obtaining
a record of the roughness of the, and
measurement of waves near shore,
495.
Settle Caves, report of the committee
appointed for the purpose of exploring
the, 250.
Sewage, fifth report on the treatment
and utilization of, 413 ; the dry-
earth system, 413; Earlswood sewage-
farm, 414; Breton’s farm, Romford,
415 ; abstract of previous reports,
438; conclusions arrived at by the
committee, 449.
Ships, instruments for measuring the
speed of, report of the committee ap-
pointed to make experiments on, 460,
Siemens (Dr.) on dynamical and elec-
trical units, 222.
Smith (Prof. H. J. 8.) on mathematical
tables, 1; on instruction in elementary
geometry, 459.
Spectral rays, report of the committee
appointed to construct and print cata-
logues of, arranged upon a scale of
waye-numbers, 249,
Speed of ships, report of the committee
appointed to make experiments on
instruments for measuring the, 460,
1873,
| Stainton (I
233°
Spottiswoode (W.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometty, 459,
. T.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on science-lec-
tures and organization, 495.
Stokes (Prof.) on mathematical tables, 1.
Stoney (G. J.) on dynamical and elec-
trical units, 222, 225; on constructing
and printing catalogues of spectral
rays, arranged upon a scale of waye-
numbers, 249,
aappanisen exploration, report on the,
———
, geological report, by W,
Topley, on the, 491, rt
Sun-spot periodicity, C. Meldrum on a
periodicity of cyclones and rainfall in
connexion with the, 466.
Swan (Prof.) on constructing and print-
ing catalogues of spectral rays arranged
upon a scale of wave-numbers, 249.
Sylvester (Prof.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257 ; on instruction in elementary
geometry, 459,
Symons (G. J.) on underground tempe-
rature, 252; on the rainfall of the
eh Isles for the years 1872-73,
257,
Tait (Prof.) on the determination of
high temperatures by refracted rays,
461; on science-lectures and organiza-
tion, 495.
‘Temperature, underground, sixth report
on the rate of increase of, downwards
in various localities of dry land and
under water, 252.
Temperatures, high, onthe determination
of, by refracted rays, 46].
Thomson (Dr. A.) on science-lectures
and organization, 495,
(J.) on the Labyrinthodonts of
the coal-measures, 225; on the struc-
ture of carboniferous-limestone corals,
479.
(Prof. Sir W.) on mathematical
tables, 1; on earthquakes in Scotland,
194; on dynamical and_ electrical
units, 222; on underground tempera-
ture, 252; on the determination of
high temperatures by refracted rays,
461; on science-lectures and organiza-
tion, 495.
— (Prof. Wyville) on the foundation
of zoological stations, 408; on science-
lectures and organization, 495,
Tinné (J. A.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
16
234
Tomlinson (C.) on the rainfall of the
British Isles for the years 1872-73,
257.
Topley (W.) on the Sub-Wealden ex-
ploration, 490; geological report on
the Sub- Wealden exploration, 491.
Townsend (Rey. R.) on instruction in
elementary geometry, 459.
Treatment and utilization of sewage,
~ report on the, 413.
Tristram (Rey. Canon) on the desirability
of establishing a ‘close time” for the
preservation of indigenous animals,
3
Turner (Prof.) on science-lectures and
organization, 495.
Tylor (E. B.) on the preparation of brief
forms of instructions for travellers,
ethnologists, &c., 482,
Underground temperature, sixth report
on the rate of increase of, downwards
in various localities of dry land and
under water, 252.
Units, dynamical and electrical, first re-
port of the committee for the selection
and nomenclature of, 222.
——, G. J. Stoney on, 225,
Utilization of sewage, report on the
treatment and, 413.
Venus, Prof. A. Schafarik on the visibi-
lity of the dark side of, 404,
Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cayern, 198,
REPORT—1873.
Waves near shore, report on machinery
for obtaining a record of the roughness
of the sea and measurement of, 495.
Way (Prof. J. T.) on the treatment and
utilization of sewage, 413.
Willett (H.) on the Sub-Wealden ex-
ploration, 490.
Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the treat-
ment and utilization of sewage, 413 ;
on the monthly reports of the progress
of chemistry, 451; on the determina-
tion of high temperatures by refracted
rays, 461; on science-lectures and or-
ganization, 495.
Wilson (J. M.) on instruction in ele-
mentary geometry, 459.
Woodward (H.) on the Labyrinthodonts
of the coal-measures, 225; on fossil
Crustacea, 304; on the Sub-Wealden
exploration, 490.
Wright (Dr.) on the chemical constitu-
tion and optical properties of essential
oils, 214,
Young (Prof. J.) on erratic blocks or
boulders, 188 ; on science-lectures and
organization, 495,
Zoological stations, report of the com-
mittee appointed for promoting the
foundation of, in different parts of the
globe, 408,
INDEX II.
235
INDEX II.
TO
MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SECTIONS.
[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. |
Abiogenesis, Dr. Burdon Sanderson on
Huizinga’s experiments on, 131.
Aconitia, crystalline, and pseudo-aco-
nitia, Dr. T. R. Fraser on the physio-
~ logical action of, 128.
ot friction, Prof. B. Stewart on,
~ 382.
*Africa, G. Cora on the equatorial lakes
of, 167. ;
*African coast, the east, Major E, Smith
~ on the trade of, 173.
Alcock (Sir Rutherford), Address by, to
the Geographical Section, 150.
*Alcohol, Dr. Binz on the action of, on
warm-blooded animals, 124.
Alexander (Major-Gen. Sir J.) on the
use and abuse of peat, 185,
* Alowe, parasitic, W. Archer on, 104.
4 , the fucaceous, Prof. P. M. Duncan
on the motion of a apie in, 126.
*Allen (A. H.) on the detection of adul-
teration of tea, 62.
Allman (Prof.), Address by, to the Bio-
logical Section, 94; on some recent
results with the towing-net on the
south coast of Ireland, 106.
Alpha- and beta-naphthylic sulphide,
Dr. H. E, Armstrong on, 62.
America, the migrations of man in, H.
Clarke on the comparative chronology
of, in relation to comparative philo-
logy, 141.
Ammonitic septa, Prof. Phillips on the,
~ in relation to geological time, 86.
— spiral, Prof. Phillips on the, in re-
ference to the power of flotation at-
tributed to the animal, 85.
Anatomy and Physiology, Address by
- Prof. Rutherford to the department
of, 119.
Aneroid for determining heights, an im-
proved form of, with a means of
adjusting the altitude-scale for vari-
ous temperatures, R. Field on, 46.
Annual governmental capital and current
expenditure, I’, P. Fellows on the
advisability of ascertaining our, 186.
*Antelopes, W. T. Blanford on the dis-
tribution of the, in Southern and
Western Asia, 110,
*Anthracene, commercial crude, Dr.
Paul and A. D, Cownley on the yalua-
tion of, 65.
Anthropology, a true cerebral theory
necessary to, by Dr. Kaines, 146.
, Address by Dr. Beddoe to the
department of, 134.
Appleton (C. E.) on some of the econo-
miical aspects of endowments of edu-
cation and original research, 183.
Arcade, the British Paleozoic, J. L,
Lobley on, 84.
Archediscus Karreri, 1» new type of
Carboniferous foraminifera, H. B.
Brady on, 76.
*Archer (W.) on parasitic algee, 104.
*Arctic explorations, recent, C. It. Mark-
ham on, 172.
Arenig and Llandeilo rocks of St.
David’s, H. Hicks on the, 82.
—— rocks, the Upper, Ramsey Island,
St. David’s, J. Hopkinson on some
graptolites from, 82.
Arithmetic, J. W. L. Glaisher on the in-
troduction of the decimal pointinto, 13.
*Armadillo’s teeth, C. 8. Tomes on the
development of the, 154.
Armstrong (Dr. H. E.) on alpha- and
beta-naphthylic sulphide, 62; on the
action. of sulphuric acid on ethylani-
Anemograph, a new electrical, G. M. | ~ line and dimethylaniline, 62; on
Whipple on, 50,
cresol derivatives, 65.
16*
236
REPORT—1873.
Arrastres, C. Le Neve Foster on the | *Bermuda, Prof. T. Dyer on the plants
“duty” of, in reducing gold ore in
Italy, 214.
Artificial magnetite, J. Spiller on, 66.
Ashantee and Fantee languages, H.
Clarke on the, 142.
Asia, Central, W. T. Blanford on the
physical geography of the Deserts of
Persia and, 162.
* , Southern and Western, W. T.
Blanford on. the distribution of the
antelopes in, 110.
Assam and an overland communication
with China, Dr. J. M‘Cosh on, 172.
* Axis of least moments in a rectangular
beam, J. Neville on the, 32.
*Bacterium, E. R. Lankester on a peach-
coloured, 116.
*Baines (T.) on a tree-aloe from S8.E.
Africa, 104.
Ball (Prof.) on a geometrical solution
of the problem of the impulsive mo-
tion of a body having three degrees
of freedom, 26; contributions.to the
theory of screws, 27; *on dynamo-
meters in absolute measure, 44.
Bank of England, R. H. I. Palgrave on
the relation of the banking reserve of
the, to the current rate of interest, 199,
Barlow (W. H.), Address by, to the
Mechanical Section, 200.
— (W. H., jun.) on the Lisbon steam
tramways, 1873, 210.
*Barrett (W. F.) on the molecular
changes that accompany the magneti-
zation of iron, nickel, and cobalt, 40;
*on the relationship of the magnetic
metals, iron, nickel, and cobalt, 40.
*Bartley (S. C. T.) on the poor-law and
its effect on thrift, 185.
*Bateman (D.) on the manufacture of
cards for spinning purposes, 210.
Beddoe (Dr.), Address by, to the Depart-
ment of Anthropology, 184; on the
Tberians, 140.
Beke (Dr. C. T.) on the true position
and physical characters of Mount
Sinai, 161.
Benetit building societies, J. A. Binns
on, 185.
Bennett (A. W.) on the movements of
the glands of Drosera, 123.
*Berber and Souakim, Capt. Rokeby on
the survey for a telegraph-line between,
173.
*Bergeron (C.) on the Saint-Gotthard
tunnel, 210.
*Bermuda, H. N. Moseley on the yege-
tation of, 105,
collected by Mr. H. N. Moseley in,
104.
| *Berthon (Rev. E. L.) on the hydro-
static log, 210.
Binns (J. A.) on benefit building so-
cieties, 185.
*Binocular vision, some abnormal effects
of, A. S. Davis on, 126.
. , W.S. Davis on, 36.
*Binz (Dr.) on the action of alcohol on
warm-blooded animals, 124.
Biological Section, Address by Prof, All-
man to the, 94.
Birds and reptiles, H. Woodward on
new facts bearing on the inquiry con-
cerning forms intermediate between,
93
—-- observed in the West Riding of
Yorkshire in former and recent years,
T. Lister on, 116.
*Birt (W. R.) on the importance and
necessity of continued systematic ob-
servations on the moon’s surface, 34.
Black deposits of metals, Dr. J, H. Glad-
stone on, 63. ;
Black Sea and the Caspian, Dr. Car-
penter on the physical geography of
the Mediterranean, considered in rela-
tion to that of the, 163.
Blake (Rey. J. F.) on additional remains
of pleistocene mammals in Yorkshire,
fo.
Blanford (W. T.) on some evidence of
glacial action in tropical India in
Paleozoic (or the oldest Mesozoic)
times, 76; *on the distribution of the
antelopes in Southern and Western
Asia, 110; on the fauna of Persia,
110; on the physical geography of
the Deserts of Persia and bapa
Asia, 162.
Bleek (Dr.), Bushman researches of,
se on the report concerning,
42.
Bosphorus and Dardanelles, Dr. Car-
penter on the undercurrents of the, 41.
*Botany, Prof. Lawson on a course of
practical instruction in, 105,
Botly (W.) on dwellings for the indus-
trial classes, 186.
Bowling Ironworks, J. Willcock on the
history, progress, and description of
the, 219.
ade A. Neill on stone-dressing in,
Tp ee trades, A. Neill on the,
ae Dr. Willis on the flora of the
environs of, 106,
INDEX Il,
Bradford, J. Hanson on educational sta-
tistics of, 189.
Savings-bank, T, Haig on the Kast
Morley and, 188.
——,, such of the industries of, as relate
on its geological position, J. Brigg on,
76,
, Yorkshire, R. Russell on the geo-
logy of the country round, 88.
Brady (H. B.) on Archediscus Karrert,
a new type of Carboniferous foramini-
fera, 76
Braham (P.) on experiments on light
with circularly ruled plates of glass,
36.
Brain, Prof. Ferrier on the localization
of function in the, 126.
, Dr. J. M. Fothergill on heart and,
127.
*Brain’s system of mining by means of
boring-machinery, dynamite, and elec-
tric blasting, S. Davis on, 213.
Bramwell (F. J.) on Huggett’s system
of manufacturing horse-nails, 210.
Brigg (J.) on such of the industries of
Bradford as relate to its geological
position, 76.
British Guiana, F. W. Rudler on stone
implements from, 148.
Isles, G. M. Whipple on the
passage of squalls across the, 44.
Paleozoic Arcade, J. L. Lobley
on the, 84.
*Bromacetic acid, Prof. Crum Brown on
the action of sulphide of methyl on,
63.
*Brown (Prof. Crum) on the action of
sulphide of methyl on bromacetic acid,
Brunton (Dr. L.) on physiological re-
searches on the nature of cholera, 124.
Buckland (A. W.) on the serpent in
connexion with primitive metallurgy,
140.
Building trades, the Bradford, A. Neill
on, 196.
*Burleigh rock-drill, J. Plant on the,
216.
Bushman researches of Dr. W. H. Bleek,
Ph.D., H. Clarke on the report con-
cerning, 142,
Caleuli, renal, Dr. G. Harley on the
mode of formation of, 130.
*Capital and labour, W. Morris on, 196.
*Cards for spinning purposes, D. Bate-
man on the manufacture of, 210.
Carmichael (C. H. E.) on Professor Gen-
narelli’s paper “ On the existence of a
race of re
men in Northern Africa |
237
and Southern Europe in prehistoric
times,” 141.
Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on the under-
currents of the Bosphorus and Darda-
nelles, 41; on the physical geoeraphy
of the Mediterranean, considered in
relation to that of the Black Sea and
the Caspian, 163; on the physical
geography of the Caspian Sea, in its
relations to geology, 165.
*Casale district, P. Le Neve Foster,
jun., on the irrigation of the, 214.
Caspian Sea, Dr. Carpenter on the phy-
sical geography of the, in its relations
to geology, 165.
, Dr. Carpenter on the physical
geography of the Mediterranean, con-
sidered in relation to that of the
Black Sea and the, 163.
Cayley (Prof.) on the Mercator’s pro-
jection of a surface of revolution, 9.
Centenarians, living, Sir G. D. Gibb,
Bart., on the vocal organs in, 128.
Centre-rail railway, W. C. Thomas on
the, 219.
‘Challenger,’ the, Capt. J. E. Davis on
the scientific voyage of, 167.
Champernowne (A.) on the discovery of
a species of starfish in the Devonian
beds of South Devon, 77.
*Channel steamer, J. White on a form
of, 219,
Chemical Section, Dr. W. J. Russell’s
Address to the, 52.
China, Dr. M‘Cosh on Assam, and an
overland communication with, 172.
; , Baron von Richthofen* on the
distribution of coal in, 173.
Cholera, Dr. L. Brunton on physiolo-
eical researches on the nature of, 124.
Chronology, comparative, of the migra-
tions of man in America, H. Clarke
on the, in relation to comparative
philology, 141.
Civilization, Eastern, P. Harrison on the
passage of, across the Pacific, 146.
*Clapp (Dr. W. J.) on the Nant-y-glo
coal-cutting machine, 213.
Clarke (Hyde) on prehistoric names of
weapons, 141; on the comparative
chronology of the migrations of man
in America in relation to compara-
tive philology, 141; on the Ashantee
and Fantee languages, 142; on the
report concerning Bushman researches
of Dr. W. H. Bleek, Ph.D., 142; on
the influence of large centres of popu-
lation on intellectual manifestation,
186; on the progress of the through
railway to India, 215,
238
*Clifford (Prof.) on some curves of the
fifth class, 9; *on a surface of zero
curvature and finite extent, 9.
Clouds and rain, J. P. Harrison on lunar
influence on, 43.
Coal, Rey. J. Gunn on the probability
of finding, in the Eastern Counties,
81.
i -cutting machine, the Nant-y-glo,
Dr. W. J. Clapp on, 213.
? -gas, A. Vernon Harcourt and F.
W. Fison on a continuous process for
purifying, and obtaining sulphur and
ammonium sulphate, 64.
tf in China, Baron von Richthofen
on the distribution of, 173.
-measures, Prof. W. C. Williamson
on fern-stems and petioles of the, 106.
Codeine and morphine, Dr. C. R. A.
Wright on new derivatives from, 67,
Colossi, J. S. Phené on an age of, 147,
Commercial panics, W. D. Henderson
on, 193.
Compound pendulum apparatus, S, C.
Tisley on a, 48.
Confederated homes and cooperative
housekeeping, Mrs. E. M. King on,
195,
*Cora (G.) on the equatorial lakes of
Africa, 167.
Coral-caves with human bones in sta-
lagmite on Mangaia, South Pacific,
Rey. W. W. Gill on, 144.
*Correlation between specific weight
and specific heat of chemical elements,
Prof. Zenger on the, 40.
Correspondence between some areas of
apparent upheaval and the thickening
of subjacent beds, W. Topley on the,
9
*Cost of living, Prof. L. Levi on the
increased, and its relation to the rates
of wages and salaries, 196.
*Cownley (A. D.) and Dr. Paul on the
valuation of commercial crude anthra-
cene, 65,
Crag, W. Whitaker on the occurrence
of, in the 8.W. part of Suffolk (Sud-
bury), 92.
Craven, J. R. Dakyns on the geology of
part of, 78.
, W. Gomersall on the
boulder hills of, 80.
Cresol derivatives, Dr. H. E. Armstrong
on, 63,
Crystals in the testa and pericarp of cer-
tain plants, Prof. Gulliver on the, 104,
*Curves of the fifth class, Prof. Clifford
on some, 9.
Cyclones and rainfall, C, Meldrum on a
round
REPORT—18738,
periodicity of, in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 48,
Dakyns (J. R.) on the geology of part
of Craven, 78.
*Dampier, the voyager, Prof. Lawson
on plants collected by the, 105.
*Danchell (F. H.) on peat, 186.
Dardanelles, Dr. Carpenter on the under-
currents of the Bosphorus and, 41.
*Darwin (G. H.) on a portable globe,
and on some maps of the world, 167.
*Davis (A. 8.) on some abnormal effects
of binocular vision, 126.
—— (Capt. J. FE.) on an improvement
in the sextant, 44; on the scientific
voyage of the ‘ Challenger,’ 167.
*—— (8.) on Brain’s system of mining
by means of horing-machinery, dyna-
mite, and electric blasting, 213.
(W.8.) on some abnormal effects
of binocular vision, 36; *on the re-
fraction of liquid waves, 43.
Dawkins (W. Boyd) on the rate at
which stalagmite is being accumulated
in the Ingleborough Cave, 80; on the
northern range of the Iberians in
Europe, 142.
Decimal point, J. W. L. Glaisher on the
introduction of the, into arithmetic, 13.
Devon, South, the discovery of a species
of starfish in the Devonian beds of,
A. Champernowne on, 77; H. Wood-
ward on, 77.
*Dewar and MacKendrick (Drs.) on the
action of light on the retina and other
tissues, 126.
Differential resolvents, Rev. R. Harley
on the theory of, 17.
*Dittraction-grating, the Draper-Ru-
therford, J. N. Lockyer on, 38,
Dimethylaniline, Dr. H. E. Armstrong on
the action of sulphuric acid on ethyl-
aniline and, 62.
Dionea museipula, Dr. Burdon Sanderson
on the electrical phenomena which
accompany the contractions of the leaf
of, 133.
Dithyrocaris, H. Woodward and R.
Etheridge, jun., on some specimens of,
from the carboniferous limestone
series, Kast Kilbride, and from the
Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire,
92.
*Diverticulum of the small intestine in
man, Prof. C, A. Struthers on the,
considered as arudimentary structure,
134.
Donkin (A. E.) onan instrument for the
composition oftwo harmoniccuryes,45,
INDEX II,
*Draper-Rutherford diffraction-grating, |
J. N. Lockyer on the, 38.
Drosera, A. W. Bennett on the moye-
ments of the glands of, 125.
*Duncan (Prof. P. M.) on the motion of
protoplasm in the fucaceous alge, 126,
Dunn ( R.) on ethnic psychology, 143.
Dwellings for the industrial classes, W.
Botly on, 186. .
*Dyer (Prof. T.) on the plants collected
in Bermuda by Mr. H. N. Moseley,
104,
*Dynamometers in absolute measure,
Prof, Ball on, 44,
East Morley and Bradford Savings-bank,
T. Haig on the, 188.
*Eaton (R.) on the working of locomo-
tives with heated air and steam,
213.
*Eckhold’s omnimeter, a new surveying-
_ Instrument, G. W. Hope on, 47.
Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
- dress by the Right Hon. W. HE. Forster
to the Section of, 174.
*Heonomic use of endowments, J, M. D.
Meiklejohn on, 196,
Economical aspects of endowments of
education and original research, C. E.
Appleton on some of the, 183.
generation of steam, R, Sutcliffe on
the, 216.
utilization of steam, R. Sutcliffe on
the, 217.
Educational statistics of Bradford, J.
Hanson on, 189.
Electrical phenomena which accompany
the contractions of the leaf of Dionea
muscipula, Dr, Burdon Sanderson on
the, 133.
*Elephant, Indian, Dr. M. Watson on
the anatomy and physiology of the,
154.
remains, J. EH. Taylor on the occur-
rence of, in the basement beds of the
Red Crag, 91.
*Elias (Ney) on trade-routes through
Mongolia and Zungaria, 169.
Ellis (J. W.) on the Stump-Cross
Caverns at Greenhow near Pately
| Bridge, 80.
Endemic diseases, Dr. T. Moffat on geo-
logical systems and, 84.
*Endowments, J. M. D. Meiklejohn on
the economic use of, 196.
— of education and original research,
C. E. Appleton on some of the econo-
mical aspects of, 188.
Ephemeride, R. MacLachlan on a new
insect belonging to the family, with
239
notes on the natural history of that
family, 118,
| *Equations, cubic and other trinomial,
Rev. R. Harley on Prof. Evans's
method of solving, 22.
ede modular, Prof, H. J.S. Smith on,
2
*Equatorial lakes of Africa, G. Cora on
the, 167.
Etheridge (R., jun.) and H, Woodward
on some specimens of Dithyrocaris
fromthe carboniferous limestoneseries,
East Kilbride, and from the Old Red
Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire, with
nates on their geological position, &c.,
Ethnic psychology, R. Dunn on, 143.
Ethylaniline and dimethylaniline, Dr.
H. E. Armstrong on the action of
sulphuric acid on, 62.
*Evans’s (Prof.) method of solving cubic
and other trinomial equations, Rey.
R. Harley on, 22.
*Evaporation and temperature, S. B. J.
Skertchly on experiments on, made at
Wisbeach, 44,
Everett (Prof.) on the kinematics of a
rigid body, 28; on a refraction-spec-
trum without a prism, 37.
Fantee languages, H. Clarke on the
Ashantee and, 142.
Fauna of Persia, W.T. Blanford on the,
110.
Fellows (F. P.), statistics and observa-
tions on the National Debt and our
disbursements from the revolution in
1688 to the present time, showing the
advisability of ascertaining our annual
governmental capital and current ex-
penditure, 186.
Ferrier (Prof.) on the localization of
function in the brain, 126.
*Fibrous substances, S. C. Lister on the
mechanical treatment of, 214,
Field (R.) on an improved form of
aneroid for determining heights, with-
a means of adjusting the altitude-
scale for various temperatures, 46.
*Fison (F. W.) and A. Vernon Har-
court on a continuous process for puri-
fying coal-gas and obtaining sulphur.
and ammonium sulphate, 64.
Fitch (J. G.) on the savings-bank in the
school, 187.
*Flora of the environs of Bradford, Dr.
Willis on the, 106,
Flotation, the power of, attributed to’
the animal, Prof. Phillips on the
ammonitic spiral in reference to, &5.
240
Fnorescent substances, exhibition of
photographs of, by Dr. J.H. Gladstone,
38.
*Forbes (Prof. G.) on certain connexions
between the molecular properties of
metals, 29; *on irradiation, 88; *on
thermal conductivity, 40.
Forster (Right Hon. W. E.), Address by,
to the Section of Economie Science
and Statistics, 174.
Foster (C. Le Neve) on the “duty” of
Arrastres in reducing gold ore in
Italy, 214.
—— (P. Le Neve, jun.) on the irri-
gation of the Casale district, 214.
Fothergill (Dr. J. M.) on heart and
brain, 127.
Fraser (Dr. T. R.) on the physiological
action of crystalline aconitia and
pseudo-aconitia, 128.
*Friction of shot, Prof. O. Reynolds on
the, as affected by different kinds of
rifling, 216,
*
Gamma function, J. W. L. Glaisher on
the negative minima of the, 13.
Gas-generator, C. J. Woodward on a
form of, 66.
Gennarelli’s (Prof.) paper “On the exist-
ence of a race of red men in Northern
Africa and Southern Europe in pre-
historic times,” C. H. E. iaraaphnel
on, 141.
Geographical Section, Sir Rutherford
Alcock’s Address to the, 150.
Geography, physical, of the Deserts of
Persia and Central Asia, W. T. Blan-
ford on the, 162.
; , of the Mediterranean, con-
sidered in relation to that of the Black
Sea and the Caspian, Dr. Carpenter
on the, 163.
Geological Section, Prof. Phillips’s Ad-
dress to the, 70.
—— systems and endemic diseases, Dr.
T. Moffat on, 84.
time, Prof. Phillips on the ammo-
nitic septa in relation to, 86.
Geology, Dr. Carpenter on the physical
geography of the Caspian Sea, in its
relations to, 165.
of the country round Bradford,
Yorkshire, R. Russell on the, 88.
Geometrical optics, Prof. J. C. Max-
well on the relation of, to other
branches of mathematics and physics,
13]
VO.
Gibb (Sir G. Duncan, Bart.) on the
oct organs in living centenarians,
REPORT—1873,
Gill (Rev. W. W.) on coral caves with
human bones in stalagmite on Man-
gaia, South Pacific, 144; on three
visits to New Guinea, 169.
Glacial action in tropical India in Paleo-
zoic (or the oldest Mesozoic) times,
Be T. Blanford on some evidence of,
6.
Gladstone (Dr.'J. H.), exhibition of pho-
tographs of fluorescent substances, 38 ;
on black deposits of metals, 63.
Glaisher (J. W. L.) on certain proposi-
tions in the theory of numbers deduced
from elliptic-transcendent identities,
10; on the negative minima of the
gamma function, 13 ; on the introduc-
tion of the decimal point into arith-
metic, 15.
*Globe, a portable, G. H. Darwin on,
and on some maps of the world, 167.
Gold ore, C. Le Neve Foster on the
“duty” of Arrastres in reducing, in
Italy, 214.
Goldsmid (Colonel Sir F.), notes of re-
cent travel in Persia, 171.
Gomersall (W.) on the round boulder
hills of Craven, 80.
Goodman (Dr.) on white corpuscles,
their nature and origin in the animal
organism, 129,
Graptolites from the Upper Arenig rocks
of Ramsey Island, St. David’s, J.
Hopkinson on, 82.
in the Ludlow rocks of Shrop-
shire, J. Hoplinson on the occurrence
of numerous species of, 83.
Gulliver (Prof.) on the crystals in the
testa and pericarp of certain plants,
104.
Gunn (Rey. J.) on the probability of
finding coal in the Eastern Counties,
81.
Haig (T.) on the Fast Morley and
Bradford Savings-bank, 188.
*Hallett (T. G. P.) on the income-tax
question, 188.
*Han-kow, E. L. Oxenham on a journey
from Peking to, 172.
*Hanlon (G. O.), some suggestions to-
wards the formation of an extended
table of logarithms, 17.
Hanson (J.), educational statistics of
Bradford, 189.
*Harcourt (A. Vernon) and F. W. Fison |
on a continuous process for purifying
coal-gas and obtaining sulphur and
ammonium sulphate, 64.
Harkness (Prof.) on the occurrence of
faults in the Permian rocks of the
INDEX II.
lower portion of the Vale of Eden,
Cumberland, 81.
Harley (Dr. G.) on the mode of forma-
tion of renal calculi, 150.
(Rey. R.) on the theory of dif-
ferential resolvents, 17; *on Prof.
Evans’s method of solving cubic and
other trinomial equations, 22.
Harmonic curves, A. E. Donkin on an
instrument for the composition of two,
45.
Harrison (J. P.) on lunar influence on
clouds and rain, 43; on the passage
of Eastern civilization across the
Pacific, 146.
*Hastings (W.) on postal reform, 191.
Haughton (B.) on railways amalgamated
in competing groups, 191.
Heart and brain, Dr. J. M. Fothergill
on, 127.
Henderson (W. D.) on commercial
panics, 193.
Hermite (Ch.) sur V’irrationalité de la
ei des logarithmes hyperboliques,
29.
Herschel (Prof. A. 8.), notes of some
experiments on the thermal conduc-
tivities of certain rocks, 40; on a new
form of pendulum for exhibiting su-
habe vibrations, 48; and G. A.
ebour on some experiments on the
conducting-powers for heat of certain
rocks, with remarks on the geological
aspects of the investigation, 223.
Hicks (H.) on the Arenig and Llandeilo
rocks of St. David’s, 82.
Hobkirk (C. P.) on the mosses of the
West Riding of Yorkshire, 104.
Holden (Dr. J. S.) on a hitherto unde-
scribed Neolithic implement, 146.
*Hooker (Dr.) on the subalpine vege-
tation of Kilimanjaro, E. Africa, 105.
*Hope (G. W.) on Eckhold’s omnimeter,
a new surveying-instrument, 47,
Hopkinson (J.) on some graptolites from
the Upper Arenig rocks of Ramsey
Island, Be David’s, 82; on the occur-
rence of numerous species of grapto-
lites in the Ludlow rocks of Shrop-
shire, 83.
Horn, a, and bones found in a cutting in
a street in Maidenhead, Berks, Dr. T.
Moffat on, 84.
*Horn silver, W. C. Roberts on, 66.
Horne (W.) on the occurrence in the
_Yoredale rocks of Wensleydale of fish
and amphibian remains, 84.
Horner (C.) on the spectra of certain
boric and phosphoric acid blowpipe
beads, 64,
241
| Horse-nails, F. J. Bramwell on Huggett’s
system of manufacturing, 210.
Huggett’s system of manufacturing
horse-nails, I’, J. Bramwell on, 210.
Huggins (Dr.) on the proper motions of
nebule, 34.
Huizinga’s experiments on abiogenesis,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson on, 131.
*Hydrostatic log, Rev. E. L. Berthon on
the, 210.
Iberians, Dr. Beddoe on the, 140,
—— in Europe, W. B. Dawkins on the
northern range of the, 142.
*Impact, Prof. O. Reynolds on certain
phenomena of, 32.
*Income-tax question, T. G, P. Hallett
on the, 188.
*Incrustation in steam-boilers, J. Waugh
on the prevention of, 219.
India, H. Clarke on the progress of the
through railway to, 213.
Industrial classes, W. Botly on dwellings
for the, 186.
Ingleborough Cave, W. B. Dawkins o1
the rate at which stalagmite is being
accumulated in the, 80.
Intellectual manifestation, H. Clarke on
the influence of large centres of popu-
lation on, 186.
Treland, the south coast of, Prof. All-
man on some recent results with a
towing-net on, 106.
*Irradiation, Prof. G. Forbes on, 38.
*TIrrigation of the Casale district, P. Le
Neve Foster, jun., on the, 214.
*Janssen (M.) on the application of
ate ic to show the passage of
7enus across the sun’s disk, 35.
Jeffreys (J. Gwyn) on the mollusea of
the Mediterranean, 111.
Jubb (S.) on the shoddy trade, 194,
Kaines (Dr.), a true cerebral theory ne-
cessary to anthropology, 146,
*Khiva and Turcomania, E. D. Morgan
on Russian accounts of, 172.
*Kilimanjaro, E. Africa, Dr. Hooker on
the subalpine vegetation of, 105.
Kinematics of a rigid body, Prof. Everett
on the, 28.
King (Mrs. E. M.) on confederated
homes and cooperative housekeeping,
195.
*Koh-Khodja, Major B. Lovett on a
visit to, 172.
*Labour, W. Morris on capital and, 196.
*Lankester (E, Ray) on apeach-coloured
242
Bacterium, 116; *embryological obser-
vations bearing onthe genealogy of the
mollusca, 116; on the structure of the
ege, and the early development of the
_ cephalopod Loligo, 131.
Large centres of population, H. Clarke
on the influence of, on intellectual
manifestation, 186.
*Lawson (Prof.) on plants collected by
the voyager Dampier, 105 ; *on a
course of practical instruction in
botany, 105.
Lebour (G. A.) and W. Topley on the
Whin Sill of Northumberland, 92;
_ and Prof. Herschel on some experi-
ments on the conducting-powers for
heat of certain rocks, with remarks on
the geological aspects of the inyesti-
gation, 223,
*Levi (Prof. L.) on the effect of the in-
crease of prices of certain necessaries
of life on the cost of living, and its
relation to the rates of wages and
salaries, 196.
*Light, Drs. Dewar and MacKendrick on
the action of, on the retina and other
tissues, 126.
—, P. Braham on experiments on,
with circularly ruled plates of glass, 36.
Lightning-conductors, the construction
of, Prof. Zenger on symmetric con-
ductors, and, 41.
*Liquid waves, W.S. Davis on the re-
fraction of, 45.
Lisbon steam-tramways, 1875, W. H.
Barlow, jun., on the, 210,
*Lister (S. C.) on the mechanical treat-
ment of fibrous substances, 214.
—— (T.) on birds observed in the West
Riding of Yorkshire in former and
recent years, 116.
*Livingstone East-coast aid expedition,
Major E. Smith on the, 173.
Llandeilo rocks, H. Hicks on the Arenig
- and, of St. David's, 82.
Lobley (J. L.) onthe British Palzeozoic
_ Arcades, 84.
*Lockyer (J. Norman) on the results of
some recent solar investigations, 35;
*onthe Draper-Rutherford diffraction-
grating, 38; *on the elements in the
sun, 65.
*Locomotives, R. Eaton on the working
of, with heated air and steam, 213.
Loess of Northern China, Baron von
- Richthofen on the, and its relation to
the salt-basins of Central Asia, 86.
Logarithmes hyperboliques, Ch. Her-
mite sur l’irrationalité de la base des,
*
REPORT—1873,
*Logarithms, some suggestions, by G.
O, Hanlon, towards the formation of
an extended table of, 17.
——, Rey. H. Wace on the calculation
of, 24,
Loligo, the cephalopod, E. R. Lankester
on the structure of the ege, and the
early development of, 131.
*Lovett (Major B.) on a visit to Koh-
Khodja, 172.
Ludlow rocks of Shropshire, J. Hop-
kinson on the occurrence of numerous
species of graptolites in the, 83.
Lunar influence on clouds and rain, J.
P, Harrison on, 43.
M‘Cosh (Dr. J.) on Assam and an over-
land communication with China, 172.
M*°Gowen (W. T.) on the sewage of
manufacturing towns, 65.
*MacKendrick and Dewar (Drs.) on
the action of light on the retina and
other tissues, 126. i
Maclachlan(R.) on a new insect belong-
ing to the family Lphemeride, with
notes on the natural history of that
family, 118.
*Magnetic metals, iron, nickel, and
cobalt, W. F. Barrett on the relation-
ship of the, 40.
Magnetite, artificial, J. Spiller on, 66.
*Macnetization of iron, nickel, and
cobalt, W. F. Barrett on the mole-
cular changes that accompany the, 40.
Mammals, pleistocene, Rev. J. F. Blake
on additional remains of, in Yorkshire,
75.
Mangaia, South Pacific, Rev. W. W.
Gill on coral-cayes with human bones
in stalagmite on, 144.
*Maps of the world, G. H. Darwin on a
portable globe, and on some, 167.
*Marcoartu (A. de) on the application
of telegraphy to navigation and me-
teorology, 43,
*Markham (OC. R.) on recent arctic ex-
plorations, 172.
Mathematical and Physical Section,
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith’s Address to
the, 1.
Maxwell (Prof. J. C.) on the final state
of a system of molecules in motion
subject to forces of any kind, 29; on
the relation of geometrical optics to
other branches of mathematics and
physics, 38,
Mechanical Section, W. H. Barlow’s
Address to the, 200.
Mediterranean, Dr, Carpenter onthe phy-
sical geography of the, considered in
INDEX IT,
relation to that of the Black Sea and
the Caspian, 163. ,
Mediterranean, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on the
mollusea of the, 111.
*Meiklejohn (J. M. D.) on the economic
use of endowments, 196.
Meldrum (C.) on a periodicity of cy-
clones and rainfall in connexion with
the sun-spot periodicity, 43.
Mercator's projection of a surface of re-
volution, Prof. Cayley on the, 9.
Metallurgy, primitive, A. W. Buckland
on the serpent in connexion with,
140.
Metals, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on black
deposits of, 63.
*___, Prof. G. Forbes on certain con-
nexions between the molecular pro-
perties of, 29.
*Meteorology, A. de Marcoartu on the
application of telegraphy to naviga-
tion and, 43,
*Methyl, sulphide of, Prof. Crum Brown
on the action of, on bromacetic acid,
63.
*Microzymes as partial bionta, Dr. J.
Ross on, 131.
*Mining, S. Davis on Brain’s system of,
by means of boring-machinery, dyna-
mite, and electric blasting, 213.
*Modular equations, Prof. H. J. S..
Smith on, 24.
Moffat (Dr. T.) on a horn and bones
found in a cutting in a street in
Maidenhead, Berks, 84; on geological
systems and endemic diseases, 84.
*Molecular changes that accompany the
magnetization of iron, nickel, and
cobalt, W. F. Barrett on the, 40.
* properties of metals, Prof. G.
Forbes on certain connexions between
the, 29.
Molecules in motion, Prof. J. C. Maxwell
on the final state of a system of, sub-
ject to forces of any kind, 29.
*Mollusca, embryological observations
bearing on the genealogy of the, by
E. R. Lankester, 116.
of the Mediterranean, J. Gwyn
Jeffreys on the, 111.
*Mongolia and Zungaria, Ney Elias on
trade-routes through, 169.
*Moon’s surface, W. R. Birt on the im-
portance and necessity of continued
systematic observations on the, 34,
Morality, E. B. Tylor on the relation of,
to religion in the early stages of civi-
lization, 148,
*Moresby (Capt. J.) on discoveries at
the eastern end of New Guinea, 172.
243
*Morgan (1. D.) on Russian accounts
of Khiva and ‘Turcomania, 172.
Morphine, Dr. C. R. A, Wright on new
derivatives from codeine and, 67.
*Morris (W.) on capital and labour, 196.
*Moseley (H. N.) on the vegetation of
Bermuda, 105.
Mosses of the West Riding of York-
shire, C. P. Hobkirk on the, 104.
Mount Sinai, Dr. C. T. Beke on the true
ee and physical characters of,
6l,
*Nant-y-glo coal-cutting machine, Dr-
W. J. Clapp on the, 213.
*Napier (J. R.) on Napier’s pressure log,
National debt, the, and our disburse-
oi from 1688, F, P. Fellows on,
86.
*Navigation and meteorology, A. de
Marcoartu on the application of tele-
eraphy to, 45.
Nebule, Dr. Huggins on the proper
motions of, 54.
Negretti and Zambra’s test-gauge solar-
radiation thermometer, G. J. Symons
on, 47.
Neill (A.) on the Bradford building
trades, 196; on stone-dressing in Brad~
ford, 214. -
Neolithic implement, a hitherto unde-
scribed, Dr. J. 8. Holden on, 146.
*Neville (J.) on the axis of least mo-
ments in a rectangular beam, 32.
*New Guinea, Capt. J. Moresby on dis-
coveries at the eastern end of, 172.
——, Rey. W. W. Gill on three visits
to, 169.
Newton (W. E.) on the sand-blast pro-
cess for cutting and ornamenting stone,
glass, and other hard substances, 215,
Northumberland, the Whin Sill of, W.
Topley and G, A. Lebour on the, 92,
*Omnimeter, Eckhold’s, anew surveying-
instrument, G. W. Hope on, 47.
Optics, geometrical, Prof. J. C. Maxwell
on the relation of, to other branches
of mathematics and physics, 38.
Oxaluric acid, W. H. Pike on several
homologues of, 65,
*Oxenham (KE. L.) on a journey from
Peking to Han-kow, 172.
Oxyhydrogen lantern, a new form of, for
the use of lecturers, C. J. Woodward
on, 52,
Palgrave (R. H. I.) on the relation of
the banking reserve of the Bank of.
244
England to the current rate ofinterest, |
199.
Panics, commercial, W. D. Henderson
on, 193.
Passage of squalls across the British
Isles, G. M. Whipple on the, 44.
*Patent systems of Great Britain and of
the United States, T. Webster on the
assimilation of the, 219.
*Paul (Dr.) and A. D. Cownley on the
valuation of commercial crude anthra-
cene, 65.
*Peat, F. H. Danchell on, 186.
, Major-Gen. Sir J. Alexander on
the use and abuse of, 183.
*Peking, E. L. Oxenham on a journey
from, to Han-kow, 172.
Pendulum for exhibiting superposed
vibrations, Prof. A. 8. Herschel on a
new form of, 48.
Permian rocks of the lower portion of
the vale of Eden, Cumberland, Prof.
Harkness on the occurrence of faults
in the, 81.
*Persia, Major St. John on trade-routes
in, 173.
, notes of recent travel in, by Colonel
Sir F. Goldsmid, 171.
— , W. T. Blanford on the fauna of,
110.
and Central Asia, the Deserts of,
W. T. Blanford on the physical geo-
graphy of, 162. :
Phené (J. §.) on an age of Colossi, 147. |
Phillips (Prof. J.), Address by, to the
Geological Section, 70; on the ammo-
nitic spiral in reference to the power of
flotation attributed to the animal, 85 ;
on the ammonitic septa in relation to
geological time, 86.
Philology, comparative, H. Clarke on
the comparative chronology of the
migrations of man in America in rela-
tion to, 141.
*Photography, M. Janssen on the appli-
cation of, to show the passage of Venus
across the sun’s disk, 35.
Physiological action of crystalline aco-
nitia and pseudo-aconitia, Dr. T, R,
Fraser on the, 128.
Physiology, Address by Prof. Ruther-
ford to the department of Anatomy
and, 119.
Pike (W. H.) on several homologues of
oxaluric acid, 65.
*Plant (J.) on the Burleigh rock-drill,
216.
*Plants collected by the voyager Dam-
pier, Prof. Lawson on, 105.
Pleistocene mammals, additional re-
REPORT—18738.
mains of, in Yorkshire, Rey. J. I,
Blake on, 765.
*Poor-law, the, and its eflect on thrift,
8. C. T. Bartley on, 185.
*Postal reform, W. Hastings on, 191.
Prehistoric names of weapons, H. Clarke
on, 141.
*Pressure log, Napier’s, J. R. Napier on,
214.
Problem of the impulsive motion of a
body having three degrees of freedom,
Prof, Ball on a geometrical solution
of the, 26.
*Protoplasm in the fucaceous alge, Prof.
P. M. Duncan on the motion of, 126.
Purity and impurity in the use and abuse
of water, Major-Gen. Synge on, 200.
Railway, the centre-rail, W. C. Thomas
on, 219.
, the through, to India, H. Clarke
on the progress of, 213.
Railways amalgamated in competing
groups, B. Haughton on, 191.
Rain, J. P. Harrison on lunar influence
on clouds and, 43.
Rainfall, C. Meldrum on a periodicity of
cyclones and, in connexion with the
sun-spot periodicity, 43.
*Rayleigh (Lord) on a natural limit to
the sharpness of the spectral lines, 39.
Red men, C. H. I. Carmichael on Prof.
Gennarelli’s paper on the existence
of a race of, in Northern Africa and
Southern Europe in prehistoric times,
141.
*Refraction of liquid waves, W.S. Davis
on the, 43,
—— -spectrum without a prism, Prof.
Kiverett on a, 37.
Religion, E. B. Tylor on the relation of
morality to, in the early stages of
civilization, 148.
Renal calculi, Dr. G. Harley on the
mode of formation of, 130.
*Resistance of the screw propeller as
affected by immersion, Prof. O. Rey-
nolds on the, 216,
*Retina, the, and other tissues, Drs.
Dewar and MacKendrick on the acticn
of light on, 126.
*Reynolds (Prof. Osborne) on certain
phenomena of impact, 32; *on the
resistance of the screw propeller as
affected by immersion, 216; *on the
friction of shot as affected by diferent
kinds of rifling, 216.
Richthofen (Baron yon) on the loess of
Northern China, and its relation to
the salt-basins of Central Asia, 86;
INDEX II.
*on the distribution of coal in China,
173.
*Roberts (W. C.) on horn silver, 66.
*Rock-drill, the Burleigh, J. Plant on,
216.
Rocks, the conducting-power for heat of
certain, Prof. Herschel and G. A.
Lebour on some experiments on, 223.
—-—, the thermal conductivities of cer-
tain, notes by Prof. Herschel of some
experiments on, 40.
*Rokeby (Capt.) on the survey for a
telegraph - line between Berber and
Souakim, 173.
*Ross (Dr. J.) on microzymes as partial
bionta, 131.
Rudler (F. W.) on stone implements
from British Guiana, 148,
Russell (R.) on the geology of the
country round Bradford, ‘Yorkshire,
8
—— (Dr. W. J.), Address by, to the
- Chemical Section, 52.
*Russian accounts of Khiva and Turco-
mania, KH. D. Morgan on, 172.
Rutherford (Prof.), Address by, to the
department of Anatomy and Physio-
logy, 119.
Rutherford’s minimum thermometer, a
new form of, devised and constructed
by Mr. James Hicks, G. M. Whipple
on, 50.
*Saint Gotthard tunnel, C. Bergeron on
the, 210.
*St. John (Major) on trade-routes in
Persia, 173.
Sand-blast process for cutting and orna-
menting stone, glass, and other hard
substances, W. E. Newton on the,
215.
Sanderson (Dr. Burdon) on Huizinga’s
experiments on abiogenesis, 131; on
the electrical phenomena which ac-
company the contractions of the leaf
of Dionea museipula, 133.
Savings-bank in the school, J. G. Fitch
on the, 187.
——, the East Morley and Bradford, T.
Haig on, 188.
Schafarik (Prof.) on the visibility of the
dark side of the planet Venus, 35 ; *on
the constitution of some silicates, 66.
Schuster (Dr, A.) on the influence of
temperature and pressure on the
widening of the lines in the spectra
of gases, 39 ; on a curious phenomenon
observed on the top of Snowdon, 40.
*Science, T. Webster on the advance-
ment of, by industrial invention, 219,
245
*Serew propeller, Prof. O. Reynolds on
the resistance of the, as atlected by
immersion, 216.
Screws, the theory of, contributions to,
by Piof. Ball, 27.
Serpent, A. W. Buckland on the, in con-
ae with primitive metallurgy,
Sewage of manufacturing towns, W. T.
M‘Gowen on the, 65.
Sextant, Capt. J. E. Davis on an im-
provement in the, 44.
Shaw (J.) on some of the changes going
on in the South-African vegetation
through theintroduction of the Merino
sheep, 105.
Shoddy trade, 8. Jubb on the, 194.
*Shot, the friction of, as affected by
different kinds of rifling, Prof. O.
Reynolds on, 216.
*Silicates, Prof. Schafarik on the con-
stitution of some, 66.
*Silver, horn, W. C. Roberts on, 66.
*Skertchly (S. B. J.) on experiments on
evaporation and temperature made at
Wisbeach, 44.
*Smith (Major E.) on the Livingstone
east-coast aid expedition, 173; *on
the trade of the East-African coast,
173.
— (Prof. H. J. S.), Address by, to the
Mathematical and Physical Section,
1; *on modular equations, 24.
Snowdon, Dr. A. Schuster on a curious
ap cele observed on the top of,
4
*Solar investigations, J. N. Lockyer on
the results of some recent, 35.
*Souakim, Capt. Rokeby on the survey
for a telegraph-line between Berber
and, 173.
South-African vegetation, J. Shaw on
some of the changes going on in the,
through the introduction of the Merino
sheep, 105.
Spectra of certain boric and phosphoric
acid blowpipe beads, C. Horner on
the, 64.
of gases, Dr, A. Schuster on the in-
fluence of temperature and pressure on
the widening of the lines in the, 89.
*Spectral lines, Lord Rayleigh on a
natural limit to the sharpness of the,
39
Spiller (J.) on artificial magnetite, 66.
*Spottiswoode (W.) on triple tangent
planes, 24.
Squalls, G. M. Whipple on the passage
of, across the British Isles, 44.
Starfish, the discovery of a species of,
246
in the Devonian beds of South Devon,
A. Champernowne on, 77 ; H. Wood-
ward on, 77.
Steam, R. Sutcliffe on the economical
generation of, 216.
——, R. Sutcliffe on the economical uti-
lization of, 217.
-boilers, J. Waugh on the preven-
tion of incrustation in, 219,
*Steamer, Channel, J. White on a form
- of, 219,
Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on ethereal
friction, 32.
Rigg sdzessing in Bradford, A. Neill on,
214,
—— implements from British Guiana,
F. W. Rudler on, 148.
*Struthers (Prof. C. A.) on the diverti-
culum of the small intestine in man,
considered as arudimentary structure,
134,
Stump-Cross Caverns at Greenhow, near
Pately Bridge, J. W. Ellis on the, 80.
Sulphuric acid, Dr. H. E. Armstrong on
the action of, on ethylaniline and di-
methylaniline, 62.
*Sun, J. N. Lockyer on the elements in
_ the, 65.
Sun-spot periodicity, C. Meldrum on the
periodicity of cyclones and rainfall in
connexion with the, 43.
Superposed vibrations, Prof. A. 8. Her-
schel on a new form of pendulum for
exhibiting, 48.
Sur Virrationalité de la base des loga-
rithmes hyperboliques, par Ch. Her-
- mite, 22,
*Surface of zero curvature and finite
extent, Prof. Clifford on a, 9.
Sutcliffe (R.) on the economical genera-
tion of steam, 216; on the economical
- utilization of steam, 217.
Symmetric conductors, and the con-
struction of lightning-conductors, Prof.
Zenger on, 41.
Symons (G. J.) on Negretti and Zam-
bra’s test-gauge solar-radiation ther-
mometer, 47.
Synge (Major-Gen. M.) on purity and
_impurity in the use and abuse of
water, 200,
Taylor (J. E.) on the occurrence of ele-
phant remains in the basement beds of
the Red Crag, 91.
*Tea, adulteration of, A. H, Allen on the
detection of, 62.
*Telegraphy, A. de Marcoartu on the
application of, to navigation and me-
- teorology, 43,
REPORT—1873.
Temperature, F. H. Wenham ‘on the
influence of, on the elastic force of
certain forms of springs, 49.
*——, 8S. B. J. Skertchly on experiments
on evaporation and, made at Wis-
beach, 44,
—— and pressure, Dr. A. Schuster on
the influence of, on the widening of
the lines in the spectra of gases, 39.
Thanet sand, W. Whitaker on the oc-
currence of, in the 8. W. part of Suf-
folk (Sudbury), 92.
Theory of numbers, J. W. L. Glaisher
on certain propositions in the, deduced
from elliptic-transcendent identities,
10.
Thermal conductiyities of certain rocks,
notes by Prof. Herschel of some ex-
periments on the, 40.
*—— conductivity, Prof. G. Forbes on,
40.
Thermometer, Negretti and Zambra’s
test-gauge solar-radiation, G. J. Sy-
mons on, 47,
——, Rutherford’s minimum, a new form
of, devised and constructed by Mr.
James Hicks, G. M. Whipple on, 50.
Thomas (W. C.) on the centre-rail rail-
way, 219.
Thomson (J.) on the gorges and rapids
of the Upper Yangtsze, 173.
Tisley (S. C.) on a compound pendulum
apparatus, 48.
*Tomes (C. 8.) on the development of
the armadillo’s teeth, 134.
Topley (W.) on the correspondence be-
tween some areas of apparent upheaval
and the thickening of subjacent beds,
91; and G. A. Lebour on the Whin
Sill of Northumberland, 92.
*Trade-routes in Persia, Major St. John
on, 173.
through Mongolia and Zungaria,
Ney Elias on, 169.
Tramways, the Lisbon steam-, 1873, W,
H. Barlow, jun., on, 210.
*Tree-aloe from 8.E, Africa, T. Baines
on a, 104.
“aes prea planes, W. Spottiswoode
on, 24,
*Turcomania, E, D. Morgan on Russian
accounts of Khiva and, 172.
Tylor (E. B.) on the relation of morality
to religion in the early stages of civi-
lization, 148,
*
Undereurrents of the Bosphorus and
Dardanelles, Dr. Carpenter on the, 41,
*Venus, M. Janssen on the application
INDEX II. 247
of photography to show the passage
of, across the sun’s disk, 35.
Venus, the planet, Prof. Schafarik on
the visibility of the dark side of, 35.
Vocal organs in living centenarians, Sir
G. D. Gibb, Bart., on the, 128.
Wace (Rey. H.) on the calculation of
logarithms, 24.
*Wages and salaries, Prof. L. Levi on
the increased cost of living, and its
relation to the rates of, 196.
*Warm-blooded animals, Dr. Binz on
the action of alcohol on, 124.
Water, Major-Gen. Synge on purity and
impurity in the use and abuse of, 200.
*Watson (Dr.) on the anatomy and
physiology of the Indian elephant, 134.
*Waugh (J.) on the prevention of in-
crustation in steam-boilers, 219.
Weapons, prehistoric names of, H.
Clarke on, 141.
*Webster (T.) on the advancement of
science by industrial invention, 219 ;
*on the assimilation of the patent
systems of Great Britain and of the
nited States, 219.
Wenham (F. H.) on the influence of
temperature on the elastic force of
certain forms of springs, 49.
Whin Sill of Northumberland, W.
Topley and G. A. Lebour on the, 92.
Whipple (G. M.) on the passage of
squalls across the British Isles, 44 ;
on a new form of Rutherford’s mini-
mum thermometer, devised and con-
structed by Mr. James Hicks, 50; on
a new electrical anemograph, 50.
Whitaker (W.) on the occurrence of
Thanet sand and of crag in the 8. W,
art of Suffolk (Sudbury), 92.
+White (J.) on a form of Channel
steamer, 219.
White corpuscles, their nature and
origin in the animal organism, Dr,
Goodman on, 129,
| Willeock (J.) on the history, progress,
and description of the Bowling [ron-
works, 219.
Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on fern-stems
and petioles of the coal-measures, 106.
*Willis (Dr.) on the flora of the envi-
rons of Bradford, 106.
Woodward (C. J.) on an improved form
of oxyhydrogen lantern for the use of
lecturers, 52; onaform of gas-genera-
tor, 66.
—— (H.) on the discovery of a species
of starfish in the Devonian beds of
South Devon, 77; and R. Etheridge,
jun., on some specimens of Dithyro-
carts from the carboniferous limestone
series, East Kilbride, and from the
Old Red Sandstone (?) of Lanarkshire,
with notes ontheir geological position,
&c., 92; on new facts bearing on the
inquiry concerning forms intermediate
between birds and reptiles, 93.
Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) on new deriva-
tives from codeine and morphine, 67.
Yangtsze, the Upper, J. Thomson on
the gorges and rapids of, 173.
Yoredale rocks of Wensleydale, W.
Horne on the occurrence of fish and
amphibian remains in the, 84,
Yorkshire, Rey. J. F. Blake on addi-
tional remains of pleistocene mammals
in, 75.
, the West Riding of, C. P. Hob-
kirk on the mosses of, 104.
, , I. Lister on birds observed
in, in former and recent years, 116,
*Zenger (Prof.) on the correlation be-
tween specific weight and specific
heat of chemical elements, 40; on
symmetric conductors, and the con-
struction of lightning-conductors, 41,
*Zungaria, Ney Elias on trade-routes
through Mongolia and, 169,
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251
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255
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tions ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on some points in the Meteorology of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report
on the Physiological Actions of: Medicines ;—Dr. Von Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843;
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof, Erman, on
the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-Electricity;—Baron Senflenberg, on the Seif-
Registering Meteorological Instruments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—
W. R. Birt, Second Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—G. It. Porter, on the Progress and Pre-
sent Extent of Savings’ Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr, Playfair,
Report on the Gases evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting
of Iron ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals and Vege-
tables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—Appendix, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,
1846, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS:—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—Sixth
Report of the Committee on the Vitality uf Seeds ;—Dr. Schunck, on the Colouring Matters of
Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines;—R. Hunt, Report on the Ac-
tinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L.
Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis;—Prof. Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical
254
Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for
1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress, present Amount, and probable future Condition of the
Tron Manufacture in Great Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—
Prof. Owen, Report on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—
J. Phillips, on Anemometry ;—J. Percy, M.D,, Report on the Crystalline Flags;—Addenda
to Mr. Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,
1847, Published at 18s.
ConTEeNTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at different de-
grees of diluiion, and on the relation which exists between the Development of Heat and the
coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the Growth of Plants ;—R. Mallet, on
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof. Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes;
—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and
Sir James C. Ross, Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of
completing our knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Re-
port of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and recent
progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various methods of Research
which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the relations of that Science to
other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on the results of the recent Egyptian
researches in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;
—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the
Modern Celtic Dialects still extant;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the
Avian and Aboriginal Languages of India;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric
Waves ;—Prof. W. H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col.
E. Sabine ;—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
Contents :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
J. Glynn on Water-pressure Engines ;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns ;—Eighth
Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on At-
mospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use
made of the gaseous escape from the Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works;—R. Hunt,
Report of progress in the investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of
Plants allied to those of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Tem-
perature Tables printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof.
Dove on his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them; with an in-
troductory Notice by Lt.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress of the investigation
on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. Phillips, Notice of further
progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s Letter to the Assistant-General Secre-
tary;—A. Erman, Second Report on the Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee
relative to the expediency of recommending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tug NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.
ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Earl
of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;—Prof. Daubeny, on the
Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, especially of those allied tu the Fossil
Remains found in the Coal Formation 3—Dr. Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;
—Report of the Committee on the Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and
eee eee
253
Animals;—Ninth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from
Aug. 9, 1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations at Kew.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or toe TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
Contents :—R, Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Rev. Prof,
Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Dr. T. Williams, on the Structure and
History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteorological Observations taken
at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840 to the 31st of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on
the present State of our Knowledge of the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen.
Briggs, Report on the Aboriginal Tribes of India;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Ob-
servatory of the British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution and
Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts of Spain, Por-
tugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa;—Registration of the Periodical Phenomena of
Plants and Animals ;—Sugegestions to Astronomers for the Observation of the Total Eclipse
of the Sun on July 28, 1851.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tute TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
ConTENTs :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Eleventh Re-
port of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on
the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the Air and Water of Towns: Action of
Porous Strata, Water and Organic Matter ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider
the probable Effects in an Economical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tro-
pical Forests ;—A. Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs
in the Higher Cryptogamous Plants;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com-
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;—
Dr. I. Williams, Report on the British Annelida;—R. Mallet, Second Report on the Facts of
Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on the System of Meteoro-
logical Observations proposed to be established in the United States ;—Col. Sabine, Report
on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the Performance of his three Magneto-
graphs during the Experimental Trial at the Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concern-
ing the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850 to July 31,
1851 ;—Ordnance Survey of Scotland,
Together with the Transactions of the Scctions, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
1852, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena 3—Twelfth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof.
Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the In-
fluence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Piants;—A Manual of Ethnological
Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stas
tions under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the
Conduction of Heat;—R. Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges,
on the Composition and Economy of the Flax Plant;—W, Thompson, on the Freshwater
Fishes of Ulster; —W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland;—W. Wills,
onthe Meteorology of Birmingham;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water- Wheel ;—J. B, Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees,
256
PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.
Contents :—Rev. Pref. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1852-53;
—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Oldham, on the Rise,
Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull;—William Fairbairn, Experi-
mental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomotive Boilers, and the causes which
lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—
Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition
and Economy of the Flax Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the
Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations;
—John P. Bell, M.D., Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degradation of the
Yorkshire Coast; First Report of Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Sur-
face, as compared with that of the Earth;—R. Mallet, Provisional Report on Earthquake
Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;—William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of
strength and the causes of deterioration ;—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earth-
quake Phenomena (continued). eit
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
~ ContENTs:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued) ;
—Major-General Chesney, en the Construction and General Use of Efficient Life-Boats;—Rev.
Prof, Powell, Third Report on the present State of our Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel
Sabine, on some of the results obtained at the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—
Colonel Portlock, Report of the Committee cn Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting
Seismometers ;—Dr. Gladstone, cn the influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants, Part 2;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;—W. G,
Armstrong, on the Application of Water- Pressure Machinery i—J. B. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald Smith, on the Deviations of the
Compass in Wooden and Jron Ships ;—Fourteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on
the Growth and Vitality of Seeds.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-Mines and
Revolving Storms;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers
of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the
British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the present state of our knowledge on the Supply
of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report en Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;
—Report of Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those pro-
perties of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance to the
durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical Objects in
Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-Registering Anemometer and Rain-
Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, and Recom=
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.
ConTENTs :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report upon the
effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which within the last
fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on progress in Re-
searches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;— Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde,
1856 ;--Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;—Prof.
Bunsen and Dr. H. LE. Roscoe, Photochemical Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigo-
nometry of the Parabola, and the Geometrical Origin of Logarithms ;—R. MacAndrew, Report
257
on the Marine Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and Neighbouring Seas, and
the physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—
T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and Oysters of the British Shores;
—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks, and on the Theoretical Expla-
nations of these Phenomena: Part I. ;--Dr. T. Wright on the Stratigraphical Distribution of
the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W., Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various
Temperatures ;——C. Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;-—J. S. Bowerbank, on
the Vital Powers of the Spongiadw;—-Report of a Committee upon the Experiments conducted
at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Provisional Report on
the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of Minerals, Plants and Animals
for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Progress in Researches on the Measure-
ment of Water by Weir Boards;--R. Mallet, on Observations with the Seismometer ;—A.
Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to con-
sider the formation of a Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.
Contents :—A. Cayley, Report on the Recent Progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;—Six-
teenth and final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull;—Report of a
Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measuring and Registering the Tonnage
of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and to frame more perfect rules, in order that
a correct and uniform principle may be adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities
and Working-Power of Steam Ships;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of
some Deep Mines in Cornwall;—Dr. G. Plarr, De quelques Transformations de la Somme
—% afl+1gé|+1g5d+1
2) Weriyt tl ft
est exprimable par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation ati+1 désignant le produit des
t facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &c....(a+¢—1);—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine Zoology
of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish Channel ;—Charles
Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the extent to which Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of Shipping, as respects the Proportions of
Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. S., Bowerbank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spon-
giadz ;—John P. Hodges, M.D., on Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee
on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, C.E., on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to
sustain the passage of Railway Trains ;—Professor W. A. Miller, M.D., on Electro-Chemistry ;
—John Simpson, R.N., Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the ‘ Plover’s’
Wintering-place, Foint Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, LL.D., on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indeterminate
Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and Equatorial
Mountings ;—Professor James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the Botanical
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;— William Fairbairn,on the Resistance
of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging
Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspen-
sion Chains, and a Comparison of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders,
to produce equal deflections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, M.A., Evidences of Lunar
Influence on Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into
Liverpool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts‘of the United Kingdom.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tnt TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake Phe-
nomena ;— Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857-58 ;—R. H.
Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, especially on the
internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report of the Committee on the
- Patent Laws;—S. Eddy, on the ].ead Mining Districts of Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme
Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders;—Dr. E. Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene,
Report on the Marine Fauna of the South and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Measurement of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-
General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael
Connal and William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, and Port
Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ; Report of the Cominittee on Ship-
ping Statistics;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments employed in the Mag-
netic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin
Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dub-
lin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings,
with reference to the necessity for improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation
on the Rivers of British India;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Com-
mittee ;—Appendix to Mr. Vignoles’s paper “‘ On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sus-
tain the passage of Railway Trains ;’’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society and
the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and Meteorological Ob-
servatories;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Anemometer.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Recommenda~
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rue TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.
Contents :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of Plants in the
Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field
Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated
Crops ;—A. Thomson, Esq., of Banchory, Report on the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools;
—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahago, Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Re-
sults obtained by the Mechanico-Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William
Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for
Railway Trains ;—Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for
1858-59 ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;
—Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., late Re-
sident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, Report on
the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—G. C. Hyndman,
Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James Oldham, Continuation of Report
of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull;—Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Trans-
port Economy as affected by the Consumption of Coals;—Warren de la Rue, Report on the
present state of Celestial Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil
and Recent Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request of the
British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The Patent Laws:
Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar Influence on the Tem-
perature of the Air;—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Construction of the Self-recording
Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew Observatory of the British Association ;—
Prof. H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the
Committee on Steamship performance ;—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee
of the British Association appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan,
Preliminary Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and Recommendas
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1859-60 ;—
J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. Anderson, Report on
the Excavations in Dura Den ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots in the
Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of
the Committee on Balloon Ascents;—Prof. W. ‘'homson, Report of Committee appointed to
prepare a Self-recording Atmospheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for ob-
serving Atmospheric Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of
i RR i ae i a i
259
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from a.p, 2 to A.D. 1860 ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the Performance of
Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its Diameter and Pitch to the
Form of the Vessel;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the Effects of long-continued Heat,
illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second Report of the Committee on Steamship Per-
formance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the
British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.
Together with the ‘I'ransactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.
ConTENTS:—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. E.
Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily Functions of Pri-
soners, Part I.;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differences in the Dynamic
Properties of Steamships ;—Warren De la Rue, Report on the Progress of Celestial Photo-
graphy since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the Theory of Exchanges, and its re-
cent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Pro-
gress and Present Condition of Manufacturing Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—
Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on
Experiments on the Gauging of Water by Triangular Notches ;—Dr, A. Voelcker, Report on
Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to
cultivated Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report onthe Present State of our'Know-
ledge respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea;—Dr. P. L. Sclater
and F. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds of the
Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results of Deep-sea
Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new to Science or to the
British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the
Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Physical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr,
Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey
and Dee;—Third Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys,
Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals
in our Ships and Harbours ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to
ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local
Rock Formations ;—T, Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859;
—4J. Oldham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Professor G. Dickie,
Brief Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Professor Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman Islands, and
on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel Sykes, Report of the
Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Repetition of the Magnetic Sur-
vey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East
Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and
the Force of Impact by Projectiles at High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report
to determine the effect of Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon
Wrought-Iron Girders ;—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents ;—Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part ITI.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTY-SECOND MEETING, at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.
Contents :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861-62 ;-—
G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F. J. Evans,
Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations on the Number ;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles adapted for Attacking
Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observatory at Kew, from a Report
presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. de Souza;—H. T. Mennell, Report
on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Colling-
wood, Report upon the best means of advancing Science through the agency of the Mercan-
tile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin,
Provisional Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Com-
mittee for investigating the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Do-
260
negal ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in
connexion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—Fleeming
Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal;—W. Fairbairn, on the Me-
chanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities;—A. Cayley, Report on the Pro-
gress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report
on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—
G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Ther-
mometric Observations in the Alps ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging
on the N. and E. Coasts of Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific
Evidence in Courts of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tne THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1563, Published at £1 5s.
Contents :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to Warlike Pur-
poses ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of Donegal, and of
the Rocks associated with them ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Committee appointed for
Exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge;—G. D. Gibb, Report on the
Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. Aken, on the Transmutation of
Spectral Rays, Part I.;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report
of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by
the Indian Government on the Foods used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A.
Gages, Synthetical Researches on the Formation of Minerals, &c. ;—R. Mallet, Preliminary
Report on the Experimental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the
Temperature, State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours ;—Report
of the Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G, J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Balloon Ascents
made in 1863;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North America ;—Professor Airy,
Report on Steam-boiler Explosions;—C. W. Siemens, Observations on the Electrical Resist-
ance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials under Pressures up to 300 Atmo-
spheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron Ships and the Progress of Iron Ship-
building on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on
the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson,
on the Local Manufacture of Lead, Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c.;—Messrs. Daglish and
Forster, on the Magnesian Limestone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron
in connexion with the Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manu-
facture of Steel in the Northern District ;—H. J. 8. Smith, Report on the Theory of Num-
bers, Part V.
Together with ‘the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or true THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.
ConTEnTs :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Mea-
sures ;—T. S. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development and Migration
of the Entozoa ;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of Nitrite of Amy];
—ZJ. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—G. S. Brady, Report on
_ deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher,
Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report
on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the Committee on the Distribution of the Organic
Remains of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of
Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and
1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the pro-
posed Atlantic Cable.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
i
261
PROCEEDINGS or THE THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.
Contents :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F. Buckland,
Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—Report of the
Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee on Zoological Nomen-
clature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Corn-
wall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Re-
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeen-
shire ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bailoon Ascents ;—Interim Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound under Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;
—Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal Variations
in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and Birmingham ;—B. W.
Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of certain of the Amyl Compounds ;
—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance ;—Report of the Committee appointed to communicate with the Russian Govern-
ment respecting Magnetical Observations at Tiflis; —Appendix to Report on the Distribution
of the Vertebrate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First
Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—H. J. S. Smith, Report
on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Unifor-
mity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;—A. G. Findlay,
on the Bed of the Ocean;—Professor A. W. Williamson, on the Composition of Gases
evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Phillips’s Address,.and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting-
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTs :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen, Preliminary
Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;
—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed;—Report on the Resistance of Water
to Floating and Immersed Bodies;—Dr. Norris, Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr.
Richardson, Report on the Physiological Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—
H. Woodward, Second Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—
Second Report on the “ Menevian Group,” and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pem-
brokeshire ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides ;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II.;—J. Alder, Notices of some Invertebrata, in
connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report ;—G. 8. Brady, Report on the Ostracoda dredged
amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;—Report on the Transmis-
sion of Sound-Signals under Water;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report of the
Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures, with reference to the Interests of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Bal-
loon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;— Report on the pene-
tration of Iron-clad Ships by Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the
Alcohols ;—Report on Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report
on Maltese Fossiliferous Caves, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recommendations
of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.
Contents :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—Third
Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manufacture of Iron
in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;
—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Compounds ;—Preliminary Report on
the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Greenland ;—Report of the Steamship Perform-
ance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of Port Louis in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the
Construction and Works of the Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Me-
262
chanical Froperties of Stee] ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of
Devon and Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Masca-
rene Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by the
Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained in the Shet-
land Seas;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests of
Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the Association
aud its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rue THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nov-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s. at 1G
ConTEnts :—Report of the Lunar Committee;—Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classification of the
Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report on Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis
of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectrometry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of
the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary
Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredging among the Shetland Isles;—Reports on the Crustacea,
&c., and on the Annelida and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;— Report on the
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron, Part I. ;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships
and their Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains ;—Report on the desirability of Explorations
between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Report on Synthetical Re-
searches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;— Report ofthe Committee on Underground Temperature;
—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Report on Polyatomic Cyanides.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recommenda-
tions of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, Au-
gust 1869, Published at £1 2s.
Contents :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland;—Report on the existing
knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on
Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination of the Gases existing
in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on Real Property ;—On the Che-
mical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall;—On Fossils obtained. at Kiltorkan
Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Report on the Chemical Na-
ture of Cast Iron;—Report on the Marine Fauna and [Flora of the south coast of Devon
and Cornwall;—Report on the Practicability of establishing ‘a Close Time” for the Protec-
tion of Indigenous Animals ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel;—Second Report on British Fossil Corals;—Report of the Committee appointed to
get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-limestone Corals for Photographing ;— Report on
the rate of Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, De-
vonshire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action ;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on Obser-
vations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on
the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second Report of the Steam-
ship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Iyperelliptic
Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Limestone and their Organic Con-
tents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral Veins and the Adjacent Strata;—Report of
the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Report on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water
containing Solid Matter in Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—
Report on the Physiological Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of
Form considered in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machi-
nery subjected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Repert on Standardsof Electrical Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
263
PROCEEDINGS or run FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Septem-
ber 1870, Published at 18s.
Contents :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on the
Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary Deposits of
the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the practica-
bility of establishing ‘A Close Time”’ for the protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report
on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and
prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Pro-
pulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Me-
teors, 1869-70 ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hypereliiptic Functions ;—
Report on Tidal Observations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of
the Methyl and Allied Series ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best means of
providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Recommen-
dations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.
Contents :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Fourth Report on Underground Tem-
perature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870--71 ;—Fifth Report on the
Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report for the purpose of urging on
Her Majesty’s Government the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the
approaching Census in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as
to admit of ready and effective comparison ;—Report for the purpose of Superintending the
publication of Abstracts of Chemical papers;—Report of the Committee for discussing
Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Second Provisional Report on the
Thermal Conductivity of Metals;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Third
Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the
process of Arterialization ;—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of
physiological Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical
Compounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on the
Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological
Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report on the Thermal Equivalents of
the Oxides of Chlorine ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time” for
the protection of Indigenous Animals;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland; Report on
the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal
Observations.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY -SECOND MEETING, at
Brighton, August 1872, Published at £1 4s.
Contents :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Supplemen-
tary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the Committee for
Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Eighth
Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the Foundation of Zoological Stations in
different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary
Report of the Committee appointed to Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays
arranged upon a Scale of Wave-numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—
Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-
friction experienced by a Plane moving through water;—Report of the Committee on the
Antagonism between the Action of Active Substances;—Fifth Report on Underground
Temperature ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance
Pyrometer ;—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim Report
of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and Currents ;—Report
on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee on a Geographical Explora.
tion of the Country of Moab;—Sur l’élimination des Fonctions Arbitraires ;— Report on the
264
Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;
—Report of the Committee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for
Reward in respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different
Departments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of the
Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential
Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time” for the preservation
of indigenous animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classification of Fossil Crustacea ;
—Report of the Committee to organize an Expedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec.
12, 1871; Preliminary Report of a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report
on Recent Progressin Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;
—On the Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter's Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
Printed by Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Strect.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
LIST
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS.
CORRECTED TO APRIL 1874.
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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1878-74.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT),
General Sir EDWARD SaBInF, K.C.B.. R.A.. D.C.L., F.R.S.
Bir PHILIP DE M. GREY-EGERTON. Bart., M. ., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S.
PRESIDENT.
PROFESSOR A. W. WILLIAMSON, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.8.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. the Fart OF Rossk, F.R.S.,F.R.A.S. Sir Jonn Hawxsuaw, F.R.S., F.G.S.
The Right Hon. Lorp Houcuron, D.C.L., F.R.8. J. P. Gassiov, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
The Right Hon. W. E. ForsTEr, M.P. Professor PHILLIPS, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S.
MatrHew W. THoMPsoN, Esq., Mayor of Bradford.
PRESIDENT ELECT,
PROFESSOR J. TYNDALL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
pee ieee Hon. the EArt or ENNISKILLEN, D.C.L., a ae Dr. HENRY, President of Queen’s College,
“KS. elfast.
The Right Hon. the Eart oF Rosse, F.R.S., | Dr. T. ANDREWS, F.R.S., F.C.S.
F.R.A.S. Rey. Dr. Ropinson, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir RicwaRD WALLACE, Bart., M.P. Professor Stokes, D.C.L., Sec.R.S.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
W. Quartus Ewart, Esq.
Dr. P. REDFERN.
T. Sincxair, Esq., J.P.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BELFAST.
WituiaM J. C. ALLEN, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
BEDDOE, JouN, M.D., F.R.8. MAXWELL, Professor J. CLFRK, F.R.S,
BRAMWELL, F. J., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. MERRIFIELD, C. W., Esq., F.R.S.
Desus, Dr. H., F.R.S. NoRTHCOTE,Rt.Hon.Sir STAFFORDH.,Bt.,M.P.
DE La RvuE, WARREN, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.8. OmMANNEY, Admiral E., C.B., F.R.9.
Evans, Jouy, Esgq., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esgq., F.R.S.
Fitcu, J. G., Esq., M.A. PRESTWICH, J., Esq., F.R.S.
FLowER, Professor W. H., F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.
Foster, Prof. G. C., F.R.S. ScuaTeER, Dr. P. L, F.R.S.
Garton, FRANcIs, Esq., F.R.S. SIEMENS, C. W., Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Hirst, Dr, T. ARCHER, F.R.S. SMITH, Professor H. J. 8., F.R.S.
Hueeins, WILLIAM, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. STRACHEY, Major-General, F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. Gwyn, Esgq., F.R.S. SiRANGE, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S.
LocxyEr, J. N., Esq., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The President and President Elect, the Vice-Presidents and Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and
Assistant General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents of former
years, viz. :—
The Duke of Devonshire. Richard Owen, M.D.. D.C.L. The Duke of Buccleuch, K.B.
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir W. Fairbairn, Bart., LL.D. Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L.
Sir G.'B. Airy, Astronomer Royal. | The Rev. Professor Willis, F.R.S.| Professor Stokes, D.C.L.
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir W.'G. Armstrong,'C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.8.
The Earl of Harrowby. Sir Chas. Lyell, Bart., M.A.,LL.D. | Prof. Sir W: Thomson, D.C.L.
The Duke of areyt Professor Phillips, M.A.. D.C.L. | Dr. Carpenter, F.R.S.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S.
CENERAL SECRETARIES.
‘Capt. DouGLAs Garon, C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F:G.8., 12 Chester Etreet, Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
Prof. MicHaEt Fostex, M.D., F.R.S., Trinity College, Cambridge. :
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
GEORGE GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., F.C.8., Harrow-on the-hill, Middlesex.
CENERAL TREASURER.
‘WILLIAM SPorTIswoonk, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 50 Grosvenor Place, London, 8.W.
AlWDiTORS,
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Heq., F-B.S. Professor Phillips, F.R.8. Professor Sylvester, F.R.S.
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LIST OF MEMBERS
Or THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1874.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not
entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in ztalics.
Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant General Secretary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
Year of
Election.
1866.
1863,
1856.
1873.
1863.
1873.
1860.
1873.
1854.
1873.
1869.
1860.
1872.
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough-house, Woodberry Down,
Stoke Newington, London, N.
tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham.
*AprL, Freperick Avueustus, F.R.S., F.C.S., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department, Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich, 8.5.
tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.
§Abercrombie, William. 5 Fairmount, Bradford.
*Abernethy, James. 2 Delahay-street, Westminster, London, 8.W.
§Abernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
§Abernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
*Abney, Captain, R.E. St. Margaret’s, Rochester.
tAbraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool.
§Ackroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford.
tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
*ACLAND, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Re-
gius Professor of Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-
street, Oxford.
tAcianp, Sir Tuomas Dyxs, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., M.P. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter; and Atheneum Club, London, 8.W.
Adair, John, 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
gApams, A. Lritu, M.A., MB, F.R.S., F.G.S., Staff Surgeon-
Major. 30 Bloomfield-street, Westbourne-terrace, W.; and
Junior United Service Club, Charles-street, St. James’s, 5. W.
*Apams, Joun Covcn, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
B
9
a
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871.
1869.
1873.
1860.
1865.
1845,
1864.
1871.
1842.
1871,
1859,
1871.
1862.
1861.
1872.
1857.
1859,
1873.
1858.
1850,
1867.
18653.
1859.
1871.
1871.
1861.
1852,
1865.
1844.
18738.
§Adams, John R. 15 Old Jewry Chambers, London, E.C.
* ADAMS, WILLIAM GRYLLs, M.A.,, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy and Astronomy in King’sCollege, London. 9 Notting-
hill-square, London, W.
§Adams-Acton, John. Margatta House, 103 Marylebone-road, N.W.
AppERLEY, The Right Hon, Sfr Cuartes Bowyer, M.P. Hams-
hall Coleshill, Warwickshire. atranicr tt oc"
Adelaide, Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South Australia.
*Adie, Patrick. Grove Cottage, Barnes, London, 8.W.
*Adkins, Henry. The Firs, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAinslie, Rey. G., D.D., Master of Pembroke College. Pembroke
Lodge, Cambridge.
*Ainsworth, Dayid. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
*Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
Ainsworth, Peter, Smithills Hall, Bolton.
*Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Whitehaven.
{Arrum, The Right Hon, the Earl of, K.T, Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W. ; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.
Arny, Sir Grorer Bropett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Pres. R.8.,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Green-
wich.
§Aitken, John. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankkfield, Halifax,
tAxcock, Sir Rurnerrorp, K.C.B, The Atheneum Club, Pall
Mall, London, W.
tAlcock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
*Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Ashton-on-Mersey, Manchester...
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
ALDERSON, Sir Jamas, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy-
aici to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London,
W.
tAldridge, John, M.D. 20 Ranelagh-road, Dublin.
tALExaNDER, Major-General Sir James Epwanp, C.B., K.C.LS.,
F.R.AAS., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B,
§Alexander, Reginald, M.D. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford.
tArexanDER, Wi~i1aM, M.D. Halifax,
tAlexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D,, F.R.S,E. Pinkieburn, Mus-
selburgh, by Edinburgh.
tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.
fAllan, Miss. Bridge-street, Worcester,
tAllan, Alexander, Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
tAllan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, E.C.
Allan, William,
§Allen, Alfred H., F.C.S. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield,
tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
Allen, William. 50 Henry-street, Dublin.
*ALLEN, Wrii1AM J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.
fAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
*Allis, Thomas, F.L.8. Osbaldwick Hall, near York. j
*ALLMAN, Guorae J., M.D.,F.R.S.L. &E.,M.R.LA., F.L.S., Emeritus
Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh,
21 Marlborough-road, London, N.W.; and Atheneum Club,
London, 8.W.
*Ambler, Henry. Watkinson Hall, near Halifax,
§Ambler, John, North-park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 3
Year of
Election
1850.
1871.
1852.
1850,
1859.
1850,
1870.
1853.
‘1857.
1859.
1868.
1868.
1870.
1855.
1851.
1865.
1861.
1867.
1873.
1857.
1856.
1868.
1871.
1870.
-1853.
1870.
1873.
1842.
1866,
1861.
1861.
1861.
1872.
1875.
1858,
1866.
*Amery, John, .S.A. Manor House, Eckington, Pershore.
fAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.
*Anderson, James. Battlefield House, Langside, Glasgow.
ft Anderson, Sir James.
tAnderson, John, 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.
fANpDERSON, Patrick. 15 Kinge-street, Dundee.
tAnprrson, Tuomas, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Glasgow.
fAnderson, Thomas Darnley. West Dingle, Liverpool.
*Anderson, William (Yr.). 2 Lennox-street, Edinburgh.
*AnpREWwsS, Tuomas, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.C.8., Vice-President
of, and Professor of Chemistry in, Queen’s College, Belfast,
fAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
fAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.
*AnsteD, Davin Tuomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.8. 8 Dulke-
street, Adelphi, London, W.C.; and Melton, Suffolk.
tAnstig, Franois E., M.D, 16 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Anthony, John, M.D. Caius College, Cambridge.
Apsoun, James, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Chemistry,
Trinity College, Dublin. South Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
tAppleby, C. J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.4.
fArcher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*Arcuer, Professor THomas C., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
of Science and Art. West Newington House, Edinburgh.
tAne@y3t, His Grace the Dule of, K.T., LL.D., P.RS. 1. & E.. 1'.G.8.
Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, 8. W. ; and Inyerary, Argyll-
shire.
tArmitage, J. W., M.D. 9 Huntziss-row, Scarborough.
§Armitage, William. 7 Meal-street, Mosley-street, Manchester,
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Hrrol, N.B.
§Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.C.8, London Institution, Finsbury-
cireus, E.C,
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
*ARMSTRONG, Sir WriL1aAM Grorer, O.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
8 Great George-street, London, 8.W,; and Elswick Works,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, William Jones, M.A. Mount Irwin, Tynna, Co. Armagh.
tArnold, Edward., F.C.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
tArnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B.
§Arnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, N.W.
*Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S.W.
*Ash, Dr. T, Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
§Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham.
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
tAspland, Alfred, Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Bek soe Algernon Sydney. Glamorgan House, Durdhbam Down,
ristol.
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
tAston, Thomas. 4 Elm-court, Temple, London, B.C,
§Atchison, Arthur T, Rose-hill, Dorking.
§Atchison, D. G. Tyersall Hall, Yorkshire.
tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wicht.
fAtherton, J. H., F.C.8. Long-row, Nottingham,
4
LIST OF MEMBIERS,
Year of
Election.
1865.
1861.
1865,
1865.
1858.
1842,
1861.
1858.
1863.
18650.
1865.
1865.
1867.
1855.
tAtkin, Alfred. Guyiflin’s-hill, Birmingham,
tAtkin, Eh. Newton Heath, Manchester.
*ArKINSON, EpMuND, F.C.S. 8 The Terrace, York Town, Surrey.
*Atkinson, G. Clayton. 2 Windsor-terzace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Atkinson, John Hastings. 14 Hast Parade, Leeds.
* Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 113 Abington-road,
Kensington, London, W.
tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
Atkinson, William. Ashton Hayes, near Chester.
*ArTFIELD, Professor J., Ph.D., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-square,
London, W.C.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E. C., M.A. Stoke Abbott Rectory,
Beaminster, Dorset.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Avery, William Henry. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAvison. Thomas, F.S.A. Fulwood Park, Liverpool. ‘
*Ayrton, W.S., F.S.A. Cliffden, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
Babbage, B. Herschel. 1 Dorset-street, Manchester-square, London,
W.
*BaBINGTON, CHARLES CaRDALE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge. :
Bache, Rey. Samuel. 44 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland.
. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
. *Bagg, Stanley Clark. Fairmount Villa, Montreal, Canada,
. §Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.
55. {Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.
. {Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
. TBaillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
. {Bary, Wrotram Heim, ¥.L.S., l.G.S., Acting Palzontologist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street ; and Apsley
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
. §Bain, James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Bain, Richara. Manor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
5, Barn, Rey. W. J. Wellingborough.
*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington.
*Barnes, Epwarp. Belgraye-mausions, Grosyenor-gardens, London
S.W.; and St. Ann’s-hill, Burley, Leeds.
58. {Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.
5. [Barnes, Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 85 <Austen-street, King’s Lynn,
Norfolk.
58. tBaines, T. Blackbuim. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.
6. § Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.
. *Baker, Henry Granyille. Bellevue, Horsforth, near Leeds.
5. {Baker, James P. Wolverhampton.
. *Baker, John. Gatley-hill, Cheadle, Manchester,
5. tBaker, Robert I. barham House, Leamingion.
. *Baker, Wiliam. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
» §Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
. TBalding, James, M.R.C.S. Barkway, Royston, Hertfordshire.
. *Baldwin, The Hon, Robert,
LIST OF MEMBERS, os)
Year of
Election.
1871.
1871.
1859,
tBalfour, Francis Maitland, Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Balfour, G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
*Batrour, Joun Hutton, M.D., M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. 27 Inverleith-
row, Edinburgh.
*Bat1, JouN, F.R.S., F.LS., MR.LA. 24 St. George’s-road, Eecles-
ton-square, London, 8.W.
. *Baiy, Ropert StaweEtt, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanies in the Royal College of Science
of Ireland. . 47 Wellington-place, Clyde-road, Dublin.
. {Ball, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
*Ball, William. Bruce-grove, Tottenham, London, N.; and Glen
Rothay, near Ambleside, Westmoreland.
. {Balmain, William H., F.C.S. Spring Cottage, Great St. Helens,
Lancashire.
. {Bamber, Henry K.,F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street,
Westminster, 8. W.
. tBangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.
. {BanisTER, Rev. Wiii1aM, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.
{Bannerman, James Alexander. Limefield House, Higher Broughton,
near Manches<er.
. t{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
. *Barbour, George. Kingslee, Farndon, Chester.
. {Barbour, George F. 11 George Square, Edinburgh.
*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
. tBarclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
Barclay, Charles, F.S.A., M.R.A.S. Bury-hill, Dorking.
. tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Barclay, James. Catrine, Ayrshire.
. *Barelay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, F.C.
. * Barclay, Robert. .
. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
. *Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.
. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Notts.
. {Barker, John, M.D., Curator of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Treland. Waterloo-road, Dublin.
. tBarker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
. {Barxxy, Sir Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S. Bath.
. §Barlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
Barlow, Peter. 5 Great George-street, Dublin.
7. tBantow, Peter W111, F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Eliott-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
. §Bantow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S, 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,
15
S.W
. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
am. ,
. §Barnes, Richard II. Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,
W.C
*Barnes, Thomas, M.D., F.R.S.E. Bunker's Till, Carlisle.
Barnes, Thomas Addison. 40 Chester-stvect, Wrexham.
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. Avon-side, Coten End, Warwickshire.
{Barr, Major-General, Bombay Army. Culter House, near Aberdeen.
(Messrs, Forbes, Forbes & Co., 9 King William-street, London.)
6
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1861.
1860.
1872.
1852.
1866.
1858.
1862.
1858.
1855.
1858.
1873.
1868.
1857.
1852.
1864.
1870,
1858.
1861,
1866.
1866.
1869,
1871.
1848,
1873.
1868.
1842.
1864.
1852.
1851.
1863.
1869.
1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1870.
1867.
1868,
1851.
1866.
1854,
*Barr, William R.,F.G.8. Heaton Lodge, Heaton Mersey, near Man-
chester. /
{Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery.
*BarreEtt, Professor W. F., F.C.S. Royal College of Science,
Dublin.
{Barrington, Edward. Fassaroe Bray, Co. Wicklow.
tBarron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
t{Barry, Rey. A., D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s College,
London, W.C.
*Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W.
Barstow, Thomas. Garrow-hill, near York.
*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle-hill-house, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
{Bartholomew, Hugh. New Gas-works, Glasgow.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Albion Villa, Spencer-place, Leeds.
§Bartley, George C.T. Ealing, Middlesex.
*Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland.
{Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh.
tBarton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
*Barton, John. Stonehouse, Sallorgan-road, Booterstown, Dublin.
{Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
§Barucuson, ARNOLD. Blundell Sands, near Liverpool.
*Barwick, John Marshall. Albion-place, Leeds; and Glenview,
Shipley, near Leeds.
*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle,
{Bass, John H., F.G.S. 287 Camden-road, London, N.
*BasseTT, Henry. 215 Hampstead-road, London, N.W.
{Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.
{Bastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Basrian, H. Cuaruron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of
Pathological Anatomy to University College Hospital. 20
Queen Anne-street, London, W.
{Batr, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.8. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.
*Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.RS., F.LS., F.H.S. 9 Hyde Park
Gate South, London, W.
*BATEMAN, JOHN FREDERIC, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8. 16 Great George-
street, London, S.W.
§Barres, Henry Warten, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S. Savile-row,
London, W.
{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.
{Batu anp We ts, Lord ArrHuR Hervey, Lord Bishop of.
*Bathurst, Rev. W. H. Lydney Park, Gloucestershire,
{Batten, John Winterbotham, 35 Palace-gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, 8. W.
§BauERMAN, Henry, F.G.S. 22 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, 8. W.
{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester. © :
{Baxter, Edward, Hazel Hall, Dundee.
{Baxter, John B. Craig Tay House, Dundee.
{Baxtrr, R, Duptey, M.A. 6 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. ;
and Hampstead, N.W.
{Baxter, William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee.
{Bayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.
*Bayley, George. 2Cowper’s-court, Cornhill, London, F.C,
{Bayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
{Baylis, C.O., M.D. 22 Devonshire-road, Claughton, Birkenhead,
Bayly, John, 1 Brunswick-terrace, Plymouth,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 7
Year of
Election.
1860.
1833.
1861.
1872.
1870,
1855,
1861.
1871.
1859.
1864,
1860,
1866.
1870.
1873.
1846.
1865.
1847,
1873,
1871.
1871.
1859.
1860.
1855.
1862.
1871.
1853.
1864.
1863.
1867.
1842.
1854.
1866.
1864,
1870,
1871.
1838,
1870,
1870.
1852.
*Beaxe, Lronnx 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in King’s College, 61 Grosyenor-street, London, W.
*Breamisu, Ricwarp, F.R.S. Moorend, Deane Park, Bournemouth,
§Bean, William. Alfreton, Derbyshire,
{Beanes, Edward, F.0.8. Avon House, Dulwich Common, Surrey.
{Beard, Rey. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
*Beatson, William. Chemical Works, Rotherham.
er ci ae F.R.G.S. Athenseeum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
on, 8. W.
*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ipswich,
*Beazley, Capt. George G. India, (Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.)
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 31 Cornhill, London, E.C.
§Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Range, Manchester. 2]
ee Samuet H., F.R.S., F.G.8. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonards-
on-Sea,
-{Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Breppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.
§Behrens, Jacob, Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford.
{Brxe, Cuaruss T,, Ph.D., F\S.A., F.R.G.S. London Institution,
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C, 4
*BELAVENETZ, I,, Captain of the Russian Imperial Navy, F.R.1.G.S.,
M.S.C.M.A., Superintendent of the Compass Observatory,
Cronstadt. (Care of Messrs. Baring Brothers, Bishopsgate-
street, London, E.C.)
*BeLcuer, Admiral Sir Epwarp, K.C.B, F.R.AS., F.R.G.S,
13 Dorset-street, Portman-square, London, W.
§Bell, A. P. Vicarage, Sowerby Bridge, Yorkshire,
tBell, Archibald. Cleator, Carnforth.
§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
tBell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.
TBell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Christ’s Hospital, London, H.C.
{Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.
*Bext, Isaac Lowrutan,F’.C.8. 4 Seamore-place, Hyde Park, W.
*Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Cheadle, Cheshire.
tBell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull,
{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada, F
Betz, THomas, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8, The Wakes, Selborne, near
Alton, Hants.
*Bell, Thomas. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyue.
tBell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester,
{Bellhouse, William Dawson. 1 Park-street, Leeds.
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.
*Briper, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S. 88
Eaton-square, London, 8.W.; and Kingston Hall, Derby.
*Bendyshe, T. 8 Adelphi-terrace, Strand, London, W.C.
{Bennert, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.8. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W,
{Bennett, F. J. 12 Hillmarten-road, Camden-road, London, N.. _ -
{Bennett, Joun Hueuus; M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Institutes of
Medicine in the University of Edinburgh, 1 Glenfinlas-street,
Edinburgh.
*Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool. :
*Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
*Bennoch, Francis, F.S,A, 19 Tavistock-square, London, W.C,
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1857,
1848.
1870.
1865.
1848,
1842.
1863.
1868.
1863.
1848.
1866.
1870.
1862.
1865.
1858.
1859.
1863.
1870.
1868.
1863.
1864.
1855.
1842.
1873,
1866.
1842.
1841.
1871.
1868.
1866.
1869,
1859.
1855,
1870.
1863.
1849.
1846,
{Benson, Charles. 11 Fitzwilliam-square-west, Dublin.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fairfield, Manchester.
{Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
{Benson, W. Alresford, Hants.
{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne. |
{Brenruam, Gore, F.R.S., Pres. L.S. 25 Wilton-place, Knights-
bridge, London, 8. W.
Bentley, John. 9 Portland-place, London, W. : :
§BENTLEY, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College.
91 Alexandra-road, St. John’s-wood, London, N.W.
{BERKELEY, Rey. M. J., M.A., F.L.S.. Sibbertoft, MarketHarborough.
{Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
{Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea. . _
{Berry, Rev. ArthurGeorge. Monyash Parsonage, Bakewell, Derbyshire.
{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
{Besant, William Henry, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*BrssEMER, Henry. Denmark-hill, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
{Best, William. lLeydon-terrace, Leeds.
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.
{Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen. £
t{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.8. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Leeds.
{Bickerton, A. W., F.C.S. The Penn, Portswood, Southampton.
{Broper, Grorce ParKer, C.E., F.R.G,S. 24 Great George-street,
Westminster, 8. W.
tBigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
tBiggs, Robert. 17 Charles-street, Bath.
{Billings, Robert William. 4St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N,
Bilton, Rey. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Sutfolk-
street, London, 8.W.; and Chislehurst, Kent.
Binney, Epwarp Wi11M, F.R.S., F.G.8. 40 Cross-street, Man-
chester.
§Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Brrcewary, Epwin. Airedale Cliff, Newley, Leeds.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford.
*Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birks, Rey. Professor Thomas Rawson. 7 Brookside, Cambridge.
*Birley, Richard. Seedley, Pendleton, Manchester.
*Birt, Wiwi1aM Rapciirr, F.R.A.S,. Cynthia-villa, Clarendon-road,
Walthamstow, London, N.E.
*Biscuor, Gustav., Professor of Technical Chemistry in the Ander-
sonian University, Glasgow. 234 George-street, Glasgow.
{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
penham.
{Blackie, John Stewart, Professor of Greek. Edinburgh.
*Biackin, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-terrace, Glasgow.
{Blackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London. E.C,
*BLACKWALL, Rey. Joun, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst, Den-
bighshire.
{Blake, C. Carter, Ph.D., F.G.S.
*Biakr, Henry Wo taston, M.A., F.R.S. 8 Devonshire-place,
Portland-place, London, W.
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset. .
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
Year of
Election.
J845.
1861.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1859,
1859.
1858.
1870.
1845.
1866.
1859,
1871.
1859.
1866.
1863.
1871.
1866.
1861.
1835.
1861.
1861,
1849.
1863.
1867.
1858.
1872.
1868.
1871.
1850.
1870.
1868.
1866.
1872.
{Blakesley, Rev. J. W., B.D. Ware Vicarage, Hertfordshire.
§Blakiston, Matthew. 18 Wilton-crescent, 5.W.
*Blakiston, Peyton, M.D., F.R.S. 55 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
ijoaee alpen M.D. 9 Bedford-street, Bedford-square, Londor,
{Blanford, W. T., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, (12
_ Keppel-street, Russell-square, London, W.C.
*BLoMEFIELD, Rey. Leonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
Blore, con LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. 4 Manchester-square, Lon
don, W.
{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
{Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
{Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey,
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
*Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, Accrington.
{Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
t Bodmer, Rodolphe.
§Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. Louth, Lincolnshire.
*Boun, Henry G., F.LS., F.R.AS., F.RGS., F.S.S. North End
House, Twickenham.
§Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham.
{Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool. '
{Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{ Bond, Francis T., M.D.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
§Bonney, Rev. Thomas George, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. St. John’s Col-
lege, Cambridge.
Bonomi, Ignatius. 386 Blandford-square, London, N.W.
Bonomi, Josrpn. Soane’s Museum, 15 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, Lon-
don, W.C.
{Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
§Booth, James. Elmftield, Rochdale.
tBooth, Rey. James, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Vicarage, Stone,
near Aylesbury.
*Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
*Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Oxford Chambers, Oxford-street, Manchester.
tBoreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, Newmarket,
tBorries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
BoswortH, Rev. Josepu, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., M.R.1A., Professor
of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. Oxford.
§Botly, William, F.S.A,_ Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper Nor-
wood, London, 8.E.
{Botterill, John. Burley, near Leeds.
§Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
{Bottle, J. T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
{Borromuey, James THOMSON, M.A., F.C.S, The College, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. Forbreda, Belfast.
{Bouch, Thomas, C.E. Oxford-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
{Boulton, W. S. Norwich.
§Bourne, Stephen. Abberley Lodge, Hudstone-drive, Harrow.
{Bovill, William Edward, 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate
London, 8.W.
10
LIST OF MEAIBE
‘Year of
Election,
1870. §Bower, Anthony. Bowerdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1867. {Bower, Dr. John. Perth.
1846, *Bowrrs. ANK, JAmEs Scott, LL.D., F.R.8., F.G.8., F.L.S., FR. AS, ;
1856,
1863.
1869.
1869,
1863.
1863.
1871.
1865.
1872.
1869.
1870,
1861.
1842,
1857.
1863.
1862.
1858.
1864.
1870.
1864.
1865.
1870.
1870.
1870.
1866,
2 Ea St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 27 Lansdown-crescent, Cheltenham,
tBowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on- -Tyne.
Bowman, William, F.R.S. 5 Clifford-street, London, W.
{Bowring, Charles ‘is Elmsleigh, Princes’ Park, Liverpool.
{Bownrrna, J.C, Larkbeare, Exeter,
{Bowron, James. South Stocktun-on-Tees.
§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh. SPs
{Boyzz, Rey. G.D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham.
§BraBproox, HE. W., F.S.A., Dir, A.D. 28 Abingdon-street, West~
minster, S.w.”
_— ite F.G.S., F.C.S, Mount Henley, Sydenham Hill,
§ Brace, Edmund. 17 Water- street, Liverpool.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F. R.GS. The Hall, Atherstone, ih
_wickshire.
~“*Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester. -
*Bravy, Sir Antonio, F.G.8, Maryland Point, Stratiord, I,
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Four Courts, Co. Dublin,
Brady, Daniel ., M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.
{Bravy, GrorcE S. 22 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
§Brapy, Henry Bowman, F.1L.8., EGS. 29 Mosley-street, News
castle- -on-Tyne.
{ Brae, Andrew Edmund.
§Braham, Philip, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath.
§ Braidwood, Dr. Delemere- terrace, Birkenhead,
§Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A. ,F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.
§BRAMWELL, FrepericK J., C.E; FR. '3. 37 Great George-street,
London, 8. W.
. §Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
Brancker, Rey. Thomas, M.A. Limington, Somerset.
. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee. .~
. *Brandreth, Rey. Henry. Dicklebur; zh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
2. {Brazimer, Janes 8. ,E.C.S. , Professor of Chemistry in Marisehal hig
lege and Univ ersity of Aberdeen.
» tBrazill, “Thomas. 12 Holles- street, Dublin.
_ *BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. ’the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
; {Brebner, Alexander C., Audit Office, ” Somerset House, London,
W.C
5 {Brecuy, The Right Rey. AtexXaANpER PENROSE ForBES, Lord
Bishop of, D. O.L. Castlehill, Dundee.
. §Breflit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton.
3, {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C
),.{ Brent, Colonel Robert. Woodbury, Exeter,
. {Brett, G. “Salford.
. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
5. §Brewin, William. Cirencester.
. {Bripeman, Wixitam KenceLEy. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
*Bridson, Joseph R. Belle Isle, Windermere.
§Brierley, Joseph, C.E. Blackburn.
*Brigg, John. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
*Briges, Arthur, Crage Royd, ‘Bawden: near Leeds.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 11
Year of
Election.
1866,
1863.
1870,
1868.
1842.
1859,
1847.
1834.
1865,
1853,
*Bricas, General Joun, I’. R.S. isd M.R.A.S., F.G.8, 2 Tenterden-street,
Hanover-square, London, V
§Briges, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness.
*Briaur, Sir Cuartus Tisston, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.RAS,
69 Lancaster-gate, W.; and 26 Duke- street, London, ’s. W.
tBright, H. A., M.A, F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Kuetty Ash.
Bricut, The Right Hon. John, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
{tBrinz, ‘Commander Linpusay, Army and Nay. y Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
Broadbent, Thomas. Marsden-square, Manchester.
*Bropuurst, Brrnarp Epwarp. 20 Grosvenor-street, Grosyenor=
square, London, W.
{Bropris, Sir Benszamrn C., Bart., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Brockham
Warren, Reigate.
tBronre, Rey. James, F.G.S. Monimail, Fifeshire.
{Bropre, Rey. Perer BELLENGER, M.A., F.G:S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
{Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.
Bromilow, Henr y G. Merton Bank, Southport, Lancashire.
*BROOKE, Canta M.A., F.RB.S., Pres. RLS. 16 Fitzroy-square,
London,
.» {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
. *Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Drewsbury.
5. {Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire,
. §Brooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle- on-T'yne.
» *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawstenstall, Manchester.
Brooks, William. Ordfall Hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire,
. {Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhwrst, Batheaston, near Bath... -
. *Brough, Lionel H., EG. S., one of Her Majesty’ s Inspectors of Coal-
fines. 11 West-mall, Clifton, Bristol.
*Browun, JoHN ALLAN, F.R.S., late Astronomer to His Highness the
Rajah of Travancore. 34 Reinsburg Strasse, Stuttgart.
. {Brown, Mrs. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
. *BRrown, ALEXANDER Crum, MLD. , F.RS.E., I.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinbugh. 8 Belgr ave-crescent,
Edinburgh.
. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
. {Brown, Colin. 3 Mansfield-place, Glasgow.
. §Brown, David. 17 8S. Norton-place, Edinburgh.
. *Brown, Rev. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
. §Brown, Edwin, F.G.S. Burton-upon- -Trent.
. §Brown, Henry, M.A., LL.D. Daisy Hill, Rawdon, Leeds.
. §Brown, Horace T.’ The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
. §Brown, ds CamppeELt, D.Sc, F.C.8. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.
. {Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-Tweed.
. {Brown, John H. 29 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-T’
71. §Brown, Rosrert, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 4 Gladstond-teniaas,
Edinburgh.
. *Brown, Samvet, V.P.S.8., F.R.G.S, The Elms, 42 Larkhall ey
Clapham, London, 8. W.
. {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts,
*Brown, Thomas. Lower Hardwick, Chepstow.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N,
» {Brown, William, 11 Albany-place, Glasgow,
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1850.
1865.
1866.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1865.
1855.
1853.
1863.
1863.
1871.
1868.
1861.
1859.
1867.
1871.
1867.
1871.
1864.
1865.
1848.
1869.
1881.
1848,
1871.
1845.
1865.
1863.
1842.
1869.
1872.
1857.
1865.
1869.
1859.
1872.
1860.
1866.
1864.
1855,
{Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
{Brown, William. 41a New-street, Birmingham.
*Browne, Rey. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.
§ Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.8. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks, Kent.
*Browne, William, M.D, The Friary, Lichfield.
§Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E.
§Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
{Brownlow, William B. Villa-place, Full.
*Brunel, H. M. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W.
tBrunel, J. 18 Duke-street, Westminster, 8.W.
§Brunnow, F. Dunsink, Dublin.
+Brunton, T. L. 23 Somerset-street, Portman-square, London, W.
{Bryce, James. York Place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Bryce, James, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S.E.,F.G.8. High School, Glasgow,
and Bowes Hill, Blantyre, by Glasgow. :
Bryce, Rev. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.
{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
{BuccLEucu and QUEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.L. & E.,F.L.S. Whitehall-gardens, London, 8.W.; and
Dalkeith Palace, Edinburgh.
§Bucuan, ALEXANDER. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
. Bucuanan, AnpREw, M.D. Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Glasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton cum Seacombe, Cheshire.
{Buchanan, John Y. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
*Buck, George Watson. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
§BuckiE, Rey. Groner, M.A. Twerton Vicarage, Bath.
*Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*BuckMan, Professor James, F.L.S., F.G.5. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
bourne, Dorsetshire.
{Bucknill, J. Hillmorton Hall, near Rugby.
*BuckTon, GEORGE Bowp Ler, F.R.S.,F.L.8. Weycombe,Haslemere,
Surrey.
*Bupp, James Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.
§Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow.
*Bunsury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.
{Bunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal Office,’ New-street, Birmingham.
§Bunning, T, Wood. 34 Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Burd, John. 37 Jewin-street, Aldersgate-street, London, E.C.
{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
*Burgess, Herbert. 62 High-street, Battle, Sussex.
{Burk, J. Lardner, LL.D.
{Burke, Luke. 5 Albert-terrace, Acton, London, W.
*Burnell, Arthur Coke.
{Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
§Burrows, Sir John Cordy. 62 Old Steine, Brighton.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
*Burton, Frepenicx M., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
{Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool,
*Busk, Grores, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., Examiner in Comparative
Anatomy in the University of London, 32 Harley-street, Cayen-
dish-square, London, W,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 13
Year of
Election.
1857.
1855.
1872.
1870,
1868,
1872.
1854,
1852.
1858.
1863.
1854,
1858.
1863.
1861.
1855.
1857.
1868,
1868.
1857.
1853.
1857.
1870.
1859.
1857,
1872,
1859,
1871.
1862.
1853.
1868.
1873.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1871.
1871.
tButt, Isaac, Q.C., M.P. 64 Hecles-street, Dublin.
*Buttery, Alexander W. Monkland Iron and Steel Company, Cardar-
roch, near Airdrie.
{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
{Buxton, David, Principal of the Liverpool Deaf and Dumb Institution,
Oxford-street, Liverpool.
tBuxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
{Buxton, Sir T. Fowell. Warlies, Waltham Abbey.
tByertey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman. Orwell Works House, Ipswich.
{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh, Armagh.
CaBBELL, BengzAMIn Bonn, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Brick-
court, Temple, H.C. ; and 52 Portland-place, London, W.
§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.
{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
§Caine, Nathaniel. 38 Belvedere-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
*Caine, Rey. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.
tCaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
*Caird, James Tennant. Messrs. Caird and Co., Greenock.
tCairnes, Professor, University College, London.
{Caley, A. J. Norwich.
{tCaley, W. Norwich.
se aa ie N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
ollege.
tCalver, Oapinin E.K., R.N., F.R.S. 21 Norfolk-street, Sunderland.
tCameron, Charles A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCampbell, Rey. C. P., Principal of King’s College, Aberdeen.
*Cam nee Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
Pee W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire.
*Campbell, Sir James. 129 Bath-street, Glasoow.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
§CampBeLL, Rey. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford.
tCampbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.
{tCampbell, William Hunter, LL.D, Georgetown, Demerara, British
Guiana.
*Campion, Rey. Dr. Wirt1aM M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
t Camps, Wilkam, M.D.
*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.
*Carbutt, Edward Hamer. Vulcan Iron Works, Bradford.
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.
Car isLr, Harvey Goopwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of, Carlisle.
tCarlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.
tCarmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
{Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
Carmichael, H. 18 Hume-street, Dublin,
Carmichael, John T. C. Messrs. Todd & Co., Cork.
§CarPENTER, CHartes. Brunswick-square, Brighton.
§Carpenter, Herbert P. 56 Regent’s Park-road, london, N.W.
*CARPENTER, Puiuip PEARSALL, B.A., Ph.D, Montreal, Canada.
14
Year
Electi
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
on.
1854, {Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
1845, {CarPENTER, Witu1AM B., M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., Registrar
1872.
1842.
1861.
1867.
1861.
1857.
1868.
1866.
1855.
1870.
1870.
1862.
1868.
1866.
1871.
1873.
1842.
1853.
1859.
1866.
1873.
1849.
1860,
1871.
1870.
1858,
1860,
1842.
1842,
1842.
1859.
1861.
1859.
1865.
1868.
1842
of the University of London. 56 Regent’s Park-road, London,
N.W.
§CARPENTER, WILLIAM Lant, B.A., B.Se., F.C.S. Winifred House,
Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. :
*Carr, William, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.C.S. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
S.E.
*Carrick, Thomas. 5 Clarence-street, Manchester.
§CarrutTHERS, WitiiaM, F.R.S., F.L8., F.G.8, British Museum,
London, W.C.
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. 18 Fitzwilliam-place,
Dublin.
¢Carrr, ALEXANDER, M.D. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.
§Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S, 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
tCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
{Carter, Richard, C.H. Long Carr, Barnsley, Yorkshize.
{Carter, Dr. William. G9 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
*CARTMELL, Rey. James, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College.
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.
Cartmell, Joseph, M.D. Carlisle.
§Cartwright, Joshua. 70 King-street, Dukinfield.
tCarulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., 8 Har-
rington-street, Liverpool.
{Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
tCasella, L. P., F.R.A.S, South-grove, Highgate, London, N.
§Cash, Joseph. Bird Grove, Coventry.
§Cash, William, Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
Coe Rey. Andrew, M.A. Staincliff Hall, near Dewsbury, York-
shire.
{Cator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull,
{Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
t Catton, Alfred, R., M.A., PRS.
*Cavendish, Lord Frederick. 21 Carlton House-terrace, 8.W.
tCawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.
§Cayiry, Arruur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Garden House,
Cambridge. ;
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
{Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
*Chadwick, Charles, M.D. 35 Park-square, Leeds,
t{Cuapwicx, Davin, M.P. 27 Belsize-park, London, N.W.
Cuapwick, Epwin, C.B. Richmond, Surrey.
Chadwick, Elias, M.A. Pudleston-court, near Leominster.
Chadwick, John. Broadfield, Rochdale.
t{Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
{Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.
*CHALLIS, Rey. Jamus, M.A,, F.R.S., ERAS. Plumian Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge,
t{Chalmers, John Inglis, Aldbar, Aberdeen.
{CHaMBERLAIN, J. H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham.
{Chamberlin, Robert. Catton, Norwich,
. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
Chambers, Jokn,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 15
Year of
Election.
1868,
1865.
1865,
1865.
1861.
1861,
1866.
1871.
1871.
1836,
1863.
1866.
1867,
1864,
1872.
1865,
1842,
1863,
1859.
1861,
1870.
1860,
1857.
1868.
1865.
1863.
1855,
1869.
1857,
1859.
1846.
1861.
1855.
1865.
1872.
1861.
1842,
tChambers, W. O, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Champney, Henry Nelson, 4 New-street, York.
tChance, A. M, Edgbaston, Birmingham. ;
*Chance, James T, Four Oaks Park, Sutton Coldfield, Birming-
ham.
§Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.8., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford.
*Chapman, John. Hill End Mottram, Manchester,
{Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham, :
§Chappell, William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey-
bridge Station.
tCharles, T. C., M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast. [
CHARLESWORTH, Epwarp, F.G.8. 1134 Strand, London, W.C.
{Charlton, Edward, M.D, 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{CHarnock, RicHarp STEPHEN, Ph.D,, F.S.A.,F,R.G.S. 8 Gray’s
Inn-square, London, W.C. GAw
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8, W.
*Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton.
{Curaviy, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, W.
*CHEVALLIER, Rey. Tempin, B.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathe-
matics and Astronomy in the University of Durham. The Col-
lege, Durham.
§CuicuEsTER, The Right Hon, the Earl of. Stanmer House, Lewes.
CuicurstER, Ricuarp DurnForp, Lord Bishop of. Chichester.
*Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., FL.S. BE
*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-groye, Manchester.
tCholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.
{Christie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.
{Christie, Professor R.C., M.A. 7 St, James’s-square, Manchester,
Curistison, Sir Ropent, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., I.R.S.E., Professor
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
{Cuurcu, A. H., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agri-
cultural College, Cirencester.
pane, eusane Selby, M.A, 1 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, London,
E
tChurchill, F., M.D. 15 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Clabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.
{Clapham, A. 38 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
{Clapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§CrapuaM, Ropert Catvert, Garsdon House, Garsdon, Newcastle-
on-T'yne.
§Clapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
{Clarendon, Frederick Villiers, 11 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Clark, Courtney K.
{Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire,
Clark, G.T, Bombay; and Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
*Crark, Henry, M.D, 2 Arundel-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
.
Clark, Latimer. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
mae 3
{Clark, Rey. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, __
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*Crarkn, Hypn. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8.W. ~
*Clarke, J. H. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.
Clarke, Joseph,
16
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1851.
1861.
1856.
1866,
1850.
1859.
1861.
{Ciarke, Josuva, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
tClay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
*Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire.
{Clayden, P. W. 18 Tayistock-square, London, W.C.
{CLeGHorn, Huan, M.D., F.L.S., late Conservator of Forests, Madraz.
Stravithy, St. Andrews, Scotland.
tCleghorn, John. Wick.
§CLELAND, JoHN, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Galway.
. tClements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.
{Clerk, Rey. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.
CiERKE, Rey.C.C., D.D., Archdeacon of Oxford and Canon of Christ
Church, Oxford. Milton Rectory, Abingdon, Berkshire.
. {Clibborn, Edward. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
. §Cliff, John. Halton, Runcorn.
. §CxuirrorD, WiLL1AM Kinepon, M.A., Professor of Applied Mathe-
matics and Mechanics in University College. 14 Maryland-road,
Harrow-road, London, W.
. tClift, John E., C.E. Redditch, Bromsgrove, near Birmingham.
. *Cuirron, R. Betiamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
. {Close, The Very Rev. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.
. §CLose, THomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.
. §Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
. {Clouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.
. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
. {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
. *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
. *Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie House, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. South Bank, Weston, near Bath.
. *CoBBoLp, JoHN CHEVALLIER, Holywells, Ipswich; and Atheneum
Club, London, 8. W.
. {Coppoxp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Lecturer on Zoology
and Comparative Anatomy at the Middlesex Hospital. 42 Har-
ley-street, London, W.
. *Cochrane, James Henry. 129 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
. {Cockey, William. 38 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
. *Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Highfield, Bolton.
. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Grundesburgh Hall, Ipswich.
. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
. *Cole, Henry Warwick, Q.C. Warwick.
. tColeman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow.
. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
. {Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
. *Collie, Alexander. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
. tCollier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
. {Cottinewoop, Curusert, M.A., M.b., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace,
Belvedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthropological Institute, 4 St,
Martin’s-place, London, W.C.
. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 17
Year of
Election.
1868.
1870,
1846.
1852.
1871.
1864,
1883.
1868.
1868.
1863,
Collis, Stephen Edward. Listowel, Ireland.
*Cotman, J. J., M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
§Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
Colthurst, John. Clifton, Bristol.
*Compron, The Rey. Lord Atwyn. Castle Ashby, Northampton-
shire.
*Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
tConnal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
*Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.
*Conwell, Eugene Alfred, M.R.L.A. Trim, Co. Meath, Ireland.
{Cooxe, Epwarp Wrttiam, R.A., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S. Glen
Andred, Groombridge, Sussex; and Atheneum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8. W.
tCooke, Rev. George H. The Parsonage, Thorpe, Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish Road, Birkenhead.
§Cooxr, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, Lon-
don, N.
Cooke, Rey. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
sip Sir William Fothergill. Telegraph Office, Lothbury, London,
.C.
*Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street, W. ;
and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton. :
tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
*Cookson, Rey. H. W., D.D. St. Peter’s College Lodge, Cambridge.
tCookson, N.C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Cooling, Edwin. Mile Ash, Derby.
{Coorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
{tCooper, W. J. 28 Dulke-street, Westminster, 58. W.
{tCooper, William White. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
{Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D. Parsonstown, Ireland.
{Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.
{tCoppin, John. North Shields.
*Corbet, Richard. Bayshill Lawn, Cheltenham.
Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.
tCorbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology,
Queen’s College, Cork.
*CorrieLp, W. H., M.A., M.B., F.G.8., Professor of Hygiéne and
Public Health in University College, 10 Bolton-row, Mayfair,
London, W.
Cormack, John Rose, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Bedford-square, London,
ho WC
Cory, Rey. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
{Cottam, Samuel. Brazennose-street, Manchester.
{Cotterill, Rey. Henry, Bishop of Grahamstown.
§Cortron, General Freprrick C, Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8.W.
t{Corron, Wrru1am. Pennsylvania, Ixeter.
*Cotton, Rey. William Charles, M.A. Vicarage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
{Courtald, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
. {Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh,
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
t{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham,
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
1872. *Cowan, Thomas William. Hawthorn House, Horsham.
1873. *Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.
Cowie, Rey. Benjamin Morgan, M.A. 42 Upper Harley-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
1871. {Cowper, C. E. 8 Great George-street, Westminster, 8.W.
1860. t{Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.LC.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
1867, *Cox, Edward. Clement Park, Dundee.
1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, James. Clement Park Lochee, Dundee.
1870. *Cox, James. 8 Falkmer-square, Liverpool.
Cox, Robert. 25 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
1867. *Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee,
1866. *Cox, William H. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
1871. {Cox, William J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith.
1854. {Crace-Catvert, Freperick, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Honorary Pro-
fessor of Chemistry to the Manchester Royal Institution. Royal
Institution, Manchester.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E, 24 York-place, Edinburgh.
1859. {Craig, 8. The Wallands, Lewes, Sussex.
1857. {Crampton, Rey. Josiah., M.R.I.A, The Rectory, Florence-court, Co,
Fermanagh, Ireland.
1858. ¢Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
1871. *Crawford, William Caldwell. Eagle Foundry, Port Dundas, Glas-
gow.
1871. §Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.
1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cyl Castle, Merthyr Tydvil.
Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Beeford Rectory, Driffield.
1865. {Crocker, Edwin, F.C.S. 76 Hungerford-road, Holloway, London,
N.
1858. {Crofts, John. Hillary-place, Leeds.
1859. {Croll, A.A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C,
1857. {Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
1855, {Crompton, Charles, M.A. 22 Hyde Park-square, London, W.
*CrompTon, Rey. Josrpu, M.A. Bracondale, Norwich.
1866. {Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.
1870. §Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
1865. §Crooxrs, Wit11AM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20-Mornington-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N. W. ;
1855. tCropper, Rey. John. Wareham, Dorsetsliire.
1870. {Crosfield, C. J. 5 Alexander-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1870. *Crosfield, William, jun. 5 Alexander-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1870. t{Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1861. {Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
1868. {Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1867. §Crosskry, Rey. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-street, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
1853. {Crosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire.
1870. *Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bermerside, Halifax.
1871. {Crossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.
1866. *Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.
1865. {Crotch, George Robert. 19 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.
1861. §Crowley, Henry. Smedley New Hall, Cheetham, Manchester.
1863. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 19
Year of
Election.
1860.
1859,
1873.
1859,
1861,
1861,
1852.
1869,
1855.
1850.
1866.
1867,
1857,
1866.
1834,
1863.
1854,
1863.
1853.
1865.
1867.
1870.
1859.
1859.
1862.
1859.
1873.
1849.
1859.
1861.
1852,
tCruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen.
{Cruickshank, Provost. Macdutt, Aberdeen,
§Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
tCumming, Sir A, P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Handforth, Manchester.
{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
{tCunninGuHaM, Professor Ropert O., M.D, Queen’s College, Belfast.
{Cunningham, William A. Manchester and Liverpool District Bank,
Manchester.
{Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
{Cunnington, John. 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,
N.W.
*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.S.A., Judge of Bombay. Ville-Byculla,
Bombay.
{Curtis, Professor Arthur Hill, LL.D. 6 Trinity College, Dublin.
{Cusins, Rev. F. L.
*Cuthbert, John Richmond. 40 Chapel-street, Liverpool.
{Daglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
{Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
TDale, J. B. South Shields,
tDale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hollingfare, Warrington.
{Dale, Rey. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
}Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
tDallinger, Rev. W. H.
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
{Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire,
{Dalrymple, Colonel. ‘Troup, Scotland.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunlark House, Nailsworth.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
{Danby, T. W. Downing Collge, Cambridge.
{tDancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
§Danchill, F, H. Vale Hall, Horwich, Bolton, Lancashire.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.8. 97 City-road, Hulme, Manchester.
tDarbishire, Charles James, Rivington, near Chorley, Lancashire.
*DaRBIsHIRE, RoBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A., F.G.5. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
{Darby, Rev. Jonathan L.
Darwin, Cuartes R., M.A.,, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.8., Hon. F.R.S.E.,
and M.R.LA. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
. {DaSilva, Johnson, Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
Ss )
4 §Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
Davey, Richard, F.G.S, Redruth, Cornwall.
tDavidson, Alexander, M.D. 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool,
. tDavidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.
§Davidson, Dayid. Newhbattle, Dalkeith, N.B.
tDavidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
{Davipson, Tuomas, F.R.S., F.G.S. 8 Denmark-terrace, Brighton.
tDavie, Rev. W. C. :
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
{Davies, Griffith. 17 Cloudesley-street, Islington, London, N.
Davies, John Birt, M.D. The Laurels, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas, 40 Whitefriars, Chester.
*Davis, Alfred. Sun Foundry, Leeds.
c2
29
-*
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1854,
1873.
1856.
1859.
1859.
1875.
1864.
1857.
1869.
1869.
1854.
1860.
1864.
1870.
1868.
1369,
*Davis, A. 8S. Roundhay Vicarage, near Leeds.
{Davis, Coartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Lancaster.
§Davis, James W. Albert House, Greetland, near Halifax.
*Davis, Sir Joun Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, Westbury by Bristol.
{Davis, J. Barnanp, M.D., F.RS.,F.S.A, Shelton, Hanley, Staf-
fordshire.
*Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C.
§Davis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge-villas, Derby.
§Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Davy, Edmund W., M.D, Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir-
mingham.
*Dawes, John T., jun. Perry Hill House, Quinton, near Birmingham.
{Dawxuys, W. Boy, M.A,, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Birchview, Nor-
man-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
. {Dawson, George, M.A. Shenstone, Lichfield.
*Dawson, Henry. Shu-le-Crow House, Keswick, Cumberland.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
. {Dawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of M‘Gill Col-
leee, Montreal, Canada.
. *Dawson, Captain William G, Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
S.E
. {Day, St. John Vincent. 166 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
. §Deacon,G. F. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
. {Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
. {Deacon, Henry Wade. King’s College, London, W.C.
59, {Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen,
|. {Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
70. *Deane, Rey. George, D.Se., B.A., F.G.S. Moseley, Birmingham.
. §Dranr, Henry, F.L.S. Clapham Common, London, 8. W
. {Dexsus, Herinricy, Ph.D., F-R.S., F.C.S. Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
. *Dr La Rus, Warren, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S.
73 Portland-place, London, W.
. {De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 38 Middle Temple-lane, Tem-
ple, E.C.
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
*Dent, Joseph. Ribston Hall, Wetherby.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, S.E.
. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8.W.
56. *Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liverpool.
De Saumarez, Rey. Havilland, M.A. St. Peter’s Rectory, North-
ampton.
{Desmond, Dr. 44 Irvine-street, Edge Hill, Liverpool.
{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
Dr Tasty, Groree, Lord, F.Z.8. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
{Drvon, The Right Hon, the Earl of. Powderham Castle, near
Exeter.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 21
Year of
Election.
*Drvonsuine, WitLiaAM, Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., P.RS., F.G.5 ,
F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Devon-
shire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, Derby-
shire.
1868. §Drewar, James, F.R.S.E. Chemical Laboratory, The University,
Edinburgh.
1872. tDewick, Rey. E.S. The College, Eastbourne, Sussex.
1873. *Dew-Smith, A. G. Rushett House, Thames Ditton.
1858. {Dibb, Thomas Townend. Little Woodhouse, Leeds.
1870. {Dickens, Colonel C. H.
1852. {Dicx1e, Grorar, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Aberdeen.
1864, *Dickinson, F. H., F.G.8. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121
St. George’s-square, London, 8.W.
1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1861. *Dickinson, William Leeson 1 St. James’s-street, Manchester.
1867. §Dicxson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.
1868. {Dickson, J. Thompson. 33 Harley-street, London, W.
1863. *Dickson, William, F.S.A., Clerk of the Peace for Northumberland.
} Alnwick, Northumberland.
1862, *Dinxs, Sir CHArLES WENTWORTH, Bart., M.P. 76 Sloane-street,
London, 8. W.
1848, {Dituwyn, Lewis Lumwetyn, M.P., F.L.S.,F.G.8. Parkwern, near
Swansea,
1872. §Dines, George. Grosvenor-road, London, 8.W.
1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
1859. *Dingle, Rev. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.
1837, ae Henry, C.E., LU.D., F.C.8. 48 Charing-cross, London,
WwW.
1868. {Dirrmar, W. The University, Mdinburgh.
1853. {Dixon, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.
1865. {Dixon, L. Hooton, Cheshire.
1861. {Drxon, W. Hepworrg, F.8.A., F.R.G.S. 6 St. James’s-terrace,
London, N.W.
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.LA. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
1851. {Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.I.A. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.
1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Richmond-road, Ealing, W,
1864, *Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
Dockray, Benjamin.
1870. *Dodd, John. 9 Canning-place, Liverpool.
1857. {Dodds, Thomas W., C.E. Rotherham.
*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton Croft, York.
*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York.
¥ Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.
1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1867. {Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1873. §Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.
*Donisthorpe, George Edmund. Belvedere, Harrogate, Yorkshire.
1869. {Donisthorpe, G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter. i
1871. {Donxry, Arruun Scorr, M.D., Lecturer on Forensic Medicine at
Durham University. Sunderland.
1861. {Donnelly, Captain, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W.
1857. *DonnELLY, WILLIAM, C.B., Registrar-General for Ireland. Charle-
mont House, Dublin.
1857. {Donovan, M., M.R.LA. Clare-street, Dublin.
>. =
22
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1855.
1870,
1857.
1872.
1865.
1869,
1868.
1873.
1869.
1865,
1872.
1858.
1859.
1866,
1863,
1870.
1856,
1870.
1867.
1852.
1859.
1859.
1866.
1871.
1867.
1853.
1865.
1862.
1859.
1852.
1866.
1869,
1860,
1869,
1868,
{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
{Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
*Doughty, C. Montagu.
{Dover, Hecror. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.
tDowie, J. M. Walstones, West Kirby, Liverpool.
Downall, Rey. John. Okehampton, Devon.
{Downina, 8., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University
of Dublin. Dublin.
*Dowson, Edward, M.D. 117 Park-street, London, W.
*Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldestone, near Beccles, Suffolk.
{Drake, Francis, F.G.S.
Drennan, William, M.R.I.A. 35 North Cumberland-street, Dublin.
§Dresser, Henry E., F.Z.S. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square, W.
§Drew, Frederick. Surbiton.
§Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.G.S8., F.R.S.C., F.R.S.L. Weymouth.
tDrew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Manchester.
*Druce, Frederick. 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.
Drummond, H. Home, F.R.S.E. Blair Drummond, Stirling.
{Drummond, James. Greenock.
tDrummond, Robert. 17 Stratton-street, London, W.
*Dry, Thomas. 25 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tDryden, James. South Benwell, Northumberland.
§Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool.
*Ducrr, Henry Joun Reynotps Moreton, Earl of, F.R.S. 16
Portman-square, London, W.; and Tortworth Court, Wotton-
under-Edge.
}Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8, 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
*Durr, Mounsruart Epuinstonn Grant-, LL.B.,M.P. 4 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, South Kensington, London, W.; and Eden, near
Banft, Scotland.
}Dufferin, The Right Hon. Lord. Highgate, London,N. ; and Clande-
boye, Belfast.
*Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
tDuncan, Charles. 52 Union-place, Aberdeen.
“Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, W.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
{Duncan, James Matthew, MD 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
{Duncan, Peter Marti, M.D.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 40 Blessington-road, Lee, S.E. —
Dunlop, Alexander. Clober, Milngavie, near Glasgow.
*Dunlop, William Henry. Annan-hill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
§Dunn, Dayid. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
§Dunn, Ropyrt, F.R.C.8. 31 Norfolk-street, Strand, London W.C.
pe Te i i Rey. Joseph, M.A., F.C.P.S. Thicket Hall,
a
ork.
{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh,
tDunville, William. Richmond Lodge, Belfast.
ae aed Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
iB) pen W. 5S. M, F.LS. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
xeter.
{DurHAmM, ArtHuR Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
§Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D, Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
no
Co
Year of
Election.
1861.
1864,
1871.
1863.
1870,
1867.
1861.
1858.
1870,
1855.
1859.
1870.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1855.
1867.
1859.
1873.
1855.
1858.
1868.
1863.
1855.
1861.
1864.
1872.
1864,
1859.
1864.
1864.
1869.
1862.
1863.
1863.
1858,
1866,
1866.
tEadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
tEarle, Rev, A.
*EaRNsHAW, Rey. Samurt, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.
*Easton, Edward. 23 Duke-street, Westminster, S.W.
§Kaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
Eaton, Rev. George, M.A. The Pole, Northwich.
§Eaton, Richard. North Mymms Park, Hatfield, Herts.
Ebden, Rey. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S. Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
tKckersley, James. Leith Walk, Edinburgh.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, Francis. Blandford, Dorset.
*Kddison, Dr. John Edwin, 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Kddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Eperwortu, Micuart P., F.LS., F.R.A.S. Mastrim House,
Anerley, London, S.E.
{tEdmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
tEdmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
*Kdmonds, F. B. 8 York-place, Northam, Southampton. °
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
§Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
tHdward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.
Edwards, John. Halifax.
*EKpwanps, Professor J. Baxmr, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
tEdwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee.
*HGERTON, Sir Poture DE Mapas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S,
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.
*Hisdale, David A., M.A. 38 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
§Elcock, Charles. 71 Market-street, Manchester.
tElder, David. 19 Paterson-street, Glasgow.
tElder, John. Elm Park, Govan-road, Glasgow.
§Elger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacombe, Rey. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst, St. George, Topsham, Devon.
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
§Elliot, Robert, F.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
*Exxiior, Sir Water, K.C.8.L, F.L.8. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
tElliott, KE. B. Washington, United States.
tElhott, Rey. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton,
Elliott, Juhn Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
*ELLIS, ALEXANDER JOHN, B.A., F.R.S. 25 Argyll-road, Kensington,
London, W.
tEuuis, Henry 8., F.R.A.S. Fair Park, Exeter.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
§Ellis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York,
tEllis, William Horton. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
Elliman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.8. Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.
Eltoft, William, Care of J. Thompson, Ksq., 30 New Cannon-street,
Manchester.
}Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on-
ne,
Biacay: Rev. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
“24
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871. tEngelson, T.. 11 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1853. ae Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
ull.
1869. {English, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.
ENNISKILLEN, Witt1aM WitLoucuBy, Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S. 26 Eaton-place, London, 8. W. ; and Florence
Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.
1869. {Ensor, Thomas. St. Leonards, Exeter.
1869, *Enys, John Davis. Canterbury, New Zealand. (Care of F. G. Enys,
Esq., Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.)
1844, {Erichsen, John Eric, Professor of Clinical Surgery in University
College, London. 9 Cavendish-place, London, W.
1864, *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
1862. *Esson, Wrix1aM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., F-R.A.S. , Merton College ;
and 1 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.
1869, {Eruermesr, Rosenrt, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Paleontologist to the Geolo-
gical Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn-street; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place, London,
S.W.
1855, *Euing, William. 209 West George-street, Glasgow.
1870. *Evans, Arthur John. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
1865. *Evans, Rev. Cuartes, M.A. Solihull Rector, Birmingham.
1872. *Evans, Frederick J., C.E. Clayponds, Brentford, W.
1869. *Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon, 8. W.
1861, *Evans, Joun, F.R.S., F.S.A., See. GS. 65 Old Bailey, London,
E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.
1865. {Evans, Sepastran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham.
1866. {Evans, Thomas, F.G.S8. Belper, Derbyshire.
1865, *Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Eyanson, R. T., M.D. Holme Hurst, Torquay.
1871. §Eve, H.W. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berkshire.
1868. *Everert, J. D., D.C.L., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
‘ College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-road, Belfast.
1863. *Everitt, George Allen, K.L., K.H., F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, War-
wickshire.
1859. *Ewing, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling-
shire,
1871. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol,
1846. *Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square,
‘ London, 8.W. ; and Warren’s, near Lyndhurst, Hants. .
1866. tEyrr, Major-General Sir Vincent, F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
1849, {Eyton, T.C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.
1842. Fairbairn, Thomas. Manchester.
*FarrBarrnn, Sir Wixtiam, Bart., C.E., LL.D. F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Manchester. AEE.
1865. {Fairley, Thomas. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1870. {Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham Common, Lendon, S.W.
1864. {Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
1873, §Farakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh.
1859. tFarquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.
1861, t{Farr, WititiaM, M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Statis-
tical Department, General Registry Office. Southlands, Bickley,
Kent.
1869.
1869.
1859.
-1863.
1833.
1845,
1864.
1852.
1858.
1859.
1871.
1867.
1857.
1854.
1867.
1863.
1862.
1873.
1868.
1869.
-1864,
1859.
1863.
1868.
1863.
1851.
1858.
- 1869,
» 1873.
1858.
1871.
1871.
1868.
1887.
1857,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 25
Year of
Election.
1866. *Farrar, Rey. Frepertcxk Wititim, D.D., F.R.S. Marlborough
College, Wilts.
1857. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
1869, *Faulconer, R. 8. Fairlawn, Clarence-road, Clapham Park, London.
*Faulding, Joseph. 340 Euston-road, London, N.W.
tFaulding, W. I’. Didsbury College, Manchester.
*Fawcert, Henry, M.P., Professor of Political Economy in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. 42 Bessborough-gardens, Pimlico, Lon-
don, 5.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cambridge. 3
{Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.
Fearon, John Peter. Cucktield, Sussex.
fFelkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverston, Lancashire.
§Frttowes, Franx P., F.S.A., F.S.8. 3 The Green, Hampstead,
London, N. W.
tFenton, 8.Greame. 9 College-square, and Keswick, near Belfast.
tFerguson, James. Gas Coal Works, Lesmahago, Glasgow.
tFerguson, John. Cove, Nieg, Inverness.
§Ferguson, John. The College, Glasgow.
tFerguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Ferguson, Samuel. 20 North Great George-street, Dublin. f
{Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire. 3
*Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*FEeRNIE, JOHN. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
{Frerrens, Rev. N. M., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.
§Ferrier, David, M.D. 23 Somerset-street, Portman-square, W.
{Field, Edward. Norwich.
Field, Edwin W. 36 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
*Frevp, Rogers. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.
Fielding, G. H., M.D.
eka ee reeride George, B.A., F.G.S. 21 Crooms-hill, Greenwich,
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
{Frnpiay, ALEXANDER GEoRGE, F'.R.G.S. 53 Fleet-street, London,
E.C.; Dulwich Wood Park, Surrey.
{Finney, Samuel. Sheriff-hill Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Firth, G. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick. :
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds. \
*FiscHEer, WILLIAM L, F., M.A., LL.D., F-.R.S., Professor of Mathe
matics in the University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
{Fishbourne, Captain E. G., R.N. 6 Welamere-terrace, Padding-
tun, London, W. ‘
}Fisuer, Rey. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S, Harlston Rectory, near Cam-
bridge.
§Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale. ;
*Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Crossbeck, Ilkley. :
§Fircu, a G., M.A. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tFitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
{Fitzgerald, The Right Hon. Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street, Dublin.
{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D, 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
Fitzwilliam, Hon. George Wentworth, }.R.G.S. 19 Grosvenor-
square, London, 8,W.; and Wentworth House, Rotherham. -
26
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1865,
1850.
1867.
1870.
1853.
1869.
1862.
1867.
1854.
1873.
1855.
1855.
1866.
1867.
1849.
1858.
1871.
1854.
1870.
1865,
1865.
1857.
1845.
1859.
1859.
1873.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1842,
1870.
1866.
tFleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham,
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,
Lancashire.
{Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D, 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square North, Dublin.
Fleming, John G., M.D. 155 Bath-street, Glasgow.
*FLemine, Wiii1AM, M.D. Rowton Grange, near Chester.
§Fletcher, Alfred E. 21 Overton-street, Liverpool.
{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
{Fiercuer, Isaac, F.R.S., F.G.8S., F.R.A.S. Tarn Bank, Work-
ington.
§FietcHer, Lavineron E., C.E. 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.
Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Frower, Wittiam Henry, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Hun-
terian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator of the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
{Foggie, William. Woodville, Maryfield, Dundee.
*Forpes, Davin, F.R.S., F.G.S8., F.C.8. 11 York-place, Portman-
square, London, W.
*Forbes, Professor George, B.A., F.R.S.E. Anderson’s University,
Glasgow.
{Forbes, Rev. John. Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland.
tForbes, Rev. John, D.D. 150 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.
{Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens Kast,
London, W.
*Forrest, William Hutton, The Terrace, Stirling.
{Forster, Anthony. Newsham Grange, Winston, Darlington.
*Forster, Thomas Emerson. 7 Ellison-place, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
*Forster, William. Ballynure, Clones, Ireland.
*Forster, Right Hon. Witu1am Epwarp, M.P. Wharfeside, Bur-
ley-in- Wharfedale, Leeds.
{Forsyth, William F. Denham Green, Trinity, Edinburgh.
*Fort, Richard. 24 Queen’s-gate-gardens, Londen, W.; and Read
Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
{Foster, Balthazar W., M.D, 4 Old-square, Birmingham.
*Foster, CLement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Truro, Cornwall.
*Fosrrer, Gronce C., B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S8., Professor of Experimental
Physics in University College, London, W.C. 12 Hilldrop-road,
London, N.
*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough.
tFoster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.
*Fostrr, MicHart, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S. (Generar
Secretary.) Trinity College, and Great Shelford, near Cam-
bridge.
§Fostrr, Prrmr Le N EVE, M.A. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London,
W.C i
§Foster, Peter Le Neve, jun. Mortara, Italy.
{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Foster, S. Lloyd. Old Park Hall, Walsall, Staffordshire.
*Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire.
Fothergill, Benjamin. 10 The Grove, Boltons, West Brompton,
London.
{Foulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-road, Liverpool.
§Fowler, George. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
1868,
1856.
1870.
1868.
1842,
1860.
1866,
1846.
tFowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
{Fowler, Rev. Hugh, M.A. College-gardens, Gloucester.
*Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., F.R.G.S. 386 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
Fox, Alfred. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
{Fox, Colonel A. H. Lann, F.G.8., F.S.A. 10 Upper Phillimore-
ardens, Kensington, London, 8. W.
*Fox, Chiles Trebah, Falmouth.
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. The Vicarage, Romford, Hssex.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
{Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.
Fox, Ropert WERE, F.R.S. Falmouth.
*Francis, G. B. 71 Stoke Newington-road, London, N.
Francis, Wini1AM, Ph.D., F.L.8., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
so eenreey ea Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Lancaster-cate,
London, W.
*Frankland, Rev. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent,near Manchester.
Franks, Rev. J. C., M.A. Whittlesea, near Peterborough.
. {Fraser, George B. 3 Ae nie Dundee.
Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
. *Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
. §Farser, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S.E. 3 Grosvenor-street, Edinburgh.
. *Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
. tFreeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.
. *Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
Sussex,
. {Freeman.
. {Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Royden Hall, Diss, Norfolk.
. {FRERE, Sir H. Bartre E.,G.C.S.L, K.0.B., F.R.G.S, 22 Prince’s-
gardens, London.
. {Ff rere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
Fripp, George, D., M.D
. *Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.
. {Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
. {Frost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse-hill, London, 8,W.
. *FroupE, Witi1AM, C.E., F.R.S. Chelston Cross, Torquay,
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.
Fry, Robert. Tockington, Gloucestershire.
. {Fryar, Mark. Eaton Moor Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. “Fuller, Rey. A. Ichenor, Chichester.
. §Fuller, Claude 8., R.N. 44 Holland-road, Kensington, W.
. {Futier, Freperticx, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
and King’s College, Aberdeen.
. {Futter, Grores, C.E., Professor of Engineering in University Col-
lege, London. Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
. *Furneaux, Rev. Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1857.
1863.
1850.
1861.
-1867.
1863.
1861.
1861.
1860.
1860.
1869.
1870.
1870.
1868.
1862
1865.
1842.
1873.
1870.
1870.
1847.
1842.
1846.
1862.
1873.
1871.
1859.
1854.
1867,
1871.
1855.
1854.
1870.
1870.
1856,
1863.
1865;
1871.
1868.
1852.
1870.
1870.
1870,
t{Gages, Alphonse, M.R.L.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield.
{Gairdner, Professor W. F., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Galbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.
GarpraitH, Rey. J. A., M.R.LA. Trinity College, Dublin.
tGale, James M. 53 Miller-street, Glasgow.
tGale, Samuel, F'.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
tGalloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
*Gairon, Captain Doveras, C.B., R.E., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.8.,
F.R.G.S. (GenrraL SECRETARY.) 12 Chester-street,Grosvenor-
place, London, S.W.
*Gatton, Francis, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-gate,
Knightsbridge, London, 8.W. $
t{Gatton, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S, 13 Margaret-street, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
§Gamble, D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*Gamble, John G. Albion House, Rottingdean, Brighton.
bate ae Artuur, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Owens College, Man-
chester.
§Garner, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent.
§Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.
Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.
§Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, E.C.
tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Mayfield-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.
Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
§GasstoT, Jonn Peter, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Clapham
Common, London, 8.W.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. Felbridge Park, East
Grinstead, Sussex. :
§Geach, R. G. Cragg Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire,
tGeddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
Weddes, yen D., M.A., Professor of Greek, King’s College, Old
erdeen.
t{Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. E
§Grrxiz, ARCHIBALD, F.R.S., F.G.8., Director of the Geological
Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street,
Edinburgh; and Ramsay Lodge, Edinburgh.
josure J an reh F.R.S.E. 16 Duncan-terrace, Newington, Edin-
urgh,
tGemmell, Andrew. 38 Queen-street, Glasgow.
§Gerard, Henry. 84 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
{Gerstl, R. University College, London, W.C.
*Gervis, Walter 8., M.D. Ashburton, Devon.
*Gething, George Barkley. Springfield, Newport, Monmouthshire.
*Gips, Sir Grorce Duncan, Bart., M.D., M.A., LL.D., F.G.S.
1 Bryanston-street, London, W.; and Falkland, Fife.
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
{Gibson, Alexander. 19 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
tGibson, C. M. Bethel-street, Norwich.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex.
{Gibson, James. 385 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
tGibson, R.E. Sankey Mills, Earlestown, near Newton-le- Willows,
{Gibson, Thomas. 61 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
{Gibson, Thomas, jun. 19 Parkfield-road, Princes Park, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 29
Year of
Election,
1867. {Gibson, W. L., M.D. Tay-street, Dundee.
1842,
1857.
1859,
1871.
1868,
1864,
1861.
1867.
1867.
~ 1869,
1850,
1849,
1861.
1861.
1871,
1853.
1870.
1859.
1867.
1870.
1872.
1852.
1846,
1873.
1852.
1870.
1842.
1865.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1840.
1857.
1865.
1870.
1873.
1849.
1857.
1868.
GitBERT, JoserpH Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near
St. Albans.
tGilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A, Walthamstow, Essex.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
*Gill, David, jun, The Observatory, Aberdeen.
fGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily (care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.).
tGitt, THomas. 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
*Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.
{Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
§GryspurG, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Bintield, Bracknell, Berksuire.
{Girdlestone, Rey. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.
"Gladstone, George, F.C.8., F.R.G.S, 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville,
Brighton.
“Giapstonr, Joun Har, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Gladstone, Murray. Manchester.
*GuaIsHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E. :
*GuarsHeR, J, W. L., B.A. F.R.AS. Trinity College, Cambridge,
tGleadon, Thomas Ward. Moira-buildings, Hull.
§Glen, David Corse. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
{Glennie, J. S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inyerleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, Londox, 8.W.
Glover, Thomas. Becley Old Hall, Rowsley, Bakewell.
{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Gopparp, Ricuarp. 29 Marlborough-road, Manningham-lane,
Bradford.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostreyor, Belfast.
{Gopwin-AvstEen, Roperr A. C., B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Chilworth
Manor, Guildford.
Goxpsmip, Sir Francis Henry, Bart., M.P. St. John’s Lodge,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
§Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Cleckheaton, Bradford.
tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
{Goodison, George William, C.E. Gateacre, Liverpool.
*GoopMAN, JoHN, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport.
{Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
{Goodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge, ;
“Goodwin, Rev. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A,S, Westhall Vicarage,
Wangford.
§Gordon, Joseph. Poynter’s-row, Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N,
tGordon, Lewis D. B. Totteridge, Whetstone, N
{Gordon, Samuel, M.D, 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Gore, George, F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
{Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry, Kettering.
§Gott, Charles, M.ILC.E, Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
{Gough, George 8., Viscount. Rathronan House, Clonmel.
§Gould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
Goutp, Jonny, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.8, 26 Charlotte-street,
Bedford-square, London, W.C.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1854.
1873.
1867.
1873.
1861.
1867.
1852.
1871.
1870.
1859.
1855.
1854,
1864.
1864.
1865.
1870.
1857.
1864.
1859.
1870.
1873.
1861.
1854,
1866.
1875.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1858.
1863.
1862,
1849,
1861.
1833.
1860.
1868.
tGourlay, Daniel De la C., M.D.
§Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford,
t{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, F.C.
§Goyder, Dr. D. Manvyille-crescent, Bradford.
tGrafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*Granam, Cynrin, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Cleyeland-row, St, James's,
London, 8. W.
Graham, Lieutenant David. Mecklewood, Stirlingshire.
*Grainger, Rey. John, D.D. Skerry and Rathcayan Rectory, Brough-
shane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
{Grant, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh, 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
§Granr, Colonel J. A., C.B.,0.8.L, F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S, 7 Park-
square West, London, N.W.
t{Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.
*Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
}GnaxrHany, Ricuarp B.,C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,
W.
tGrantham, Richard F. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8.W.
*Graves, Rev. Richard Hastings, D.D. Brigown Glebe House, Michels-
town, Co. Cork,
*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, East Retford.
tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.
t{Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
{Gray, Sir John, M.D. Rathgar, Dublin.
*Gray, Jonn Epwanrp, Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the Zoological Col-
Le, of the British Museum. British Museum, London,
tGray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.
{Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.
SGray, J . Macfarlane. 10 York-groye, Queen’s-road, Peckham, Lon-
on, 8.F,
*Gray, Wmi1AM, F.G.S. Gray’s-court, Minster Yard, York.
§Gray, William, Hon. Sec. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. Belfast.
*Gray, Lieut.-Colonel William. 26 Prince’s-gardens, London, 8. W.
*Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcestershire.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 32 Friar-gate, Derby.
§Greaves, James H., C.E. Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C.
§ Greaves, William.
§Greaves, William. 2 Raymond-buildings, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Grece, Clair J. Redhill, Surrey.
Green, Rey. Henry, M.A. Heathfield, Knutsford, Cheshire.
*Greenaway, Edward. 91 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W,
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
*Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and The Woodlands, Liverpool.
tGreenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
*Grea, Ropert Pures, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.
{Grecor, Rey. Water, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire.
{Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 31
Year of
Election.
1861.
1869.
1866.
1863,
1871.
1859.
1870.
1859.
1868.
1870.
1870,
1847,
1870.
1842.
1864.
1869,
1863.
1869,
1857.
1872.
1867.
1842,
1856.
1862.
1866.
1868.
1860,
1859.
1864.
tGregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
*Greswell, Rey. Richard, B.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-street,
Oxford.
tGrey, Sir Groren, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosvenor-
gardens, London, 8.W.
tGrey, Rey. William Hewett C. North Sherwood, Nottingham.
tGrey, W. 8. Norton, Stockton-on-Tees.
*Grierson, Samuel. Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N.B.
tGuinrson, THomas Boyz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
tGrieve, John, M.D. 21 Lynedock-street, Glasgow.
*Griftin, John Joseph, F.C.S. 22 Garrick-street, London, W.C.
Griffith, Rev. C. T., D.D. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
*GrirritaH, Grorcr, M.A., F.C.S. (Assistant GENERAL SECRE-
TARY.) Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
“ge Rey. Jonny, M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing,
uSSEX.
tGriffith,N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
tGriffith, Rey. Professor. Bowden, Cheshire.
*GnirritH, Sir Ricnarp Joun, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA.,
F.G.S. 2 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Griffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
GrirFiTHs, Rey. Jonn, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.
{Grimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.
tGroom-Narrer, Cuartes Orriry, F.G.S. 20 Maryland-road,
Harrow-road, London, N.W.
oe mae F.L.S., F.G.8, The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, Lon-
on, S.W.
Grove, The Hon. Sir Wir1aAm Rozert, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
115 Harley-street, W.
*Groves, Tuomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary’s-street, Weymouth.
oo Ais F.R.A.S. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines,
ublin.
Gruss, THomas, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 141 Leinster-road, Dublin.
eae ours Lewis, F.R.G.S. 16 Surrey-street, Strand, Lon-
on, W.C.
Guest, Edwin, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Master of
Caius College, Cambridge. Caius Lodge, Cambridge; and Sand-
ford Park, Oxfordshire.
tGuild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
*Guisn, Sir Wini1am Vernoy, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.8. Elmore Court,
near Gloucester.
tGunn, Rey. John, M.A., F.G.S._ Irstedd Rectory, Norwich.
aah Avpert C. L.G., M.D.,F.R.S. British Museum, London,
*Gumey, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.
*Gurney, SAMUEL, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20 Hanover-terrace, Regent's
Park, London, N.W.
*Gutch, John James. Blake-street, York.
{Gururim, Freperick, F.R.S. Professor of Physics in the Royal
— of Mines, 24 Stanley-crescent, Notting Hill, London,
§Guyon, George. South Cliff Cottage, Ventnor, Isle of Wight,
a2 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870. {Guyton, Joseph. acuamiael
1857. {Gwynne, Rey. John, Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
: Hackett, Michael. Brooklawn, Chapelizod, Dublin.
1865. §Hackney, William. Walter’s-road, Swansea.
1866. *Hadden, Frederick J. 3 Park-terrace, Nottingham.
1866. {Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
: Haden, G.N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
1865. {Haden, W. H.
1842, Hadfield, George, Victoria~park, Manchester.
1870. tHadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1848. {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
1870. {Haigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
j *Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
1869, tHake, R.C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.
1870. {Halhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
Haurrax, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
S.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.
1872. tHall, Dr. Alfred. 380 Old Steine, Brighton,
1854. *Haui, Huen Frram, F.G.S8. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.
1859, {Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.
Hall, John Robert. Sutton, Surrey.
1872, *Hall, Captain Marshall. New University Club, St. James's, London,
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia (care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane House,
Great Yarmouth).
1866. *Haxi, TownsHEenDd M., F.G.S. Pilton, Barnstaple.
1860. §Hall, Walter. 10 Pier-road, Erith.
1873. §Hallett, T. G. P., M.A. Bristol.
1868. aces ae Hnuwnry, F.L.S. The Manor House, Kemp Town,
righton.
1861. {Halliday, James. Whalley Cottage, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1857. {Halpin, George, C.E. Rathgar, near Dublin.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1858. *Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S8. Barrow-on-Soar, near
Loughborough.
1866. §Hamitron, ArcHriBaxp, F.G.S8. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
1857. t{Hamilton, Charles W. 40 Dominick-street, Dublin.
1865. §Hamilton, Gilbert. Leicester House, Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
Hamriton, The Very Rev. Henry Parr, Dean of Salisbury, M.A.,
E.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Salisbury.
1869. {Hamilton, John, F.G.S. Fyne Court, Bridgewater.
1869, §Hamilton, Roland. Oriental Club, Ilanover-square, London, W.
1851. t{Hammond, ©. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
1871. §Hanbury, Daniel. Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
1863. tHancocx, ALBANY, F.L.S. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne. ;
1863. {Hancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
1850. {Hancock, John. Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
1861. ¢{Hancock, Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, N.
1857. {Hancock, William J. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1847. t{Hancocr, W. Netson, LL.D. 74 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1865. {Hands, M. Coventry.
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. _11 Hope-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Hannah, Rey. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.
1859. tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
1853, {Hansell, Thomas T, 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 83
Year of
Election.
*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8, 3 Norham-
gardens, Oxford.
Harcourt, Rey, C. G. Vernon, M.A. Rothbury, Northumberland.
Harcourt, EgertonV. Vernon, M.A.,F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, Yorkshire.
. {Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham,
. {Harding, Joseph. Hill’s Court, Exeter.
. {Harding, William D, Islington Lodge, Kings Lynn, Norfolk.
2. §Hardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
. §Hardwicke, Robert, F.L.S. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Hare, Cuartes Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Harford, Summers. Haverfordwest.
. {Hargraye, James. Burley, near Leeds.
» §Harxness, Ropert, F.B.S. L, & E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in Queen’s College, Cork.
. §Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
2, *Haruey, Groras, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Medical Juris-
prudence in University College, London. 25 Harley-street,
London, W.
*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury.
. *Harey, Rev. Ropert,F.R.S.,F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Middlesex;
and The Hawthorns, Church End, Finchley, N.
. {Harman, H. W., C.E. 16 Booth-street, Manchester.
. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Heigham Grove, Norwich.
2, §Harpley, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhange Rectory, Tiverton.
*Harris, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster.
*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
. tHarris, GeorGE, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.
*Harris, Henry. Longwood, near Bingley, vid Leeds,
. tHarris, T. W. Grange, Middlesborough-on-Tees,
. §Harris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford.
. tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
. §Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
. §Harrison, George, Ph.D., F.L.8., F.C.S. Glossop-road, Sheffield.
» *Harrison, James Park, M.A. Cintra Park Villa, Upper Norwood,
8.E.
. tHarrison, Reeinatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
. tHarrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
: Elaniiem, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Samlesbury Hall, near Preston,
Lancashire.
. {Harrowsy, The Earl of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 Grosye-
nor-square, London, 8.W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield.
. *Hart, Charles. Harbourne Hall, Birmingham.
. *Harter, J. Collier, Chapel Walks, Manchester.
. *Harter, William. Hope Hall, Manchester.
. tHartland, F, Dixon, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. The Oaklands, near Chel-
tenham,
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
. tHartley, Walter Noel. King’s College, London, W.C.
. §Hartnop, Jonny, F.R.A.S, Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, Birken-
head.
. tHarvey, Alexander. 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow.
tHarvey, Enoch, Rivyersdale-road, Aigburth, Liyerpool,
D
34
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1862,
1837
1857
1872.
1864.
1868.
1863.
1859.
1861,
1858.
1867.
1857.
1873.
1869.
1858.
1851.
1869.
1869.
1861.
1863.
1872,
1871.
1861.
1865.
1866.
1863.
1861.
1865.
1858,
1865.
1833,
1855.
1867.
1869.
1863.
1862,
1857,
.
1842,
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea House, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.
*Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-moors.
Hastings, Rev. H.8. Martley Rectory, Worcester.
tHastings, W. Huddersfield.
*Hatton, James. Richmond House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tHaveurTon, Rey. Samuet, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., M.R:I.A., F.G:S.,
Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin.
*Haughton, William. 28 City Quay, Dublin.
Hawkins, John Heywood, M.A., F.R.8., F.G.8. Bignor Park, Pet-
worth, Sussex.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London, W.
*HawksHaw, Sir Jonny, F.R.S., F.G.S. Hollycombe; Liphook,
Petersfield ; and 33 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
*Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M-A., F.G.S. 25 Cornwall-gardens,
Se Kensington, 8.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
Wz
eG cae Tuomas, C.E.,F.G.8S. 380 Great George-street, London,
AY’
{Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, raater: Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Hay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.
*Hay, Vice-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., C.B,,
M.P., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds. ' }
tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
perry tage M.D. 30 Greed abe Dublin.
ayes, Rey. Wm. A., B.A. Bramley, Leeds.
{Hayward, J. High-street, Exeter. *”
*Haywarpb, Roprert Barpwin, M.A. The Park, Harrow-on-the-hill,
§Head, Jeremiah. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
{+Head, R. T. The Briars, Alphineton, Exeter.
tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Heald, James. Parr’s Wood, Didsbury, near Manchester.
tHeald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. :
baer a hc woithen 8 Albert-mansions, Victoria-street;
ondon, 8. W.
§Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere.
eee, et Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.
tHearder, William. Victoria Parade, Torquay.
{Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey. Lcaeahe f
tHeath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Sea coe ; eee ,.R.G.S.,F.RS.E. 20 King-street, St.
ames’s, London, 8. W.
tHeaton, Harry. Warstone, Birmingham.
*HEATON, JoHN DEaxin, M.D., F.R.C.P. Claremont, Leeds,
{Heaton, Ralph. Harborne Lodge, near Birmingham.
{Heravismr, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
ease aN Me lees F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. ellington, New Zealand.
Bese of Rare 5 Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrew’s, N.B.
tHedgeland, Rey. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
Heed ee Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
elm, George F.
*Hemans, George William, 0.E., M.R.LA., F.G.8. 1 Westminster
chambers, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
LIST Ol MEMBERS. 35
Year of
Election.
1867,
1845,
1873.
1866.
1873.
1856.
1857.
1873.
1870.
1855.
1855.
1871,
1856.
1852.
1866.
1871.
1865.
1863.
1873.
1832.
1866.
1866.
1861.
1861
1864,
1854.
1861.
1866,
1871.
1861.
1854.
1861.
1870.
1870.
1842,
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
tHenderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London,
*Henderson, A. L, 49 King William-street, H.C,
tHenvErson, JAmEs, jun. Dundee.
*Hrnprerson, W. D. 12 Victoria-street, Belfast.
ee Henry G, F.R.S., MBA. 86 St. Stephen’s-green,
ublin,
tHennessy, John Pope. Inner Temple, London, E.C.
§Henrici, Olaus M. I’. E., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Uni-
versity College, London.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Henry, Witi1am CuHarzes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Haf-
field, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
tHenty, William. Novrfolk-terrace, Brighton.
Henwoop, Witi1AM Jory, F.R.S., F.G.S8. 3 Clarence-place, Pen-
zance.
*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Sideup-place, Sideup, Kent.
t{Hepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W,
Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8. W.
tHepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent,
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire,
tHepworth, Rey. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.
*Herbert, Thomas. The Park, Nottingham.
tHerdman, John. 9 Wellington-place, Belfast.
§Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.
*HerscHEr, Professor ALEXANDER §., B.A., F.R.A.S. College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham.
tHeslop, Joseph. Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Heugh: John. Holmwood, Tunbridge Wells.
tHewitson, William C. Oatlands, Surrey.
Hey, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York.
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,
tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
*Heywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 26 Kensington
Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
*Hiern, W. P., M.A. 1 Foxton-villas, Richmond, Surrey,
*Higgin, Edward,
*Higoin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.
Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Springfield-court, Queen-street, Glasgow.
tHigginbottom, John. Nottingham.
{Hiecis, Crement, B.A., F.C.S, 27 St. John’s-park, Upper Hollo-
way, London, N.
t Higgins, George.
tHiears, Rev. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*Higgins, James. Stocks House, Cheetham, Manchester.
tHigginson, Alfred. 44 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
tHicuron, Rey. H. 2 The Cedars, Putney, 8.W.
*Higson, Peter, F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Mines, The Frooklands,
Swinton, near Manchester.
Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.8. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
incolnshire,
Dz
36
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872.
1857.
1871.
1864.
1863
1871.
1871.
1858.
1870.
. *HinpmarsH, Frepericr, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 4 New Inn, Strand,
1863.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1863.
1839.
1865,
1860.
1854.
1873.
1856.
1858,
1865,
Hill, Arthur, Brace Castle, Tottenham, London, N.
§Hill, Charles. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead.
*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow. é
§Hill, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Iveland.
§Hill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
*Hirt, Sir Rowianp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., FR.A.S, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
}Hill, William. Combe Hay, Bristol.
{Hills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E. i
§Hills, Graham H., Staff-Commander R.N. 4 Bentley-road, Princes
Park, Liverpool.
*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 388 Oxford-street, London, W.
tHinoxs, Rey. THomas, B.A., F.R.S. Mountside, Leeds.
t{Hinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres.
Hindley, Rey. H. J. Edlington, Lincolnshire.
London, W.C.
*Hindmarsh, Luke, Alnbank House, Alnwick.
. t{Hinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
. {Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham.
. *Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport.
8. §Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
. *Hirst, T. Ancuer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.; and Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
: {Hitch, Samuel, M.D. Sandywell Park, Gloucestershire.
. {Hitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S8., &c. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.
*Hoare, Rey. George Tooker. Godstone Rectory, Redhill.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
. tHobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
. {Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8, W.
. {Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
. §Hobson, A. S., F.C.S. 3 Upper Heathfield-terrace, Turnham Green,
London, W.
. {Hocxry, CHartes, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.
. tHodges, John F,, M.D., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 23 Queen-street, Belfast.
*Hopexrn, THomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford.
§Hodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.
{Hodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.S. 41 Grove-end-road, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
*Hormann, Aueustus Wru1am, LL.D, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 10
Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.
tHogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire.
*Holeroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester.
*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
tHolland, Henry. Dumbleton, Evesham.
§Holland, Loton, F.R.G.S. The Gables, Osborne-road, Windsor.
*Holland, Philip H. Burial Acts Office, 13 Great George-street,
Westminster, S.W.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
*Hollingsworth, John, M.R.C.S. Maidenstone House, Maidenstone-
hill, Greenwich, 8.E.
1866. *Holmes, Charles. London-road, Derby.
1873. §Holmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford.
1870. {Holt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Hone, Nathaniel, M.R.I.A. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
1858. {Hoox, The Very Rev. W.F., D.D., Dean of Chichester. Chichester.
1847. {Hooxrr, Josepn Darton, O.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
V.P.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.
1865. *Hooper, John P. The Hut, Mitcham Common, Surrey.
1861. §Hooper, William. 7 Pall Mall East, London, 8.W.
1856. {Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
1842. Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
1869. §Hoprr, Witi1am, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex.
1865. {Hopkins, J. S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1870. *Hopkinson, John. Woodlea, Beech-lanes, Birmingham.
1871. §Horxinson, Joun, F.G.S.,F.R.M.S. 8 Lawn-road, Haverstock-hill,
London, N.W.
1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
' Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
1864, *Horner, Rey. J. J. H. Mills Rectory, Frome.
1858, *Horsfall, Abraham. Manor House, Whitkirks, near Leeds.
1854, {Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
1856. {Horsley, John H. 389 High-street, Cheltenham.
Hotham, Rey. Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Roos, Patrington, Yorkshire.
1868. {Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
1859. { Hough, Joseph.
Hoveuron, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.GS.
16 Upper Brook-street, London, W.
Houghton, James. 41 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1858. {Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
1859. {Howard, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield.
1863. {Howard, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Cazlisle.
1857. {Howell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.
1868. {Howrtx, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
1865. *Howlett, Rey. Frederick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
1863. tHowortuH, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
1854. {Howson, Very Rey. J. S., Dean of Chester. Chester.
1870. {Hubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
1835. *Hupson, Henry, M.D.,M.R.I.A. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
1842. §Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Clapham Common, London,
S.W,
1867. {Hudson, William H. H.,M.A. 19 Bennett’s-hill, Doctors Commons,
London, E.C.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1858. *Hueains, Witii1aMm, D.C.L., Oxon. LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., FR.A.S,
Upper Tulse-hill, Brixton, London, 8. W.
1857. {Huggon, William. 380 Park-row, Leeds.
Hughes, D. Abraham.
1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J. P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
1870. {Hughes, Lewis. 388 St. Domingo-grove, Liverpool.
1868. §Hueues, T. M'‘K., M.A., F.G.8. Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the University of Cambridge.
1863. {Hughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
38
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election
1865.
1867,
1861.
1856.
1862.
1863.
1865.
1840.
1864,
1868.
1867.
1869,
1855.
1863.
1869.
1861.
1870.
1868.
1863.
1864,
1857.
1861.
1852.
1871.
1847,
1873.
1861.
1858.
1871.
1858,
1852.
1854,
1870.
tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Hull, Arthur H. 18 Norfolk-road, Brighton. ;
§Huut, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology in the Royal College
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hull, William Darley. Stenton Lodge, Tunbridge Wells.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W.;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
tHume, Rey. Aprawam, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A. All Soul’s Vicarage,
Rupert-lane, Liverpool.
tHumphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
*Humpury, Grorcr Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. The Leys, Cambridge.
*Hunt, Aueustus H., M.A., Ph.D. Birtley House, near Chester-le-
Street.
tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
tHunt, Roserr, PRS, Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum
of Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.
tHunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields.
tHunter, Dayid. Blackness, Dundee.
*Hunter, Rey. Robert, F.G.8. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London, W.C,
*Hunter, Thomas O. 15 William-street, Greenock.
tHuntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
§Hurst, George. Bedford.
*Hurst, Wm.John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, Ireland.
tHurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. Coney-street, York.
*Hutchison, Robert. Carlowrie, Kirkliston, N.B.
tHourr, The Right Hon. Sir W., K.C.B. Gibside, Gateshead.
Hutton, Crompton. Putney-park, Surrey, 8.W
“Eiatipn, Deaten: (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
eeds.
Hutton, ont, Edenfield, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.
*Hutton, T. Maxwell. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHuxiry, Tuomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. B.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines.
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
*Hyett, Francis A, 13 Hereford-square, Old Brompton, London, 8.W.
yet, William Henry, F.R.S. Painswick, near Stroud, Gloucester-
shire.
Hyndman, George C. 5 Howard-street, Belfast.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
§Ikin, T. J. 19 Park-place, Leeds.
tes, Rey. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.
{Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
tveuss, The Right Hon. Jou, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.
*Ingram, Hugo Francis Meynell. Temple Newsam, Leeds.
tineram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek. Trinity
College, Dublin.
*InmANn, Toomas, M.D. 8 Vyvyan-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
“Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 39
Year of
Election.
1857.
1862.
1863.
1865.
1870.
1859.
1866.
1869.
1863.
1852.
1874.
1865.
1872.
1859.
1860.
1863.
1858.
1863.
1859.
1850. +
1870.
1853.
1870.
1862.
1868.
1870.
1856.
1855.
1867.
1861.
1852.
1842,
1864.
1862.
1864.
1873.
1852,
Treland, R. 8., M.D. 121 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tIrvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.
ftIsexry, J. F., M.A., F.G.S, 52 Stockwell-park-road, London, 8.W.
*Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh,
tJabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
{Jack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
§Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by- Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
§Jackson, H. W. Springfield, Tooting, Surrey, 8. W.
§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.
Jackson, Professor Thomas, LL.D. St. Andrew’s, Scotland.
*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. 24 Hereford-square, Gloucester-road,
Brompton, London, 8.W.
Jacob, Arthur, M.D. 23 Ely-place, Dublin.
tJacons, Beruen. 40 George-street, Hull.
*Jaffe, John. Messrs. Jaffe Brothers, Belfast,
*Jafiray, John. Park-grove, Birmingham.
§James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, F.C.
t{James, Edward. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
{James, Edward H. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
Jamus, Colonel Sir Henry, R.E.,, F.R.S., F.G.S., MAR.LA. Ord-
nance Survey Office, Southampton.
*James, Sir WatTER, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London,
S.W.
tJames, William C. 9 Gascoyne-terrace, Plymouth.
tJameson, John Henry. 10 Catherine-terrace, Gateshead.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.8. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
{Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*JARDINE, Sir Wini1aM, Bart., F.R.S.L.& E.,F.L.S. Jardine Hall,
Applegarth by Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
*Jarratt, Rey. Canon J.. M.A. North Cave, near Brough, Yorkshire.
JARRETT, Rey. THomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.
§Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
tJeakes, Rey. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, W.
Jebb, Rey. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
tJecks, Charles. Billing-road, Northampton.
tJeffery, F. J. Liverpool.
{Jeffery, Henry, M.A. 438 High-street, Cheltenham.
*Jefiray, John. 193 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tJeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.; and
25 Deyonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W.
*Jerrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S.
Ware Priory, Herts.
{JeLtert, Rey. Joun H., M.A., M.R.1.A., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in Trinity College, Dublin. 64 Upper Leeson-street,
Dublin.
Jellicorse, John. Chaseley, near Rugeley, Staffordshire.
{Jelly, Dr. W.
§JenkKIN, H. C, Freemine, F.R.S., Professor of Civil Engineering in
the University of Edinburgh. 5 Fettes-row, Edinburgh.
§ Jenkins, Captain Grirrity, C.B., F.R.G.S. Derwin, Welshpool.
§Jenkins, Major General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
*Jenkyns, Rev. Henry, D.D. The College, Durham.
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.
tJennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. E
1872.
1870,
1872.
1870.
1872.
1871.
1865,
1866.
1866,
1868.
1872.
1868.
1863.
1861.
1870.
1864.
1861.
1871.
1864,
1859.
1864.
1864.
1864.
1871.
1849.
1856.
1854.
1854,
1864,
1865.
1854.
1873.
1847,
1860,
1864,
1842,
tJennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.
tJerdon, T.C. (Care of Mr. H. 8. King, 45 Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)
*Jerram, Rey. S. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, near Bagshot,
Surrey.
§Jesson, Theses 3 Clarendon-crescent, Brighton.
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
*Jevons, W. STANLEY, M.A., F’.R.S., Professor of Political Economy
in Owens College, Manchester. Parsonage-road, Withington,
Manchester.
*Joad, George C. Patching, Arundel, Sussex.
*Johnson, David. Irvon Villa, Grosvenor-road, Wrexham.
*Johnson, G. J. 34 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
§Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester.
§Johnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.
{Johnson, J. Godwin. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
tJohnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
tJohnson, Randall J.
{Johnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
{Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
§Johnson, Richard C. Warren Side, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
*Johnson, Thomas. The Hermitage, Frodsham, Cheshire.
tJohnson, Thomas. 30 Belgrave-street, Commercial-road, Lon-
don, E.
Johnson, William. The Wynds Point, Colwall, Malvern, Worcester-
shire.
tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham.
{Johnston, A. Keith, F.G.R.S. 1 Savile-row, W.
JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER Rosert, F.R.S. Heatherley, near
Wokingham.
{Johnston, David. 13 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
Johnston, Edward. Field House, Chester.
tJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
{Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N.W.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, by Stirling, N.B.
{Johnstone, John. 1 Barnard-yillas, Bath.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
§Jolly, William (H. M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B.
{Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
{Jones, C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham.
{Jones, Rev. Henry H.
tJones, John. :
§Jongs, JoHN, F.G.S. Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorkshire.
{Jones, John. 49 Union-passage, Birmingham.
*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Jones, R. L. 6 Sunnyside, Princes Park, Liverpool.
§Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, E.C.
{Jonzs, THomas Rymer, F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Anatomy in
King’s College. 52 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London, W.
{Jonus, T. Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy, Royal Military and Staff Colleges, Sandhurst. 5
College-terrace, York Town, Surrey.
§Jonurs, Sir WrLLovGuBy, Bart.,F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfolk,
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B. Southcliffe, Southport, Lancashire.
*JouLn, James Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S.,F.C.S, 343 Lower Brough-
ton-road, Manchester, é
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election.
1847,
1858.
1872.
1848,
1870,
1863.
1868.
1857.
1859.
1847.
1856.
1855.
1872.
1855.
1866.
1850.
1864.
1842.
1864.
1853.
1857,
1865.
1857.
1857.
1857.
1855.
1865.
1868.
1869.
1869.
1861.
1865.
1860.
1858.
1872.
1871.
1855.
1870.
{Jowerrt, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
{Jowett, John. Leeds.
jJoy, Algernon. 17 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W,
*Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire.
Joy, Henry Holmes, LL.D., Q.C., M.R.LA. Torquay.
Joy, at John Holmes, M.A, 38 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge
ells.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
tJudd, John Wesley, F.G.S. 6 Manor-view, Brixton.
tJukes, Rev. Andrew. Spring Bank, Hull.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc., F.A.S.L. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud
Green-lane, Hornsey, N
Kang, Sir Ropenrt, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Principal of the Royal
College of Cork. 51 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tKavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.
tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington, W.,
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
*Kay, John Robinson. Walmersley House, Bury, Lancashire.
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.
*Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford.
{Kay-Shuttleworth, Sir James, Bart. Gawthorpe, Burnley.
tKaye, Robert. Mill Brae, Moodies Burn, by Glasgow.
§Keames, William M. 5 Lower-rock-gardens, Brighton.
{ Keddie, William.
{Keene, Alfred. Eastnoor House, Leamington.
{Ketianp, Rey. Purr, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Clarendon-crescent,
Edinburgh.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
Kelsall, J. Rochdale, Lancashire.
*Kemble, Rev. Charles, M.A. Vellore, Bath.
{Kemp, Rev. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.
{Kennedy, Lieut-Colonel John Pitt. 20 Torrington-square, Blooms-
bury, London, W.C.
Kenny, Matthias. 38 Clifton-terrace, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
{Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.
t{Kenworth, James Ryley. 7 Pembroke-place, Liverpool.
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
*Ker, Robert. Auchinraith, near Hamilton, Scotland.
*Kerr, William D., M.D., R.N. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.
{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.
*Kinahan, Edward Hudson. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
{Kinanan, G. Henry, M.R.IL.A. Geological Survey of Ireland. 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
}Kincaid, Henry Ellis, M.A. 8 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
*King, Mrs. E. M. 34 Cornwall-road, Westbourne-park, London, W.
*King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
§King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool,
King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
49
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election,
1864,
1860.
1842,
§Kine, Krrpurne, M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,
Hull.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Avyonside, Clifton, Bristol.
Kine, Ricuarp, M.D. 12 Bulstrode-street, London, W.
King, Rey. Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. St. Aubins, Jersey.
. {King, William. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.
King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
. {Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
. {Kinestey, Rey. Canon Cuarues, M.A., D.C.L., F.LS., F.G.S.
Eversley Rectory, Winchfield.
. {Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
4 tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
. *Kinnarrp, The Hon. AnrHur Firzepratp, M.P. 1 Pall Mall East,
London, 8.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
. {Krynarrp, The Right Hon. Lord., K.T., F.G.8. Rossie Priory, Inch-
ture, Perthshire.
Kinnear, J. G., F.RS EL.
. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
3. {Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W.
. {Kirxman, Rev. THomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
Kiripaee Rey. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,
ublin.
. {Kitchener, Frank E. Rugby.
. {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
. §Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.
. *Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath,
Sussex,
. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley.
. {Knowles, James, The Hollies, Clapham Common, 58.W.
Knowles, John. Old Trafford Bank House, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
. [Knowles, Rev. J. L.
*Knox, George James. 387 Liverpool-street, Dover.
Knox, Thomas B. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
. {Kynaston, Josiah W. St. Helens, Lancashire.
. {Kynnersley, J. C. 8. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
. §Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
. [Lackerstein, Dr.
. tLadd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 13 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.
. {Laing, David, F.S.A. Scot]. Signet Library, Edinburgh.
. tLaird, H.H, Birkenhead.
Laird, John, M.P. Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
. §Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.LA. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co
Dublin.
. *Laming, Richard. Flansham, near Bognor, Sussex.
. {Lamport, Charles. Upper Norwood, Surrey.
- §Lancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnesley.
. {Lang, Rey. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh.
. §Lang, Robert. Mancombe, Henbury, Bristol. :
. {Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Langton, William, Manchester and Salford Bank, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 43
Year of
Election,
1840, {Lanxuster, Epw1y, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. 68 Belsize-park,
N.W
1865.
1861.
1870.
1845,
1870.
1870.
1857.
1862,
1870.
1869,
1857.
1868.
1863,
1853,
1865.
1857.
1870.
1847,
1858.
1863.
1872.
1858.
1858.
1842,
1861.
1853.
1859.
1872.
1869.
1868.
§Lanxester, E. Ray, M.A. Exeter College, Oxford.
*Larcom, Major-General Sir Tuomas Askew, K.C.B., R.E., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA. Heathfield House, Fareham, Hants.
Lassexii, WriuraM, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ray Lodge, Maidenhead,
*Latham, Arthur G. 24 Cross-street, Manchester.
*Latham, Baldwin. 7 Westminster-chambers, Westminster, 8.W.
fLatham, Robert G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S, 96 Disraeli-road, Putney,
S.W
tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Portsmouth.
*Law, Channell. 5 Champion-park, Camberwell, London, 8.H,
tLaw, Hugh, Q.C. 4 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
tLaw, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
Lawley, The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near York,
tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLawson, Henry. 8 Nottingham-place, London, W.
{Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitzwilliam-
street, Dublin.
*Lawson, M. Avexanpnr, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.
tLawton, Benjamin C. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
Laycocxr, Tuomas, M.D., Professor of the Practice of Physic in the
University of Edinburgh. 4 Rutland-street, Edinburgh.
tLea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.
tLeach, Capt. R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin.
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, London,
E.C.; and Painshill, Cobham.
*LeatHAM, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W.
*Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.
tLeather, John W. Newton Green, Leeds.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
tLepour, G. A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
*Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N,
tLedgard, William. Potter Newton, near Leeds.
Lee, Daniel. Springfield House, Pendlebury, Manchester.
tLee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.
Lee, Henry, M.D. Weatheroak, Alve Church, near Bromsgrove,
*Lex, Joun Hpwarp, F.G.8., F.S,A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay.
tLees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh.
*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester.
*Leeson, Henry B., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S The Maples, Bon-
church, Isle of Wight.
{Lerrvrr, G, Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Spring-gardens, London,
WwW
S.W.
*Lerroy, Major-General J. Hnnnry, R.A.,F.B.S., F.R.G.S., Governor
of Bermuda. Bermuda.
*Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall, Che-
shire ; and 43 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
{LercestTER, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk.
44
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1856.
1861.
1870.
1867.
1870.
1859.
1860.
1863.
1867.
1861.
1871.
1861.
1872.
1871.
1856.
1852.
1866.
1870.
1853.
1860.
1855.
1859,
1864,
1862,
1855.
1871.
1871.
1870,
1842
1873.
1870.
1861.
1864.
1860.
1842,
tLrieu, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 87 Portman-square, London,
W..; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester.
§Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool.
*Leinster, Aucustus Freprericx, Duke of, M.R.I.A. 6 Carlton
House-terrace, London, S.W.; and Carton, Maynooth, Ireland.
§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
tLeister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.
tLeith, Alexander, Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
{Lempriere, Charles, D.C.L. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Lenpy, Capt. Aucustr Freperic, F.L.S., F.G.8. Sunbury House,
Sunbury, Middlesex.
tLeng, John. ‘ Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
tLennox, A.C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8.W.
Lentaigne, John, M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 14 Great
Dominick-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
§Leonard, Hugh, M.R.1L.A., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-
street, Dublin.
tLeppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
tLermit, Rey. Dr. School House, Dedham.
fLeslie, Alexander, C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.
{Lesie, T. EK. Cuivre, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy, Queen’s College, Belfast.
§Ley1, Dr. Leong, F.S.A., F.S.8., F.R.G.S., Professor of Commercial
Law in King’s College, London. 10 Farrar’s-building, Temple,
London, E.C.
tLewis, Alfred Lionel. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town,
London, N.
tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull.
{LippELL, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford.
{Liddell, John.
{Ligertwood, George.
{Lieutsopy, Ropert, F.G.S. Ludlow, Salop.
{Litrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Limerick, CHARLES Graves, D.D., M.R.I.A., Lord Bishop of. The
Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
*Lindsay, Charles, Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B.
*Lindsay, John H.
*Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 47 Brook-street, London, W.
{Lindsay, Rey. T. M. 7 Great Stuart-street, Edinburgh,
tLindsay, Thomas. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
*Langard, John R., F.G.S, Mayfield, Shortlands, Bromley, Kent.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.GS.
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool.
*Lister, Samuel Cunliffe. Farfield Hall, Addingham, Leeds.
§Lister, Thomas, Victoria-crescent, Barnsley.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
*Liverine, G. D., M.A., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
{Livingstone, Rey. Thomas Gott, Minor Canon of Carlisle Cathedral.
Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1865,
1870.
1870,
1865,
1865.
1854,
1853,
1867.
1872.
1863,
1868.
1862.
1872.
1871.
1851.
1866.
1857,
1861.
1859,
1871.
1872.
1861.
1863.
1867,
1863.
1861.
1870.
1868.
1850,
1853.
1870.
1849,
1867.
1873.
1866,
1873.
1873.
1850.
1853.
1858,
tLloyd, G. B. Wellington-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S._ Park Glass Works, Birmingham.
*Lioyp, Rev. Humpurey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.I.A,,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
tLloyd, James. 16 Welfield-place, Liverpool.
tLloyd, J.H., M.D. Anglesey, North Wales.
tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Lloyd, Rey. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Lloyd, Wilson. Myrod House, Wednesbury.
*LoBLey, James Logan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
ag London, W.
*Locke, John. (Care of J. Robertson, Esq., 3 Grafton-street, Dublin.)
“Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.
tLocxre, Joun, M.P. 63 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
tLocxyrr, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A\S. 6 Alexandra-road,
Finchley-road, London, N.W.
*Loa@an, Sir Wixt1am Epmonp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal, Canada,
tLogin, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India.
fLong, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
tLong, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton,
tLong, John Jex. 12 Whitevale, Glascow.
fLong, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk.
§Longdon, Frederick. Luamdur, near Derby.
tLongfield, Rev. George, D.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Lonermip, Mounrirrort, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of
Feudal and English Law in the University of Dublin, 47 Fitz-
william-square, Dublin.
*Longman, William, F.G.S, 36 Hyde-park-square, London, W.
t{Longmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.
Longridge, William 8. Oakhurst, Ambergate, Derbyshire.
§Longstatt, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth,
S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C.
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Summergangs, Hull.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
tLosh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.
*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8S. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.
*Lowr, Epwarp Josep, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.M.S.
Highfield House Observatory, near Nottingham.
tLowe, G.C. _67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
{Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.
ene William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E, Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
ureh,
Pitentices, Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. High Elms
Farnborough, Kent.
tLubbock, Montague, High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.
*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Luis, John Henry, Cidhmore, Dundee.
§Lumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford.
*Lund, Charles. 1 Blenheim-road, Bradford.
§Lund, Joseph. St. George’s-place, Bradford.
§Lund, Joseph. St, George’s-place, Bradford.
*Lundie, Cornelius. Tweed Lodge, Cardiff.
{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull,
*Lupton, Arthur, eadingley, near Leeds,
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864.
1864.
1866,
1871.
1857.
1862.
1849,
1852,
1854,
1868,
1868,
1866.
1840,
1871,
1866.
1855.
1863.
1855,
1840,
1868,
1872.
1859,
1858.
1871.
1859,
1871.
1855.
1854,
1867.
1855.
1872.
1873.
1855,
1855.
1859.
1859.
1867.
1854,
*Lupton, Darnton, jun. The Harehills, Leeds.
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
{Lycerrt, Sir Francis. 18 Highbury-grove, London, N.
*Lye.i, Sir Cuaruzs, Bart., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.; F.RB.S., F.LS.,
V.P.G.S., Hon. M.R.S.Ed. 73 Harley-street, London, W.
tLyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.
tLyons, Robert D. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.
*Lyte, F. Maxwell, F.C.S. 6 Cité de Retiro, Faubourg St. Honoré,
Paris.
tLyrrieton, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. 12 Stratton-
street,London, W.
tMacAdam, Robert. 18 College-square Hast, Belfast.
*Macapam, Srrvenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
tMacauistEr, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. 138 Adelaide-road, Dublin.
tM‘Allan, W. A. Norwich.
*M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8.W.
Macaulay, James A. M., M.D, 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburn, London,
N.W.
tM‘Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin-
burgh.
*MacBrayne, Robert. Househill Hamlet, Glasgow.
tM‘Catuan, Rey. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.
tM Callum, Archibald K., M.A.
tM‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.
$M‘Cann, Rey. James, D.D., F.R.8.L., F.G.8, 18 Shaftesbury-terrace,
Glasgow.
M‘Clelland, James, F.8.8S. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W.
tM‘CurnTocx, Captain Sir Francis L.,R.N.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
M‘Clure, J. H. Strutt-street, Manchester.
M‘Connel, James. Macte-pibsd, Ksher, Surrey.
M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S. 44 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
M‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden.
Macponap, Witur1aM, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Civil and Natural History. St. Andrews, N.B.
§M‘Donald, William. Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Knevitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, H.C.)
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
*M‘Ewan, John. 13 Hamilton-terrace West, Partick, by Glasgow.
Macfarlane, Alexander. 73 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
§M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
*M‘Farlane, Walter. 231 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Macriz, Ropert Anprew. 13 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
tMacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. as Glasgow.
t{M°George, Mungo. Nithodale, Laurie-park, Sydenham.
§McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford.
{M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
tMacGregor, James Watt. Wallace-grove, Glasgow.
tM ‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.
t{Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.
*M‘Intosu, W. U., M.D., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire,
*Maclver, Charles. Water-street, Liverpool.
*
++ * *
LIST OF MEMBERS. 47
Year of
Election.
1871.
1873.
1855.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1865,
1867,
1872.
1873.
1860.
1864,
1873.
1859.
1862,
1868,
1861.
1862.
1871.
1870.
1867.
1850.
1859,
1852.
1855.
1855.
1868.
1869,
1869,
1866.
1870.
1863.
1857.
§Mackay, Rev. Dr, A., F.R.G.S. 5 Sandford-street, Portobello.
§McKendrick, John G., M.D. 29 Castle-terrace, Edinburgh.
{M‘Kenzie, Alexander. 89 Buchanan-street, Glasgow,
*Mackenzie, James. Glentore, by Glasgow.
t{Mackeson, Henry B., F.G.8. Hyde, Kent,
§Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton,
§Macxrrs, SamvEy Josern, F.G.S8, _ 84 Kensington-park-road, Lon
don, W.
*Mackinlay, David. Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. Chichester.
§Mackson, H. G. 265 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds,
*MacLacuuan, Ropert, F.L.8. 39 Limes-grove, Lewisham, 8.E.
phen sborough, John, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Shipley, near Brads
d
ord,
{Maclaren, Archibald, Summertown, Oxfordshire.
§MacLargen, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Edinburgh.
§McLaren, Walter 8. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
{Macrman, Sir Toomas, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., late Astronomer
Royal at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town, South Africa.
tMacleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden-hill-road,;
London, W.
§M‘Lrop, Hersert, F.C.S. Indian Civil Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Egham.
*Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester.
tMacmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey.
{M‘Nab, William Ramsay, M.D. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.
tMacnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
MacNer1, The Right Hon. Sir John, G.C.B., F.R.S.E.; F.R.G.S,
Granton House, Edinburgh.
MacNerx1, Sir John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA. 17 The Grove, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tMacnight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh.
t{Macpherson, Rey. W. Kilmuir Easter, Scotland.
Macredie, P. B. Mure, F.R.S.E. Irvine, Ayrshire.
*Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 40 Leinster-square, Bayswater,London, W,
{M‘Tyre, William, M.D. Maybole, Ayrshire.
tMacvicar, Rey. Joun Gipson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B,
{Maenay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
Magor, J. B. Redruth, Cornwall.
§Marn, Rey. R., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the Radcliffe Obserya-
tory, Oxford.
t{Main, Robert. Admiralty, Somerset House, W.C.
§Mason, Ricuarp H.,F.8.A.,F.R.G.8. British Museum,London, W.C.
*MaLaHIpE, TaLBor DE, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8.,
F.S.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Mordon College, Blackheath, London, S.E.
*Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. The Priory, St. Michael’s Hamlet,
Aigburth, Liverpool.
t{Maling, C. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tMallet, Dr. John William, F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Virginia, U.S.
*Mavet, Ropenrt, Ph.D.,F.R.S., F.G.8., M.R.LA. The Grove, Clap-
ham-road, Clapham ; and 7 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street; London, 8.W.
48
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1846.
1866.
1866.
1870.
1864.
1865,
1870.
1864.
1863,
1871.
1857.
1842.
1866.
1870.
1856.
1864,
1852.
1858.
1849,
1865.
1848,
1871.
1870.
1836.
1867.
1865.
1865.
1847.
1861.
1868,
1870.
1870.
1865.
1861,
1859.
1865.
1858.
1860.
1863,
{Mansy, Cuartes, F.R.S., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde
Park, London, W.
§Mann, Ropert JAmzs,M.D., F.R.A.S, 5 Kingsdown-yvillas, Wands-
worth Common, S.W.
Manning, The Right Rev. H.
t{Manning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham.
{Manifold, W.H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tMansel, J. C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
tMarch, J. F. Fairfield House, Warrington.
{Marcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
{Marxuam, Cuements R., C.B.,F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S, 21 Eccle-
ston-square, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
{Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel S. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
S MARES, A. Frmre-. College of Physical Science, Neweastle-on-
ne.
Messets John. Allerton, Liverpool.
§Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester,
{Marsh, Dr. J. C. L. Park-row, Nottingham.
{Marsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
{Marsh, M. H.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 87 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
Marshall, James. Headingly, near Leeds.
tMarshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
{Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
*Marshall, William P. 6 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
{Martin, Rey. Hugh,M.A. Greenhill-cottage, Lasswade by Edinburgh.
tMartin, Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
*Martin, William, jun. 38 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*Martindale, Nicholas. Berryarbor, Ilfracombe.
*Martineau, Rey. James. 10 Gordon-street, Gordon-square, London,
{Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
{Masketynr, Nev Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Mineralogical Department, British Museum. 112 Gloucester-
terrace, Hyde-park-gardens, London, W.
*Mason, Hugh. Groby Lodge, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tMason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta. (Care
of Henry S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, E.C.)
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
tMassey, Thomas. 5 Gray’s-Inn-square, London, W.C.
+Massy, Frederick, 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Mathews, G. 8S. Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Maruews, Witi1aM, M.A., F.G.S. 49 Harborne-road, Birming-
ham.
{Matthew, Alexander C. 3 Canal-terrace, Aberdeen.
{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
*Matthews, Henry, F.C.S. 60 Gower-street, London, W.C.
§Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ford.
{Maughan, Rev, W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 49
Year of
Election.
1855. {Maule, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Partick, near Glasgow.
1865, *Maw, Grorer, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A, Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.
1864. *Maxwell, Francis. Dunragit, Wigtownshire.
*MaxweE tL, James Cierx, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. Professor of
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. Glenlair,
Dalbeattie, N.B.; and 11 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast.
1865. *May, Walter. Elmley Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
1868. §Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s-nest, Lancing, Sussex.
1863. §Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
1863. tMease, Solomon. Cleveland House, North Shields.
{Meath, Samuel Butcher, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Ardbraccan, Co.
Meath.
1871. {Meikie, James, F'.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
1867. {Meldrum, Charles. Mauritius.
1866. {Mello, Rey. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield.
1854, {Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
1847. {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.
1863. {Melvin, Alene! 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1862, §Menneti, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
1868, §MERRIFIELD, CuartEs W., F.R.S., Principal of the Royal School of
Naval Architecture, Superintendent of the Naval Museum at
South Kensington, Hon. Sec. I.N.A. 20 Pembroke-gardens,
Kensington, London, W.
1872. {Merryweather, Richard M. Clapham House, Clapham Common,
London, 8.W.
1871. {Merson, John. Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth,
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C.
1863. {Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869, §Mraux, Louts C. Philosophical Hall, Leeds
1847, *Michell, Rev. Richard, D.D., Principal of Magdalen Hall, Oxford.
1865. {Michie, Alexander. 26 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
1865, {Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
1867. {Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
1859, {Millar, John. Lisburn, Ireland.
1863, §Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1865. pe Rey. Canon J, C., D.D. The Vicarage, Greenwich, London,
E
1861. *Miller, Robert. Broomfield House, Reddish, near Manchester.
Mitirr, Witi1am Hatiows, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. 7 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.
1868, *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S.. 15 Northum-
' berland-street, Strand, London, W.C.
1842. Milligan, Robert. Acacia in Rawdon, Leeds.
1868. §Mrzis, Epmunp J., D.Se., F.C.S. 12 Pemberton-terrace, St.
John’s-park, London, N.
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 65 Rutland-gate,
London, S.W.
1867, {Milne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee.
50
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867.
1854.
1864,
_865,
1855.
1859.
1863.
1873.
1870.
1868.
1862,
1855.
1854,
1864,
1866,
1855.
1861.
1852.
1865.
1860,
1853,
1872.
1872,
1857.
1859.
1857,
1866.
1854,
1857.
1871.
1873.
1868.
1833.
1867.
1863,
1865,
1861,
1871.
1863.
*Mitnr-Homr, Davin, M.A, F.R.S.E., F.G.8. 10 York-place,
Edinburgh. :
*Milner, William. 50 Bentley-road, Liverpool.
*Mitton, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S, 17 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire,
{Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
tMitchell, Alexander, M.D, Old Rain, Aberdeen,
{Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford.
§Mitchell, John, York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
§Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
*MITCHELL, WILLIAM STEPHEN, LL.B., F.LS., F.G.S, Caius
College, Cambridge.
*Moffat, John, C.E, Ardrossan, Scotland.
§Morrat, THomas, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
Chester,
tMoge, John Rees, High Littleton House, near Bristol.
§Moceriner, Mattruew, F.G.S. Woodfield, Monmouthshire,
§Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glasgow.
tMolesworth, Rey. W. N., M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.
tMolony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus.
§Motynreavx, Wixitam, F.G.8, Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-
Trent.
{Monk, Rey. William, M.A., F.R.A.S. Wymington Rectory, Higham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire.
tMonroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
§Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Hdgeware-road,
London, W.
§Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tMoore, Arthur, Cradley House, Clifton, Bristol.
tMoonrz, Cuarins, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Bath.
tMoore, Rey. John, D.D. Clontarf, Dublin.
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol,
*Moorr, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. 113 Eaton-square,
London, S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire,
*Moorr, Tuomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
{Moorz, Tuomas J oHN, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-
ool.
‘Moco, Rey. William Prior, The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
{Mous, AtBSANDER, F.L,S., M“R.LA. 3 Botanic View, Glasneyin,
ublin.
§Morgan, Edward Delmar, 19 Queen’s-gardens, London, W,
{tMorgan, Thomas H. Oakhurst, Hastings.
Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon, Uclcfield, Sussex.
tMorison, William R. Dundee.
{Mor.iey, Samvet, M.P, 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, E.C,
* es, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,
"Monti, Rev, Francis Orpen, B.A, Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
ork,
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
t{Morris, William.
*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh,
{Morrow, R. J. Bentick-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 61
Year of
Election.
1865.
1869.
1857.
1858,
1871.
1868,
1857,
1870,
1873.
1864,
1873.
1869,
1865,
1866.
1872.
1856.
1863.
1861,
1850.
1871.
1872.
1871.
1857.
1866.
1864,
1872.
1872,
1864,
1864,
1855.
1852,
1852.
1869,
1850,
1871,
1871.
1871.
1859.
§Mortimer, J, R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield,
tMortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
§$Morton, Groree H., F.G.8. 21 West Derby-street, Liverpool.
“Morton, Henry Josrepu., Garforth House, West Garforth, near
Leeds.
{Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
tMoseley, H, N. Olveston, Bristol.
tMoses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire,
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool.
§Moss, John Miles, M.A, 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Mosse, George 8. 12 Eldon-road, Kensington, W.
*Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of H. S.
King & Co.,65 Cornhill, London, E.C.)
§Mossman, William. Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds.
§Mort, Atsgert J. Claremont House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
§Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Mott, Frederick T., F.R.G.S. 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester.
§Mott, Miss Minnie, 1 De Montfort-street, Leicester.
*Movat, Freperick Jou, M.D., late Inspector-General of Prisons,
Bengal. 12 Durham-villas, Campden-hill, London, W.
{Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D, 21 Camden-crescent, Bath.
tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
*Mounteastle, William Robert. Ellenbrook, near Manchester,
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.
{Mowbray, John T, 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
{Muir, W. Hamilton. Toravon, Stirlingshire.
§Muirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C.S. 159 Camden-road, London, N.
*Muirhead, Henry, M.D. Bushy-hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.
tMullins, M. Bernard, M.A., CE.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
{Munpetta, A. J., M.P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Nottingham.
*Munro,Major-General Witi1AM,0.B,, F.L.S8. United Service Club,
te Mall, London, 8,W.; and Mapperton Lodge, Farnborough,
ants,
*Munster, H. Selwood Lodge, Brighton.
*Munster, William Felix. Selwood Lodge, Brighton.
§Murcu, Jnrom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, John Henry, Surbiton-hill, Kineston, S.W.
*Murchison, K. R. Ashurst Lodge, East Grinstead.
tMurdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
{Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
{Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Murray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
tMurray, Anprew, F.L.S. 67 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
{Murray, ‘Captain, R.N. Murrathwaite, Ecclefachan, Scotland.
atone, Dr. Ivor, F.R.S.E. The Knowle, Brenchley, Staplehurst,
ent.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
§Murray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Muwray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, C.E, 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, S.W.
t{Murray, Rey, John, Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
E2
2 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872. t{Muwray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
1863. ¢Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1859, *Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth, Lancaster.
Musgrave, The Venerable Charles, D.D., Archdeacon of Craven.
Halifax.
1861. {Muserove, John, jun. Bolton.
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
1865. {Myers, Rev. E., F.G.S. 3 Waterloo-road, Wolverhampton.
1859, §Mytnz, Roperr Witi1aM, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall-
place, London, 8.W.
1850, {Nachot, H. W., Ph.D. 73 Queen-street, Edinburgh,
1842. Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
1855. *Napier, James R., F.R.S. 22 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Tavistock House, Salisbury.
1839. *Napmer, Right Hon. Sir Josreu, Bart. 4 Merrion-square South,
Dublin.
1855, {Napier, Robert. West Chandon, Gareloch, Glasgow.
Napper, James William L. Loughcrew, Oldcastle., Co. Meath.
1872. §Nares, Capt. G.S., R.N. Grant's Bank, Portsmouth.
1866. tNash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Imperial-square, Cheltenham.
1850. *NasmyTu, James. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
1864. {Natal, William Colenso, Lord Bishop of.
1860. {Neate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1867. §Nraves, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
1873. §Neill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford,
1873. §Neill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford.
1853. [Nell, William, Governor of Hull Jail.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
1865. {Neilson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. Great Yarmouth.
1866, *Neyill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New
Zealand.
1857. {Neville, John, C.E., M.R.LLA. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
1852. {Neyille, Parke, C.E. Town Hall, Deblin.
1869. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842, New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling. Ferndene, Gateshead-upon-Tyne,
1866. *Newdigate, Albert L. 18 Esplanade, Dover.
1842. *NewMan, Professor Francis Witi1am. Norwood-villa, Arundel-
crescent, Weston-super-Mare.
1863, *Newmarcu, WitiiAM, F.R.S. Beech Holme, Clapham Common,
London, S.W.
1866, *Newmarch, William Thomas. 8 Lovain-crescent, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
1860. *Nrwron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge.
1872. {Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
1865. {Newton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-Ayon.
1867. {Nicholl, Dean of Guild. Dundee.
1866. §NicHotson, Sir Cuanrzs, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., M.D., F.G.S.,
cre E.R.G.S. 26 Devonshire-place, Portland-place, London, W.
1858. *Nicholson, Comelius, F.G.8., F.S,A. Wellfield, Muswell-hill, Lon-
don, N.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
cr
Ge
Year of
Election.
1861.
1871.
1867,
1850.
1867.
1864.
1863.
1870.
1860,
1859.
1868,
1863.
1865.
1872.
1866.
1869.
1868.
1861.
1858.
1858.
1857.
1870.
1866.
1859.
1863.
1863.
1859.
1837.
1862.
1857.
1853,
*Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.
§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne-hill, London, 8.E.
tNicuoxson, Henry AuLEeyne, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History, University College, Toronto, Canada.
{Nicoz, James, F.R.S.E., F.G.8., Professor of Natural History in
Marischal College, Aberdeen.
{Nimmo, Dr. Matthew, L.R.C.S.E. Nethergate, Dundee.
Niven, Ninian. Clonturk Lodge, Drumcondra, Dublin.
tNoap, Henry M., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.. 72 Hereford-road, Bays-
water, London, W.
*NoBLE, Captain, F.R.S. Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tNolan, Joseph. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Nolloth, Captain Matthew 8., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service Club,
S.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
tNorfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada Dock,
Liverpool.
tNorgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
§Norman, Rey. ALFreD Mertz, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence,
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
Norris, Charles. St. John’s House, Halifax.
{Norris, Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
§Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales,
tNorth, Thomas. Cinder-hill, Nottingham.
Nortuampton, The Right Hon. Cuartes Doucras, Marquis of.
145 Piccadilly, London, W.; and Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire.
tNorrucortr, The Right Hon. Sir Srarrorp H., Bart., C.B., M.P.
Pynes, Exeter; and 86 Harley-street, London, W.
*Nortuwicx, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosyenor-
square, London, W.
tNorwich, The Hon. and Right Rey. J. T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. Norwich.
{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farley Wood, near Huddersfield.
O’ Beirne, James, M.D.
O’Brien, Baron Lucius. Dromoland, Newmarket-on-Fergus, Ireland.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
*O’CaLtaGcHAN, Patrick, LL.D., D.C.L. Comyn Villa, Lansdown-
road, Tunbridge Wells.
Odgers, Rey. William James. Savile House, Weston-road, Bath.
*Opiine, WiniiaM, M.B., F.B.S., F.C.8., Waynflete Professor of Che-
mistry in the University of Oxford. Museum, Oxford,
{O’Donnavan, William John. Portarlington, Ireland.
tO’Donnell, J. O., M.D. 34 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Ogden, James. Woodhouse, Loughborough.
TOgilvie, C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
*Oaiivir, GroreGe, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
Marischal College, Aberdeen. 29 Union-place, Aberdeen.
{Oeilvy,G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
{Octtvy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Inverquharity, N.DB.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. 98 I*riar-gate, Derby.
tOgston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen,
tO'Hagan, John. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin,
{O’Kelly, Joseph, M.A. 61 Stephen’s-green, Dublin,
{O’Kelly, Matthias J. Dalkey, Ireland.
§OLpHAM, James, C.1. Cottingham, near Hull,
54
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. .
1857,
1860.
1863,
*OLtpHaM, THomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., M.R.LA., Director
of the Geological Survey of India. 1 Hastings-street, Calcutta.
tO’Leary, Professor Purcell, M.A. Sydney-place, Cork.
{Oliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. Royal Gardens, Kew. ;
*OmMANNEY, Vice-Admiral Erasmus, C.B.,F.R.S., F.R.AS.,F.R.G.S.
G6 Talbot-square, Hyde Park, London, W.; and United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James's, London,
S.W.
. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
OrmErop, GrorGe WareEING, M.A., F.G.S. Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
. {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
. tOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
Orpen, Joun H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
. TOrr, Sir Andrew. Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
. §Osborn, George. 11 Blenheim-mount, Bradford.
. tOsborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*OstErR, A. Fouuert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. *Osler, Sidney F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. Outram, Thomas, Greetland, near Halifax.
OveRSTONE, SamuEL Jones Luoyo, Lord, F.G.S8. 2 Carlton-
gardens, London, 8.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
. tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool.
. Owen, James H. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.
Owen, Ricuarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S8., F.LS., F.G.8., Hon.
M.R.S.E., Director of the Natural-History Department, British
Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8.
; *Ower, Charles, C.E. 11 Craigie-terrace, Dundee.
. {Pace, Dav, LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. College of Physical Science,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. {Paget, Charles. Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham.
. *Paget, Joseph. Ruddington Grange, near Nottingham.
. *Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth.
. §Palmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
. §Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham. i;
. §Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.
. *Palmer, W. R. Phoenix Lodge, Brixton, London, S.W.
sa oad Rev, William Lindsay, M.A. The Vicarage, Hovrnsea,
ull,
. *Parker, Alexander, M.R.1.A.. 59 William-street, Dublin.
. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-
yne.
Parker, Joseph, F.G.S. Upton Chaney, Bitton, near Bristol.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.
. *Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants,
Parker, Rey. William. Saham, Norfolk.
. [Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling. King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
. §ParKes, WILLIAM. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, 8, W.
. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-
shire,
LIST OF MEMBERS,
cr
ot
Year of
Election. ~
1862.
1865,
1855.
1861,
1871.
13863.
1867.
1871.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1864.
1863.
1863,
1864,
1851.
1866.
1847,
1868.
1863.
1872.
1870.
1863.
1863.
1863.
1858.
1855.
1868.
1861.
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, E,
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. 8 Portland-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tPaterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow.
{Patterson, Andrew. Deafand Dumb School, Old Trafford, Manchester.
*Patterson, A. H. Craigdarragh, Belfast.
{Patterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee.
t Patterson, John.
{Pattinson, John. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Pattison, Samuel R., F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.
§Pau, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, 5.W.
tPavy, Freperick Writu1aM, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital. 39
Grosvenor-street, London, W.
{Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.
{Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
{Payne, Dr. Joseph F, 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
{Peacu, Cuarves W,, Pres. R.P.S. Edin. A.L.S. 50 Haddington-
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.
tPeacock, Ebenezer. 32 University-street, London, W.C.
§Peacock, Richard Atkinson. 12 Gauen's-raad, Jersey.
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.8. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Insti-
tution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, E.C.
Pearson, Charles. 10 Torrington-square, Lendon, W.C.
*Pearson, Joseph. 54 Welbeck-terrace, Mansfield-road, N ottingham.
tPearson, Rey. Samuel. 3 Greenheys-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
§Pease, H. F.. Brinkburn, Darlington.
*Pease, Joseph W., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
tPease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Pease, Thomas, F.G.8S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Harecroft House, Wisheach,
Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, I'.L.S. Sibaldsholme, Wisbeach, Cambridge-~
shire,
*Peckover, William, F.S.A. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire.
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester.
§Peel, Thomas. Hampton-place, Horton, Yorkshire.
*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.
. {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
. *Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, 8.W.
. {Pendergast, Thomas. Lancefield, Cheltenham.
. §PencEeLLy, Witi1AM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
{Percy, Joun, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Metallurgy in the
Government School of Mines. Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn-street, S.W.; and 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
*Perigal, Frederick. Chatcots, Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Perkin, WittraM Henry, F.R.S., F.C.S, Seymour Villa, Sudbury,
Harrow.
tPerkins, Rev. George. St. James’s View, Dickenson-road, Rusholme,
near Manchester. !
Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire,
56
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1864, *Perkins, V. R. The Brands, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
1867.
1861.
1870.
1861.
1871.
1867.
1863,
1870,
1853.
1853,
1863,
1859,
1862.
1870,
1859.
1868.
1868.
1864.
1861.
1870.
1870,
1871.
1865.
1873.
1857.
1863,
1861.
1868,
1859,
1866.
1864.
1869.
1865.
1867.
1842.
1857.
1861.
t Perkins, William.
tPerring, John Shae. 104 King-street, Manchester.
Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., Bishop of Melbourne, Aus-
tralia,
*Perry, Rev. 8S. G. F., M.A. Tottington Parsonage, near Bury.
*Prrry, Rey. 8. J. Stonyhurst College Observatory, Whalley, Black-
burn.
*Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.
Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Peyton, John EK. H.,F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonards-on-
Sea.
{Puayre, Colonel Sir Arruur. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, 8. W.
*PuENE, JOHN SAMUEL, F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.S, 5 Carlton-terrace,
Oakley-street, London, 8.W.
§Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rey. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. 85 Church-street, Manchester,
*Philips, Mark. Welcombe, Stratford-on-Avon.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.
{Philipson, Dr. 1 Sayille-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Puitiips, Major-General Sir B, Travett, United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, W.
{Phillips, Rey. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Puiuiies, J. Antruur. Cressington Park, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Puitiips, Joun, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S8., Professor of
Geology in the University of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.
tPhillips, Major J. Scott.
{Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
}Purpson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey.
{Pickering, Wiliam. Oak View, Clevedon.
{Pickstone, William. Radcliff Bridge, near Manchester.
§Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§Pigot, Rev. EK. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
{Pigot, Thomas F. Royal College of Science, Dublin,
*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork.
{Prxe, L. OwEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
§Pike, W.H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.
{ Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 35 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
"Pim, Captain Beprorp C. T., R.N., M.P., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kings-
a Aetna Upper Norwood, London, 8.E.
Pim, George, M.R.L.A. Brennan's Town, Cabinteely, Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan. Harold’s Cross, Dublin.
Pim, William H. Monkstown, Dublin.
| Pincoffs, Simon.
{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrews, Norwich.
{Pirie, William, M.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
}Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee,
tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
§Prant, James, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
{Plant, Thomas L. Camp-hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
tPrayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel, H.M. Consul, Algeria.
Pruayratr, Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S.
4 Queensherry-place, South Kensington, London, S.W.
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
*Pocuin, Henry Davis, FCS. Broughton Old Hall, Manchester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
Election. '
1846.
1862.
1854.
1868.
1868,
1866.
1863.
1842,
1863.
1857,
1873.
1857.
1867.
1855.
1864,
1869.
1864,
1871.
1856.
1872,
1870.
1865.
1865.
1864.
1835.
1846,
1872.
1871.
1863,
1858.
1863.
1863.
1865.
{Porr, Witi1aM, Mus. Doc, I. R.S. The Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8.W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. East Witton Vicarage, Bedale,
Yorkshire. ?
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Comwall.
{Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
{Pooley,Thomas A.,B.Se. South Side,Clapham Common,London,S. W,
tPortal, Wyndham 8. Malsanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Henry J. Ker, M.R.LA. New Traveller’s Club, 15 George-
street, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham.
Porter, Rey. T. H., D.D. Desertcreat, Co. Armagh.
tPotter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*PoTtrerR, EpmunD, F.R.S, Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts,
Potter, Thomas. George-street, Manchester.
tPotts, James. 26 Sandhill, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*PounDEN, Captain Lonspate, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.
*Powell, FrancisS. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-
square, W.
{Power, Sir James, Bart. LEdermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland,
TtPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
*Poynter, John E, Clyde Neuck, Uddingstone, Hamilton, Scotland,
tPrangley, Arthur.
*Preece, William Henry. Grosvenor House, Southampton.
*Prentice, Manning. Violet-hill, Stowmarket, Suffolk.
Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham,
Prest, John. Blossom-street, York.
*PRESTWICH, JOSEPH, F.R.S., F'.G.S. Shoreham, near Sevenoaks,
tPrice, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C.
*Prick, Rey. BarrHotomew, M.A, F.RS., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford,
11 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
tPrice, David S., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W,
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
§Price, Captain W. E., M.P. Tibberton Court, Gloucester,
*Prichard, Thomas, M.D. Abington Abbey, Northampton,
tPrideaux, J. Symes. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
*Prior, R.C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
pega sateen, F.RS.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
on, N.
*PRITCHARD, Rey.CHarrss, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S., Professor
of ey in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
xford.
aaa Rev. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co. Dur-
am.
{Procter, James. Morton House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Procter, R.S, Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, Thomas, Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
§Proctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York.
*Prosser, Thomas. West Boldon, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tProwse, Albert P, Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth,
58 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. High Elms, Watford. .
1871. *Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.
1864, {Pugh, John. Aberdovey, Shrewsbury.
1873. §Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
1867. {Pullar, John. 4 Leonard Bank, Perth.
1867. §Pullar, Robert. 6 Leonard Bank, Perth.
1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. 33 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Punnett, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.
1869. {Purchas, Rev. W. H.
1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
1860. {Purpy, Frepenick, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.
1866. {Purser, Professor John. Queen’s College, Belfast.
1860, *Pusey, 8. E. B. Bouverie-. 56 Lowndes-street, 8.W.; and Pusey
House, Faringdon.
1868. §Pyr-Smirn, P. H., M.D. 381 Finsbury-square, E.C.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, 8.E.
1861, *Pyne, Joseph John. St. German’s Villa, St. Lawrence-road, Not-
ting-hill, W.
1870. {Rabbits, W.T. Forest-hill, London, 8.E.
1860, {RapciirFE, CHarRLres Buanp, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, Lon-
don, W.
1870. {Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
1861. Rafferty, Thomas. 13 Monmouth-terrace, Rusholme, Manchester.
1854. {Raffles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1870. {Raffles, William Winter. Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1855, {Rainey, Harry, M.D. 10 Moore-place, Glasgow.
1864, tRainey, James T. 8 Widcomb-crescent, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
1863. {RamsAy, ALEXANDER, jun., F.G.S. 45 Norland-square, Notting-
hill, London, W.
1845, {Ramsay, Anprew Crompre, LL.D., F.RS., F.G.8., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom and
of the Museum of Economic Geology, Professor of Geology in
the Royal School of Mines. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, 8. W.
1863. {Ramsay, D. R.
1867, {Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee.
1861. {Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyleshire,
1867. *Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 15 Somerset-street, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.
1875. *Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Horton, Yorkshire.
1835. *Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.
1869. *Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 62 St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.
1860. {Randall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.
1865. {Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
1855. {Randolph, Charles. Pollockshiels, Glasgow.
1860. *Randolph, Rey. Herbert, M.A. Marcham, near Abingdon.
Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Buwrlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
1863. §Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
1861. §Ransome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester.
1868, *Ranson, Edwin. Kempston Mill, Bedford,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 59
Year of
Election.
1872. *Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S, 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s-Inn,
1868.
1864,
1870.
1870.
1870.
1863.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1852.
1865.
1870,
1862,
1852.
1863.
1863.
1361.
1861.
1869.
1850.
1863,
1863.
1360.
1867.
1869.
1870.
1858.
1871.
1858.
1868,
1863.
1861,
London, W.C
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N. W.
{Rassam, Hormused.
*Rarcurrr, Colonel Cuaruus, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.8S. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Rate, Rey. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penlkzidge, Staffordshire.
tRathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§Rathbone, R.R. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
tRattray, W.. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
Rawdon, William Frederick M.D. Bootham, York.
. {Rawlins, G.W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*Rawlins, John. Shrawley Wood House, near Stourport.
*RAWLINSON, GEorGE, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History in
the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts, Canterbury.
. *Rawiinson, Major-General Sir Henry C., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,
FE.R.G.8. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
*Rayieieu, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S. 4 Carlton-gardens,
Pall Mall, S.W.; and Terling Place, Witham, Essex,
tRayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chester.
tRayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.
{Read, Thomas, M.D. Donegal-square West, Belfast.
tRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Bawtry.
*Read, W. H. Rudstone, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
§Reade, Thomas M., C.E., F.C.S. - Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
*Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.LA., F.G.8. Knockranny, Keadue,
Carrick-on-Shannon, Ireland.
*REDFERN, Professor PETER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
tRedmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
*Reé, H. P. Villa Ditton, Torquay.
{Rerep, Epwarp J., Vice-President of the Institute of Naval Archi-
tects. Chorlton-street, Manchester.
tReid, J. Wyatt. 40 Great Western-terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
§Renals, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,
tRendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Rennigz, Sir Joun, Knt., F.RS., .GS., FS.A, F.RGS: 7
Lowndes-square, London, 8. W.
fRennison, Rev. Thomas, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
tRévy, J. J. 16 Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W. ‘
*Rerynoips, Ospornn, M.A., Professor of Engineering in “Owens
Cullege, Manchester.
§Reynolds, Richard, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.
fReynolds, 8. R. Royal Dublin Society, Kildare-street, Dublin.
Reynolds, William, M.D.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds,
§RicHarps, Rear-Admiral Georee H., C.B., F.R.S., F.R.GS8., Hy-
drographer to the Admiralty. The Admiralty, Whitehall,
London, 8. W
§RicHARDSON, BenJAMIN WanrD, M.A., M.D., F.R.S, 12 Hinde=
street, Manchester-square, London, W.
§Richardson, Charles, 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
60
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1869,
1863.
1868.
1870.
1868.
1863.
1870.
1861.
1861.
1863.
1870.
1868.
1861.
1859,
1861,
1872.
1862.
1861.
1863.
1873.
1873.
1860,
1867.
1855.
1867.
1869,
1854,
1869,
1859.
1859.
1870.
1857.
1868.
1866.
1859.
1867.
1871.
1870.
1866.
1861.
1852.
1859.
1873.
1866.
1861.
1863.
*Richardson, Charles. Albert Park, Abingdon, Berks.
*Richardson, Edward, jun. 3 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
{Richardson, J. H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
§Richardson, James C. Glanrafon, near Swansea.
{Richardson, John W, South Ashfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Richardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Mdinburgh.
Richardson, Thomas, Montpelier-hill, Dublin,
Richardson, William. Micklegate, York.
§Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
tRichson, Rey.Canon, M.A. Shakespeare-street,Ardwick, Manchester,
tRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 7 India-street, Edinburgh.
tRickards, Dr. 386 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
§Ricketts, Charles, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead.
*Rmpett, Major-General Cuartes J, Bucnanan, C.B., FBS,
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
tRiddell, Rev. John. Moffat by Beatlock, N.B.
*Rideout, William J. 51 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
§Ridge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
{Rideway, Henry Akroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington,
§Ripley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
§Ripley, H. W. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Rrpon, The Marquis of, RG. D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.5. 1 Carlton-
gardens, London, 8.W.
tRitchie, George Robert. 4 Watkyn-terrace, Coldharbour-lane,
Camberwell, London, 8.1.
tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
{Ritchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
*Rivington, John. 65 Porchester-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W,
tRobberds, Rey. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
*Rozsins, J. 104 Portsdown-road, Maida-hill, London, N.W.
Roberton, John. Oxford-road, Manchester.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
{Roberts, Henry, F.S.A. Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.
*Roberts, Isaac, F.G.S. 26 Rock-park, Rock-ferry, Cheshire.
tRoberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
§Roperts, W. CHANDLER, F.G.8., E.GS. Royal Mint, London, E.
*Roberts, William P. 38 Red-lion-square, London, W.C.
{Robertson, Alister Stuart, M.D., F.R.G.S. Horwich, Bolton, Lan~
cashire.
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
§Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.
tRobertson, George, C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Robertson, John. Bank, High-street, Manchester. -
tRopertson, WiLL1aM Tinpa, M.D. Nottingham.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
{Robinson, Rev. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland.
tRobinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 6 South-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
§Robinson, Hugh. Donegal-street, Belfast.
tRobinson, John. Museum, Oxford.
tRobinson, John. Atlas Works, Manchester.
tRobinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 61
Year of
Election.
1855.
1860,
1863.
1870,
1870.
1855.
1872.
1872.
1866.
1861,
1860,
1867.
1869,
1870.
1859,
1866.
1863.
1846,
1869.
1872,
1865,
1855.
1861.
1863.
1857.
1872.
1859,
1861,
1842,
1869,
1865.
1849,
1861.
1872.
1861.
1855.
1865.
1855,
18€2,
1861.
tRobinson, M. E. 116 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tRobinson, Admiral Robert Spencer. 61 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.
Rosrnson, Rey. THomas Romney, D.D., F.RS., F.RAS.,
M.R.I.A., Director of the Armagh Observatory. Armagh.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
tRobinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.
*Robson, E. R. 20 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Robson, Rev. John, M.A., D.D Ajmére Lodge, Cathkin-road,
Langside, Glasgow.
tRobson, Neil, C.E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Robson, William. 3 Palmerston-road, Grange, Edinburgh.
§RopwELL, Grorce F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Natural
Philosophy at Guy’s Hospital. Marlborough College, Wiltshire.
tRoe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
§Rorr, Joun, F.G.S. 7 Queen-street, Lancaster.
tRoarers, James E. Toorop, Professor of Economic Science and
Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, Oxford.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee. ;
*Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 34 Paul-street, Exeter.
tRogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.
TRouieston, Groras, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Ana-
iy and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park,
ord.
pRelpy aaorEe Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London,
tRomilly, Edward. 14 Hyde Park-terrace, London, W.
tRonalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clark Samuel, F.G.S., F.L.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
tRoper, R. 8., F.G.S. Cwmbrae Iron Worls, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Roscor, Henry Enrictp, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
tRosgr, C. B., F.G.8. 25 Kine-street, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk.
tRoseby, John. Haverholme House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.
tRoss, David, LL.D. Drumbrain Cottage, Newbliss, Ireland.
§Ross, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.
*Ross, Thomas. 7 Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square, London, W.
Ross, William. Pendleton, Manchester.
*Rossz, The Right Hon. The Earl of, D.C.L., F.R.S., F-R.A.S. Birr
Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland; and 32 Lowndes-square, London,
*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
§Round, Daniel G. Hange Colliery, near Tipton, Staffordshire.
tRouth, Edward J., M.A. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
*Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India (care of King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, London).
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
{Rowand Alexander.
§Rowe, Rey. John. Load Vicarage, Landport, Somerset.
*Rowney, THomas H., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway. Palmyra-crescent, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. Leeds.
tRowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godalming,
Cg Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester,
62
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1869.
1856,
1873.
1847,
1857,
1865.
1859,
1852.
1863.
1852,
1862.
1865.
1871.
1871.
1865.
1853.
1861.
1865.
1871.
1866.
1848,
1857,
1873.
18658.
1872.
1842,
1861.
1867.
1870.
1861.
1857.
1872.
1871.
1872.
§Rudler, F. W,, F.G,S. . 6 Pond-street, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tRumsay, Henry Wildbore. Gloucester Lodge, Cheltenham, :
§Rushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford.
{Rusxry, Joun, M.A.; F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
tRussell, Rev. C. W., D.D. Maynooth College.
{Russell, James, M.D, 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
{Russeit, The Right Hon. Jonny, Earl, K.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 87
Chesham-place, Belgrave-square, London, 8.W.
Russell, John. 15 Middle Gardiner’s-street, Dublin.
Russevt, Jonn Scott, M.A., F.R.S.L.& BE. Sydenham; and
5 Westminster Chambers, London, 8.W.
*Russell, Norman Scott. 5 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
tRussell, Robert. Gosforth Colliery, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*RussELL, Witu1aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, St.
Bartholomew’s Medical College. 84 Upper Hamilton-terrace,
St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. .
§RusseLt, W. H. L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon~
don, N.
tRust, Rey. James, M.A. Manse of Slains, Ellon, N.B. .
§RurHERrForD, WitiiAM, M.D., Professor of Physiology in King’s
Colleze. 12 Upper Berkeley-street, W.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
{ Ruttledge, T. L.
*Ryland, Arthur. The Linthurst Hill, Broomsgrove, Worcestershire.
tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
{Rylands, Joseph.
*Ryanps, THoMmas GLAzEBROOK, F.LS., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
*Sanine, General Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS.,
FE.R.AAS., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 18 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.
tSabine, Robert. Auckland House, Willesden-lane, London, N.W.
§Sadler, Samuel Camperdowne. Purton Court, Wiltshire.
*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham,
{St. Davis, The Right Rev. Connor Turriwatt, D.D., F.G.8.,
Lord Bishop of. Abergwili, Carmarthen.
Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland.
{Satmon, Rey. Groner, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
*Satomons, Sir Davin, Bart. Broom-hill, Tunbridge Wells.
*Saxt, Sir Titus, Bart. Crow-Nest, Lightcliffe, near Halifax.
tSatvin, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 32 The Grove, Boltons,
London, S.W.
Sambrooke, T. G, 32 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
{Samuelson, Edward. Roby, near Liverpool.
{SamveEtson, Jamus. St. Domingo-grove, Everton, Liverpool,
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.
tSanders, Gilbert. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin,
tSanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.
*Sanpers, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.8. Hanbury Lodge, The Avenue,
Clifton, Bristol.
tSanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh. :
§SanpErson, J. §. Burpon, M.D., F.R.S, 49 Queen Anne-street,
London, W. -
LIST OF MEMBERS, 63
Year of
Election.
1872, Sandes, Thomas, A.B, Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co, Kerry.
1864, {Sandford, William, 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
1854, {Sandon,The RightHon, Lord, M.P. 39Gloucester-square, London, W,
1873.
1865,
1861.
1868,
1846,
1864,
1860.
1871.
1863.
1872.
1868.
1857.
1850.
1868.
1872.
1842,
1847,
1873.
1861.
1847,
1867.
1871.
1865.
1859,
1872.
1872.
1871.
1857.
1861.
1864.
1858.
1869.
1864.
1869.
1859,
1870,
1861,
1855,
§Sands, T, C, 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford.
fSargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham,
Satterfield, Joshua, Alderley Edge.
{Saul, Charles J. Smedley-lane, Cheetham-hill, Manchester,
{Saunders, A., C.E. King’s Lynn,
{Saunders, Trelawney W. India Office, London, 8.W. ;
{Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath, 1 Priory-place, Bath.
*Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
§Savage, W.D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savory, Valentine, Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
§Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
{Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
{Scallan, James Joseph, 77 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
{Scarth, Pillans, 2 James’s-place, Leith.
§Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.
{Scurncx, Rosert, Ph.D. 398 Manor-terrace, Brixton, S.W.
*Schlick, Count Benj. Quai Voltaire, Paris,
Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Scholes, T. Seddon. 10 Warwick-place, Leamington,
*Scholey, William Stephenson, M.A, Freemantle Lodge, Bath-road,
Reading,
Scuuncx, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.0.8, Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-
chester.
*Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D, Sunnyside, Upper Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, N.W.
*Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Rhodes House, near Manchester,
tScrater, Purp Lutrey, M.A, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., See. Zool,
Soc, 11 Hanover-square, London, W.
{Scorr, ArexanpErR. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
{Scott, Rey. C. G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh,
§Scorr, Major-General E. W.S., Royal Bengal Artillery. Treledan
Hall, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
{Scott, Captain Fitemaurice. Forfar Artillery.
{Scott, George, Curator of the Free Library and Museum, Brighton,
6 Western-cottages, Brighton.
§Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., CB. Sunnyside, Ealing.
{Scott, James 8. T. Monkrige, Haddingtonshire,
§Scort, Roprrt H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Meteorolo=
gical Office. 116 Victoria-street, London, 8,W.
§Scott, Rey, Robert Selkirk, D.D, 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow,
{Scott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton.
{Scott, William, Holbeck, near Leeds.
§Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
{Scott, William Robson, Ph.D. St. Leonards, Exeter,
tSearle, Francis Furlong. 5 Cathedral-yard, Exeter,
{Seaton, John Love. Hull.
{Seaton, Joseph, M.D. Halliford House, Sandbury.
*Sertny, Harry Govirr, F.L.S., F.G.8. 31 Soho-square, London,
W.; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tSeligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
*SeLwyn, Rey.CanonW11114M, M.A.,, D.D., F.R.S., Margaret Professor
of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Vine Cottage,
Cambridge,
64
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1858.
1870.
1873.
1868.
1861.
1853.
1871.
1867.
1869,
1861,
1858.
1854,
1870.
1865.
1870.
1845,
1853.
1839,
1863.
1870.
1869.
1866.
1867.
1870.
1842.
1866.
1861.
1872.
1873.
1857.
1873.
1856.
1859.
1871.
1865.
1862,
§Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
*Senior, George, F.S.S. _Rose-hill, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
*Sephton, Rev. J. 166 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
§Sewell, E., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near Leeds.
{Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich. :
Seymour, George Hicks. Stonegate, York.
*Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
Seymour, John. 21 Bootham, York.
tShackles, G. L. 6 Albion-street, Hull.
*Shaen, William. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
*Shand, James. Eliot Bank, Sydenham-hill, London, 8.E.
§Shanks, James. Den Iron Works, Arbroath, N. B.
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis. The Barnfield, Exeter.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
§Suarp, Samunrt, F.G.S.,F.8.A. Dallington Hall,near Northampton.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S._ Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire,
Suarpey, Wrii1aM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy and Physiology in University College. Lawnbank,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Shaw, Bentley. Woodfield House, Huddersfield.
*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man.
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
{Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.
{Shaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincolnshire,
{Shaw, Norton, M.D. St. Croix, West Indies.
Shepard, John. 41 Drewton-street, Manningham-road, Bradford.
{Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
§Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rev. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth,
Hants.
{Sherard, Rev. 8. H. Newton Abbot, Devon.
{Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
§Shinn, William C, (Assistant GENERAL TreasurER). Her Ma-
jesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane, London, E.C.
*Shoolbred, James N., C.E., F.G.S. 3 York-buildings, Dale-street,
Liverpool.
Shuttleworth, John. Wilton Polygon, Cheetham-hill, Manchester.
{Srpson, Francis, M.D., F.R.S. 59 Brook-street, London, W.
*Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street, Manchester.
*Sidebottom, Robert. Mersey Bank, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
§Sidewick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.
{Sidney, Frederick John, LL.D., M.R.LA. 19 Herbert-street,
Dublin.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander, 8 Park-street, Westminster, S.W.
ge atctabd CO, Wrt11am, D.C.L., F.R.S. 8 Park-street, Westminster,
*Sitlar, Zechaviah, M.D. Bath House, Laurie Park, Sydenham, Lon-
don, 8.E.
{Sim, J ohn. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
§Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.
tSimms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 65
Year of
Election.
1852.
1847,
1866.
1871.
1867.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1859.
1834.
1870.
1864,
1865,
1870.
1873.
1870.
1842.
1853.
1849,
1849,
1860.
1872.
1867.
1858.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1857,
1872.
1873.
1865.
1859.
1865.
1866.
1855.
1855,
1860.
1865,
1870.
1873.
1853.
{Simms, William. Albion-place, Belfast.
{Simon, John, D.C.L., F.R.S. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.
{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
*Stupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Simpson, John. Marykirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgetield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Smrpson, MaxweE tt, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Cork.
*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Greaves House, near Lancaster.
Simpson, Thomas. Blake-street, York.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
tSinclair, Alexander. 133 George-street, Edinburgh.
tSinelair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Sinclair, W. P. 32 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Sircar, Baboo Mohendro Lall, M.D. 1344 San Kany, Tollah-street,
Calcutta, per Messrs. Harrenden & Co., 3 Chapel-place, Poultry,
London, H.C.
§Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
ҤSladen, Walter Percy, F.G.S. Exley House, near Halifax,
§Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Slater, W.B. 28 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
*Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tSleddon, Francis. 2 Kingston-terrace, Hull.
§Sloper, George Edgar. Devizes.
{Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.
§Sloper, 8. Elgar. Winterton, near Southampton.
tSmale, John, Chief Justice of Hong Kone.
tSmall, David. Gray House, Dundee.
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
{Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.
couath, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
swrey.
{Smith, Aquila, M.D., M.R.I.A. 121 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead-
heath, London, N.W.
§Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
§Smrru, Davin, F.R.A.S. 4 Cherry-street, Birmingham.
§Sairu, Epwarp, M.D., LL.B., F.R.S. 140 Harley-street, London, W.
tSmith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.
*Smith, F.C.,M.P. Bank, Nottingham.
Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
{Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
*Smiru, Rey. Grorce Sipney, D.D., M.R.LA., Professor of Biblical
Greek in the University of Dublin. Riverland Glebe, Omagh,
Treland.
*SmiTu, Henry Joun Srepuen, M.A.,, F.R.S., F.C.S., Saviliaa Pro-
fessor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. 64 St. Giles’s,
Oxford.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 2 Portugal-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
{Smith, Isaac.
{Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
§Smith, James. Liverpool. ,
{Smith, John. York City and County Bank, Malton, Yorkshire,
FE
66
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871,
1867.
1852,
1860,
1837.
1847,
1870.
1866.
1873,
1867.
1867.
1859.
1852.
1857,
1871.
1850.
1870.
1870.
1857.
1868.
1864.
1854,
1853,
1859.
1865.
1859,
1856.
1863.
1863.
1859,
1869.
1854,
1861.
1861.
1863,
*Smith, John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 7 West Maitland-street,
dinburgh,
*Smith, John P., C.E. 67 Renfield-street, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George, Spring Bank, Anfield, Liverpool.
*Smith, Rev. Joseph Denham. Bellevue, Blackrock, Co, Dublin.
*Smith, Philip, B.A. 26 South-hill-park, Hampstead, London,
N.W
*Smith, Protheroe, M.D, 42 Park-stveet, Grosvenor-square, London,
W.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
§Saaru, Ropert ANGUS, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.8S. 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.
*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
§Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C,
§Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Smith, Thomas (Sheriff). Dundee.
tSmith, Thomas. Pole Park Works, Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S._Hessle, near Hull.
Smith, William. ie Engine Works, Glasgow.
§Smrru, Witi1AM,C.E., F.G.S.,F.R.G.S, 18 Salisbury-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
{Smith, William Robertson. Aberdeen.
*SmytTu, CuHarzes Prazz, F.RS. L. & E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer
Royal for Scotland, Professor of Practical Astronomy in the
University of Edinburgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Hdinburgh,
§Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Calcutta.
t{Smyth, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
*Suytu, J ei jun., M.A., M.LC.E.L., F.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge,
Ireland.
{Smyth, Rey. J. D. Hurst. 13 gece St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Suyru, Wartneron W., M.A., I.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S8., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral ee of the Crown. 92 Inverness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
{Smythe, Colonel W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Bombay.
Soden, John, Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
{Sollitt, J. D., Head Master of the Grammar School, Hull.
*Sotty, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Sandcotes, near
Poole.
*Sopwitn, Tuomas, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 103 Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8.W.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
*Sorsy, H. Currron, F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
*Southall, John Tertius. Leominster.
tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
{Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.
{Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
*Spark, H. King. Greenbank, Darlington.
tSpence, Rey. James, D.D. 6 Clapton-square, London, N.E,
*Spence, Joseph. 60 Holgate Hill, York.
*Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.
§Spence, Peter. Pendleton Alum Works, Newton Heath; and Smedley
Hall, near Manchester.
{Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8. W,
*Spencer, Joseph, Bute House, Old Trafford, Manchester.
*Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co, Durham.
LIST OF MEMBERS, G7
Year of
Election.
1855.
1871.
1864,
1864.
1847,
1868,
1864.
1846,
1864.
1854.
1853.
1858.
1851.
1865.
1837,
1866.
1873.
1857.
1870.
1863.
1873.
1861.
1872.
1861.
1863.
1872.
1870.
1861.
1863.
1850.
1868.
1863.
1855.
1864,
1856,
1847.
1867.
1868.
1867.
1865,
1864.
{Spens, William. 78 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
TSpicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax.
*Spicer, Henry, jun., F.L.S.,F.G.8, 22 Highbury-crescent; and 19 New
Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C.
§Spicer, William R, 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C.
*Spiers, Richard James, F.S.A. Huntercombe, Oxford.
“Spiller, Edmund Pim. 38 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
*Sprtter, Jonny, F.C.S. 35 Grosvenor-road, Highbury-new-park,
London, N.
*SportiswoopE, WitLiAM, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AAS., F.R.G.S,
(GENERAL TREASURER). 80 Grosyenor-place, London, 8.W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 50 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
*Sprague, Thomas Bond. 6 Buckingham-terrace, Hdinburgh.
{Spratt, Joseph James. West-parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.8. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.
*Stainton, Henry T., F.R.S., Sec.L.8,, F.G.S. Mountsfield,
Lewisham, 8.E,
*Stainton, James Joseph, F.L.S. Horsell, near Ripley, Surrey.
§SranrorD, Epwarp OC, C. Kdinbarnet, Dumbartonshire, N.B,
Staniforth, Rev. Thos. Storrs, Windermere. .
SranteEy, The Very Rev, AntHUR PENRHYN, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster, The Deanery, Westminster, London, 8.W.
Stapleton, H. M. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin,
{Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham,
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshive,
*Stead, Charles, The Knoll, Baildon, near Leeds.
{Steale, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin.
{Stearn, C.H. 38 Elden-terrace, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
§Steele, Rey. Dr. 2 Bathwick-terrace, Bath.
§Steinthal, G.A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford.
{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.
Srennouse, Jonn, LL.D,, F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Pens
tonyille, London, N.
tStennett, Mrs. Eliza, 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton,
*Stern, S.J. Littlegrove, Kast Barnet, Herts.
§Sterriker, John. Driffield.
§Sterry, William. Union Club, Pall Mall, London, 5. W.
*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria, Wylye, near Heytesbury, Bath.
saeco Henry, F.S,A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London,
*Stevenson, Archibald. 2 Wellington-crescent, South Shields,
{Stevenson, David. 8 Forth-street, Edinburgh.
{Stevenson, Henry, F.L.8S. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
*STEVENSON, JAMES C.,M.P. Westoe, South Shields.
{Srewart, Bavrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester.
tSrewarr, Cuares, F.L.S. 19 Princess-square, Plymouth.
*Stewart, Henry Hutchinson, M.D., M.R.LA. 75 Kcecles-street,
Dublin. 7
{Stewart, Robert, M.D. The Asylum, Belfast.
tStirling, Dr. D, Perth.
{Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Stirrup, Mark. 14 Atkinson-street, Deangate, Manchester.
*Stock, Joseph 8. Showell Green, Spark Hill, near Birmingham,
Stoddart, George.
§Sroppart, WiLLIAMW ALTER, F°.G.S., F.C.S. 7 King-square, Bristol,
F2
G8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1854,
1862.
1859.
1857.
1861.
1854.
1873.
18687.
185°).
1871.
1863.
1868,
1859.
1867.
1866.
1872.
1864,
1873.
1857.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1862.
1855.
1865.
- 1861.
1862,
1862.
1870.
1863.
- 1873.
1863.
1873.
1847.
1862.
1847,
{Stoess, Le ‘Chevalier, Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxkes, GEORGE Gabriet, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., See. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambrdge. Lens-
field Cottage, Lensfield-road, Cambridge.
{Stronr, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal
at the Cape of Good Hope. Cape Town.
{Stone, Dr. William H. 13 Vigo-street, London, W.
{Sronry, Brnpon B., M.R.I.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin, 42
Wellington-road, Dublin.
*Sronry, Georcr JounsTons, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. Weston House, Dundrum, Co.
Dublin.
{Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.
§Storr, William. The ‘ Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, E.C.
tSrorrar, Joun, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Story, James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
*Srracuny, Major-General Ricuarp, R.E., K.CS.L, FRS.,
F.R.G.S., F-LS., F.G.8. The Rectory House, Clapham Com-
mon, London, 8. W.
{Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham,
tSrraner, Lieut.-Colonel A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. India
Stores, Belvedere-road, Lambeth, London, S.E.
*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland.
Strickland, William. French-park, Roscommon, Ireland.
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Srrurt, The Hon. Arruur, F.G.S. Milford House, Derby.
*Stuart, Edward A. Sudbury-hill, Harrow.
{Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
§Style, George, M.A. Giggleswick School, Yorkshire.
{Surzirvan, Wiru1aM K., Ph.D., M.R.LA. Royal College of Science
for Ireland; and 53 Upper Leeson-road, Dublin.
§Sutclitfe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford.
§Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds. f
{Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*SuUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WiiuiAM, Duke of, RG,
F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8.W.
tSutton, Edwin.
§Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank. Plain, Norwich.
*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkaldy, N.B.
*Sway, Witi1aM, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in = University of St. Andrews. 2 Hope-street, St. Andrews,
N.B.
*Swann, Rey. S. Kirke. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop, Mansfield,
Nottinghamshire.
Sweetman, Walter, M.A.,M.R.I.A. 4Mountjoy-square North, Dublin,
*Swinburn, Sir John. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-'Tyne.
{Swindell, J. 8. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
{Swrynor, Ropert, F.R.G.8, 33 Oakley-square, 8. W.; and Oriental
Club, London, W.
§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton.
tSykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
{Sykes, Captain W. H. F, 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London. W.
Syivester, James Josepy, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. 60 Maddox-street,
W.; and Atheneum Club, London, 8. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, GY
Year of
Election,
1870.
1856.
1859.
1860,
1859,
1855.
1872
1865,
1871.
1867.
§Symes, Ricuarp Guascort, f.G.8., Geological Survey of Ireland,
14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Symonds, Frederick, F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N, 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
pSxaonns, Rey. W.8.,M.A.,F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcestershire.
§Symons, G. J., Sec. M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, N.W.
*Symons, WixL11AM, F'.C.8. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
§Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S,A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W.
tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N. B.
tTarr, Perrr GuTurt, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
the University of Edinburgh, 17 Drummond-place, Edinbureh.
{Tait,P. M., F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Talbot, William Hawkshead. Hartwood Hall, Chorley, Lancashire.
TaxLpot, WitL1aAM Henry Fox, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.L.S. La-
cock Abbey, near Chippenham.
Taprell, William. 7 Westhourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
tTarbottom, Marrott Ogle, M.LC.E., F.G.S. Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham,
. *Tarratt, Henry W. Bushbury Lodge, Leamington.
{Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S. Sandford-place, Cheltenham,
*Tate, Alexander. 2 Queen’s-elms, Belfast.
tTate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.
{Tate, Norman A, 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackevley-street, Liverpool.
. [Tate, Thomas.
. *Tatham, George. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
*Tawnry, Epwarp B., F.G.8. 16 Royal York-crescent, Clifton,
Bristol.
fTayler, William, F.S.A., F.S.8. 28 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
. {Taylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee,
Taylor, Frederick, Laurel-cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
*Taylor, James. Culverlands, near Reading.
*Taytor, JoHN, F.G.8. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
*Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
. tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
. §Taylor, J. E., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Mount, Ipswich.
Taylor, Captain P. Meadows, in the Service of His Highness tho
Nizam. Harold Cross, Dublin.
*Tayztor, Ricuarp, I'.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, E.C.
. §Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
*Taylor, William Edward. Millfield House, Enfield, near Accrington.
tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
{Teesdale, C.S. M. Pennsylvannia, Mxeter.
tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*TENNANT, JAMES, I.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.C.
. {Tennison, Edward King. Jildare-street Club Hous2, Dublin.
. {Thackeray, J. L, Arno Vale, Nottingham.
. {Thain, Rey. Alexander, New Machar, Aberdeen,
70
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1871,
1871.
1835,
1870.
1871.
1869.
1869.
1863.
1858.
1859.
1870.
1861.
1864,
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
§THIsELTON-Dyer, W. T., B.A., B.Sc. 10 Gloucester-road, Kew.
Thom, John, Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
tThom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashive.
§Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
tThomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
§Thomas, J, Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
*Thompson, Corden, M.D. 84 Norfolk-street, Sheffield.
tThompson, Rey. Francis. St. Giles’s, Durham.
*Thompson, Frederick. South-parade, Wakefield.
§Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York-
shire.
{THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*Thompson, Joseph. Woodlands, Fulshaw, near Manchester.
{THompson, Rev. JosrpH Hussererave, B.A. Cradley, near
Brierley-hill.
Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.
. §Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
THompson, THomas. Welton, Brough, Yorkshire.
tThompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{THomson, ALLEN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow.
tThomson, Gordon A. Bedeque House, Belfast.
Thomson, Guy. Oxford.
{Thomson, James. 82 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
’ *THomson, Professor Jamus, M.A., LL.D., C.E. The University,
Glasgow.
§THomson, Jamns, F.G.S. 276 Eglington-street, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.
*Thomson, John Millar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C.
{Thomson, M. 8 Meadow-place, Edinburgh.
§Thomson, Peter. 34 Granville-street, Glasgow.
{tThomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh,
tThomson, R. W., C.E., F.R.S.E. 3 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{THomson, THomas, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hope House, Kew, W.
*THomson, Sir Writ1am, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L, F.RS, L. & E.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.
The College, Glasgow.
§Thomson, William Burnes. 11 St. John’s-street, Edinburgh.
tThomson, W.C., M.D. 7 Domingo-vale, Everton, Liverpool.
{Tuomson, Wyvitte T.C., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Regius Professor
of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. 20 Pal-
merston-place, Edinburgh.
tThorburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
tThorburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire. *
*Thornley, 8. Gilbertstone House, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
tThornton, James. Edwalton, Nottingham.
*Thornton, Samuel. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.
{Thornton, Thomas, Dundee.
{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Suffolk Laun, Cheltenham.
§Thorp, Henry. Whalley Range, Manchester.
*TuorP, The Venerable THomas, B.D., F.G.S., Archdeacon of
Bristol. Kemerton, near Tewkesbury.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 71
Year of
Election.
1864,
1871.
1868.
1870.
1873
1873
1861.
1857.
1856.
1864.
1863,
1865.
1865.
1873.
1861.
1872.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1860.
1857,
1861.
1854.
1859.
1870.
1868.
1865.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1865,
*THorP, WILLIAM, jun., B.Sc., F.C.S. 89 Sandringham-road, Kings-
land, E.
§Tuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry,
Andersonian University, Glasgow. The College, Glasgow.
eta Colonel. 27 Lower Seymour-street, Portman-square, Lon-
on, W.
Thurnam, John, M.D. Devizes.
{Tichborne, Charles R. S., F.C.S. Apothecaries’ Hall of Ireland,
Dublin.
*Tiddeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.
§Tilghman, B.C. Philadelphia, United States.
§Timmins, Samuel. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*Tinnt, Joun A., F.R.G.S. Briarly, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Topuunter, Isaac, M.A.,F.R.S. Principal Mathematical Lecturer
St. John’s College, Cambridge. Bourne House, Cambridge.
Todhunter, J. 3 Collegze-green, Dublin.
tTombe, Rev. H. J. Ballyfree, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
¢{Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon.
*Tomiinson, Cuances, F.R.S.,F.C.8. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.
tTone, John F. Jesmond-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.
tTonks, William Henry. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
*Topham, John, A.IL.C.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.
*Topiey, WittrAm, F.G.8. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W. :
{Torrens, R. R. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Torry, Very Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
N.B.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
§Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford.
{Townsend, John. 11 Burlington-street, Bath.
t{TownsEnp, Rey. Ricuarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
t¢Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Towson, Jonn Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street,
Liverpool; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.
tTrail, Samuel, D.D., LL.D.
{Traill, William A. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 Hume-street,
Dublin.
{Tragvatr, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology, Royal College
of Science, Dublin.
{Travers, William, F.R.C.S._ 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W.
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire,
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
{Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
{Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*TREVELYAN, ArtHUR, J.P. Tyneholme, Pencaitland, N.B.
TREVELYAN, Sir WALTER CALVERLEY, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.E. F.GS.,
F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, 8.W .; Wallington,
Northumberland; and Nettlecombe, Somerset.
(2
Year of
Election.
1871.
1871.
1860.
1869.
1864.
1869.
1847.
1871,
1867.
1865.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1871.
1873.
1863.
1842,
1847,
1865.
1858.
1861.
1872.
1855.
1859.
1859,
1866.
1873.
1870.
1863.
1854.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1863.
1849,
1873.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
§TriIBE, ALFRED, F.C.S. 73 Artesian-road, Bayswater, London, W.
{TRmen, RoLanp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape
Town, Cape of Good Hope.
{Tristram, Rey. Henry Baxer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S,,F.L.S. Great-
ham Hospital, near Stockton-on-Tees,
{Troyte, C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon
{Truell, Robert. Ballyhenry, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.
Tuckett, Frederick. 4 Mortimer-street, Cavendish-square, London,
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
tTulloch, The Very Rev. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
{Turbervile, H. Pilton, Barnstaple.
{Turnsvutt, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Turnbull, Rey. J.C. 8 Bays-hill- villas, Cheltenham.
*TuRNBULL, Rev. Tuomas Situ, M.A., F.R.S., I.G.S., F.R.G.S
Blofield, Norfolk.
§Turnbull, William. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon- street, Mayfair, London, W.
*TURNER, WiruiaM, M.B., F.RS.E., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinbugh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
Twamley, Charles, F.G.8. 11 Regent’s- park-road, London, N.W.
{Twiss, Sir Tr Avers, D.C.L., F. Rs S., F.R.G.S, 19 Park-lane, Lon-
don, V
§TyLor, setee anD Burnett, F.R.S. Linden, Wellington, Somerset.
*TYNDALL, JoHN, LL.D., Ph. D., F.RS5 E.G: By Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the Royal. Institution. (PRestDENt ELECT.)
Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, London, W.
*Tysoe, John. Seedley-road, Pendleton, near Manchester.
tUpward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London,
S.W.
tUre, J ohn. 114 Montrose- -street, Glasgow.
t Urquhart, Rev, Alexander.
tUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Ireland.
§Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
§Uttley, Hiram. Burnley.
{Vale, H. H. 42 Prospect-vale, Fairfield, Liverpool.
*Vallack, Rey. Benjamin W. 8. St. Budeaus, near Plymouth.
*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.
tVandoni, le Commandeuwr Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneva.
{Varley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Fleetwood House, Beckenham, Kent. :
§Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay
Avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N. .
*VarLeEY,S. ALFRED. 66 ‘Roman-road, Holloway, eae N.
tVarley, Mrs. S. A. 66 Roman-road, Holloway, London, N }
{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
‘~Vauy ert, de Mean A., Vice- Consul for France. Tynemouth.
*Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Australia. |
7M emey, Edmund H. 16 Queen’s-gate-terrace, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
od |
fe
Year of
Election.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
1866, {Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Notting-
ham.
Vernon, George John, Lord. 82 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
eel Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
1854, *Vernon, GrorcE V., F.R.A.S. 1 Osborne-place, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
1854. *Vernon, John. Litherland Park, Litherland, Liverpocl.
1864. *Vicary, WiniraM, F.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-cresent, Exeter.
1854. *Vienoxes, Lieut.-Colonel Cuartes B., C.E., F.R.S., M.R.LA,,
F.R.AS., V.P.LC.E. 21 Duke-street, Westminster, 8, W.
1868. {Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
1856. {Vivian, Epwarp, B.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, H. Hussry, M.P., F.G.8. Park Wern, Swansea; and 27
Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
1856. §Vortcxkerr, J, Cu. Aucustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 389
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
tVose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
1860. §Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
1859. {Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1870. §Waxr, Coarxtes Stani~anp. 10 Story-sireet, Hull.
_ 1855. *Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
1873. § Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford.
1869. * Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize-park-gardens, London, N.W.
1849, §Wavkrr, Cuartes V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside Villa, Redhill,
. near Reigate.
Walker, Sir Edward S. Berry Hill, Mansfield.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1866, {Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1859. { Walker, James.
1855. {Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1842. *Walker, John. Thorncliffe, New Kenilworth-road, Leamington.
1866. samen 7” M.A., F.C.P.S., F.CS., F.G.S., F.L.S. 16 Gilly-
rate, York.
1867. “Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1866. {Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1869, *Wallker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 6 Brock-street, Bath.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1869, {Walkey, J. EK. C. Wigh-street, Exeter.
Wall, Rev. R. H., M.A. 6 Hume-street, Dublin.
1863. §WaLiace, ALFRED R., F.R.G.S. The Dell, Grays, Essex.
1859, {Wawace, Wii11aM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 3 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
1857. { Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862. [WaLuiicn, Grorce CHar es, M.D., ELS. GO Holland-road,
Kensineton, London, W.
Wallinger, Rev, William.
1862. {Waxpote, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A.,D.C.L.,M.P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W.
1857. {Walsh, Albert Jasper, F.R.C.S.I. 89 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). 1 Sir John’s Quay, Dublin.
1863, {Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.
1863. { Wanklyn, James Alfred, F.RS.E., FCS.
74
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1872.
1857.
1863.
1867.
1858.
1865.
1864.
1872.
1856.
1865.
1869.
1856.
1854.
1870.
1867.
1855.
1867.
1873.
1859.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1869.
1861.
1846.
1870.
1873.
1858.
1862.
1859.
1869.
1871.
1866,
1859,
{Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
tWard, John 8. Prospect-hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
Ward, Rey. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S,W.
{Ward, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
oe Pes William Sykes, F.C.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
eeds.
tWarden, Alexander J. Dundee.
tWardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
{Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.8. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida-vale,
London, W.
‘*Warner, Edward. 49 Grosvenor-place, London, 8.W.
*Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brighton.
}Warner, Thomas H. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
*Warren, Edward P., L.D.S. 13 Old-square, Birmingham.
{ Warren, James L.
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
¢ Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
*WATERHOUSE, JOHN, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Wellhead, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
{Waterhouse Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
tWaters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
tWatson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee.
t{ Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow.
t{ Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorn House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Warson, Henry Hoven, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors.
Watson, Hewett Cotrreryt. Thames Ditton, Surrey.
§Watson, James (Lord Provost). Glasgow.
{Warson, Joun Forsus, M.A., M.D., F.L.8. India Museum, Lon-
don, 8. W. :
t{Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
t{Watson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Watson, Thomas Donald. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C,
tWatt, Robert B. E. Ashby-avenue, Belfast.
t{Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
§Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
§Watts, William. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Piethorn, near
Rochdale.
§Watts, W. Marshall, D.Sc. Gigegleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
t{Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rev. S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
§Wavuau, Major-General Sir ANDREw Scort, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.8., late Surveyor-General of India, and Superintendent
of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. 7 Petersham-terrace,
Queen’s-gate-gardens, London, W.
}Waugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchestev.
*Waveney, Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square, London, W.
Bi J. THomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London,
W
tWay, Samuel James, Adelaide, South Australia.
tWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
*Wess, Rev. THomas Wiii1AM, M.A., FL.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
*“Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
- near Nottingham.
tWebster, John, 42 King-street, Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 75
Year of
Election,
1864, § Webster, John. Belvoir-terrace, Sneinton, Nottingham.
1862. { Webster, John Henry, M.D. Northampton.
1854. {Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
WesstEr, THomas, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S. 2 Pump-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
1845, {Wedgewood, Hensleigh. 17 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
1854, { Weightman, William Henry. Tarn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1865,
1867.
1850.
1864.
1865.
1853.
1870.
1853,
1873.
1853.
1851.
1870.
1842,
1842,
1857.
1863.
1860.
1864,
1860.
1853.
1866,
1847,
1873.
1853.
1859.
1864.
1837.
1873.
1859.
1865.
1869,
1859.
1861.
1858.
1861.
1861.
{Welch, Christopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East, London,
S.W
§Weldon, Walter. Abbey Lodge, Merton, Surrey.
tWemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Whitehaven, Cumberland.
tWesley, William Henry.
{West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
t West, Captain E.W. Bombay.
tWest, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
§West, Samuel H. 6 College-terrace West, London, N.W.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
*WesteRn, Sir T. B., Bart. Helix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.
§Westgarth, William. 8 Brunswick-gardens, Campden-hill, Lon-
don, W.
Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.
Westhead, John. Manchester.
*Westhead, Joshua Proctor Brown. Lea Castle, near Kidderminster.
*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W.
{Westmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
§ Weston, James Woods. Seedley House, Pendleton, Manchester.
§Westropp, W.H.8., M.R.IA. Lisdoondarna, Co. Clare.
fWestwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
tWheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
WHEATSTONE, Sir CHArzEs, D.C.L., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., Professor
of Experimental Philosophy in King’s College, London. 19 Park-
crescent, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
{Wheatstone, Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London.
{Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway,
London, N.
Chelle George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
ew.
{Whitaker, Charles. Milton Hill, near Hull.
*Wuiraker, WiLi1AM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.
{Wuirtr, James, F.G.S. 14 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton.
§White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.
tWuuitr, Jonn Forzes. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen,
{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
{White, Laban. Blandford, Dorset.
{White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
t{Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.
t{Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. Belmont, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
oe
16
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1855,
1871,
1866.
1852,
1870.
1857.
1863.
1870,
1865.
1860.
1852.
1855.
1857.
1861.
1859.
1873.
1872,
1869.
1873.
1859.
1872.
1870.
1861.
1864,
1861.
1857.
1871.
1870.
1869.
1850,
1857,
1863.
*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. 0. 12 Thurlow-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen-street, Rhyl.
tWhitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oalkley-terrace, Glasgow,
*WHITESIDE, JAmEs, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Lord Chief Justice of Ire-
land. 2 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
§ Whitfield, Samuel. Golden Hillock, Small Heath, Birmingham,
tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington, Morpeth.
§Whittern, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry.
*Wuirty, Joun Irwine, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., C.E. 94 Baggot-
street, Dublin.
*Whitwell, Thomas. Thornaby Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees.
*WHITWORTH, Sir JosEPH, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs,
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.
{Wuuirwortn, Rey. W. ALLEN, M.A. 185 Islington, Liverpool,
{Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harbourne, Birmingham.
{Wilde, Henry. 2 St. Ann’s-place, Manchester.
tWitper, Sir Wri11am Rosert, M.D., M.R.I.A. 1 Merrion-square
North, Dublin.
tWilkie, John. 24 Blythwood-square, Glasgow.
tWilkinson, George. ‘Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
*Wilkinson, M. A. Eason-, M.D. Greenheys, Manchester.
§ Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.
§ Wilkinson, Mrs. Robert Young. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hert-
fordshire.
§ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
§Willcock, J. W., Q.C. Cleivion, Cemmaes, Montgomeryshire.
*Willert, Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester.
tWillet, John, C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
§WitiEeTtT, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.
William, G.I’, Copley Mount, Springfield, Liverpool.
Witiiams, Cuarites James B., M.D., F.R.S. 49 Upper Brook-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 78 Park-street, London, W.
*WiLuiraMs, Sir Freprertck M., Bart., M.P., F.G.8. | Goonvrea,
Perranarworthal, Cornwall.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A. 49 Upper Brook-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
t Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
{Williams, James, M.D. The Mount, Malvern.
§WitiiaMs, Joun. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
tWitiaMs, Rey.STerHEN. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blackburn.
*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., For. Sec. R.S., F.C.S.,
Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor of
Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
London. (PRESIDENT.) 23 Fellows-road, Haverstock-hill,
London, N.W.
Williamson, Benjamin, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
tWilliamson, John. South Shields,
*Williamson, Rey, William, B.D. Datchworth Rectory, Welwyn,
Hertfordshire.
Witiiamson, Wiirtam C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowtield,
Manchester,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
Election.
Wixu1s, Rey. Roprrt,M.A., F.R.S., Jacksonian Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
5 Park-terrace, Cambridge.
*Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
tWillock, Rey. W. N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
*Wills, Alfred. 43 Queen’s-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
. ¢ Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham,
Wits, W.R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§ Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.K. North Kinmundy, Summerhill,
by Aberdeen.
{ Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
t Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
. *Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
Wilson, George. 40 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
t Wilson, George. Heron-hill, Hawick.
Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
5. {Wilson, Hugh. 76 Glassford-street, Glasgow.
}Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
§Witson, James M., M.A. Hillmorton-road, Rugby.
*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
*Wilson, John. 52 Bootham, York.
Wi11s0n, Professor Jonny, F.G.S., F.R.S.E. The University, Edin-
burgh
. *Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
*Wilson, Thomas, M.A. 3 Hilary-place, Leeds.
*Wilson, Thomas. Shotley Hall, Shotley Bridge, Northumberland.
t Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwick-green, Manchester.
TWilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland,
{ Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.
*Wilson, William Parkinson, M.A., Professor of Pure and Applied
Mathematics in the University of Melbourne.
*Wittsuire, Rey. Tuomas, M.A., F.G.S., FLAS, FRAS. 25
Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E. .
*Windley, W. Mapperley Plains, Nottingham.
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
-{Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich.
t Winter, G. EK. ted.
*Winwoon, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.8S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
*WoLLASTON, THOMAS VERNON, M.A., F.L.S. _ 1 Barnepark-terrace,
Teignmouth. :
*Wood, Collingwood L. Howlish Hall, Bishop Auckland.
tWood, C. H. Devonshire-road, Holloway.
. [Woopn, Epwanrp, J.P., F.G.S. Richmond, Yorkshire.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire,
*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Arch-street, Philadelphia, United
States.
*Wood, George S. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.
*Woop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.
*Wood, John. The Mount, York. CoRL
{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
§Wood, Samuel, F.S.A. St. Mary’s Court, Shrewsbury.
{Wood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.
tWood, Rev. Walter. lie, Fife.
Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Wood, William, M.D, 99 Harley-street, London, W,
78
Year
Electi
1872
1861.
1863,
1870,
1850.
1865,
1866.
1871.
1872.
1869.
' *Woops, Epwarp. 3 Story’s-gate, Westminster, London, 8. W.
1869,
1866,
1870.
LIST OF MEMBERS. |
of
on,
. §Wood, W. R. Carlisle-road, Brighton.
tWood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Oakham, Rutlandshire.
*W oopaLL, Major Joun Woopatt, M.A.,1.G.8. St. Nicholas House,
Scarborough.
tWoodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
*Woodd, Charles H, L., F.G.S. Roslyn, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tWoodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Edgbaston, Charlotte-road,
Birmingham.
*Woodhouse, John Thomas, C.E., F.G.S. Midland-road, Derby.
§Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.
§$Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
§Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Alphington-road, Exeter.
Woops, Samvg. 3 Copthall-buildings, Angel-court, London, E.C.
*Woodward, C. J. 4 Warwick-place, Francis-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
SW ann) Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London,
tWoodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
Woolgar, J. W., F.R.A.S. Lewes, Sussex.
Woolley, John. Staleybridge, Manchester.
. §Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
. {Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.
Worcester, The Right Rey, Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Worcester.
. *Worsley, Philip J. 1 Codrington-place, Clifton, Bristol.
. *Worthington, ees Alfred William, B.A. Old Meeting Parsonage,
Mansfield.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire,
. {Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, Hamp-
stead-road, London, N.W.
. §Wrieut, C. R. A., D.Se., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St.
Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
. {Wright, Edward, LL.D. 23 The Boltons, West Brompton, London,
8
.W.
. *Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire,
. {Wrieut, E. Percevar, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University. 5
Trinity College, Dublin.
. {Wright, G. H. Heanor Hall, near Derby.
. {Wright, J.8. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Clond, near
ristol.
. {Wrrenr, Toomas, F.S.A, 14 Sydney-street, Brompton, London,
8.W ;
Wright, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
. tWrightson, Francis, Ph.D. Ivy House, Kingsnorton.
. §Wrightson, Thomson. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.
. {Wiinsch, Edward Alfred. 3 EKaton-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
. §Wyart, Jamus, F.G.S. Peter’s Green, Bedford.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.
. *Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.
. {Wylie, Andrew, Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Year of
Election.
1871.
1862.
1865.
1867:
1855,
1870.
1868.
1871.
§Wynn, Mrs. William. Cefn, St. Asaph.
t¢Wrnnez, ARTHUR BEEVOR, F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of
India. Bombay.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster,
t Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire,
tYeaman, James. Dundee.
tYeats, John, LL.D.,F.R.G.S. Clayton-place, Peckham, London, 8. B.
*YorxkE, Colonel PuILur, E.R.S., ir R.G.S. 89 Haton-place,
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.
*Youne, Jamus, F.R.S, F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.
Young, John. Taunton, Somersetshire.
Young, John. Hope Villa, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds,
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield,
*Younge, Robert, M.D. Greystones, near Sheffield,
t Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
tYvxe, Colonel Henry, C.B. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, S.W.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871.
1857.
1868.
1866.
1870.
1872.
1861.
1857.
1846.
1868.
1864.
1861.
1864.
1871.
1873.
1870.
1855.
1872.
1866.
1862.
1872.
1870.
1845,
1846.
1842,
1848.
1861.
1872.
1856.
1842.
1866.
1861.
1872.
1870.
1852.
1866.
1871.
1862.
1872.
1864.
1868,
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tur EMPEROR or tur BRAZILS.
M. Antoine d’Abbadie.
M. D’Avesac, Mem de l'Institut de France. 42 Rue du Bac, Paris.
Captain I. Belavenetz, R.LN., F.R.LG.S., M.S.C.M.A., Superin-
tendent of the Compass Observatory, Cronstadt, Russia.
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium,
Ch. Bergeron, C.K. Lausanne, Switzerland.
Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland.
Professor Dr. T. Bolzani. Kasan, Russia.
M. Boutigny (d’Evreux). Paris.
Professor Broca. Paris.
Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.
Dr, Carus. Leipzig.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.
Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.
Signore Guido Cora.
J. M. Crafts, M.D.
Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.
Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professorof Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg.
Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples. [ Berlin.
Heinrich Dove, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Professor Dumas. Paris.
Professor Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, M.D., Secretary of the Royal
Academy, Berlin.
Dr. Eisenlohr. Carlsruhe, Baden.
Prof. A. Erman. 122 Friedrichstrasse, Berlin.
Professor Esmark. Christiania.
Professor A. Favre. Geneva.
W. de Fonvielle. Rue des Abbesse, Paris.
Professor E. Frémy. Paris.
M. Frisiani.
Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden,
Professor Paul Gervais. Museum de Paris.
Govenor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.
Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, U.S.
Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D.
Dr. Paul Giissfeldt of the University of Bonn. 33 Meckenheimer-
street, Bonn, Prussia.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.
Professor Henry. Washington, U.S.
A, Heynsius, Leyden,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 81
Year of
Election,
1872.
1861.
1842.
1867.
1662.
1862.
1866.
1861,
1873.
1868.
1856.
1856.
1872.
1846,
1857.
1871.
1871.
1869,
1867.
1867.
1862.
1846.
1848,
1855.
1864.
1856.
1866.
1864.
- 1869.
1848.
1886.
1861.
1857.
1870.
1868.
1872.
1873.
1866.
1850.
1857.
1857.
1868.
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849.
1878.
J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington.
Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.
M. Jacobi, Member of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.
Janssen, Dr. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.
Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium.
Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.
M. Khanikof. 11 Rue de Condé, Paris.
Dr. Felix Klein, Erlangen, Bavaria.
Professor Karl Koch. Berlin.
Professor A. Kolliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Palzontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Lamont. Munich.
Georges Lemoine. 19 Rue du Sommerard, Paris.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Beleium.
Professor Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. Carlsruthe, Baden.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Professor C. S. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Paris. ;
oe Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plants. Montpellier,
rance.
Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland.
Professor von Middendorff. .
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.
M. Abbé Moigno. Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. Tiflis, Russia.
Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique l'Université de Liége, Bel-
ium.
@lievalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Florence, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. The Admiralty, Leipzirger Platz, 12, Berlin.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.
M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.
Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, U.S.
Gustav Plarr. Strasburg.
Professor Felix Plateau. Place du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.
Professor L. Radlkofer. Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Professor Victor von Richter.
Baron von Richthofen, Berlin.
M. Dela Rive. Geneva.
F. Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, U.S.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersburg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.
Padre Secchi, Director of the Observatory at Rome.
Professor Carl Semper. Wurtemburg, Bavaria.
Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.
M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.
Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.
Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, U.S.
82
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1862.
1864.
1866.
1845.
1871.
1870.
1852.
1864.
1864.
1861,
1848.
1868.
1842.
1868.
1864.
1872.
J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.
Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics, Copenhagen.
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Dr. Svanbere. Stockholm.
Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Academie de St. Petersburg.
M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institut de
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.
Dr. Otto Torell. Prof. of Geology in theUniversity of Lund, Sweden.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
M. de Verneuil. Paris.
M. Le Verrier. Paris.
Professor Vogt. Geneva.
Baron Sartorius von Waltershausen. Gottingen, Hanover.
Professor Wartmann. Geneva.
Dr. H. A. Weddell. Poitiers, France.
Dr. Frederick Welwitsch.
Professor A, Wurtz. Yaris.
a
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS. 88
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Admiralty, Library of.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Institute of Mechanical
Engineers.
Midland Institute.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cainbridge Philosophical Society.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.
Dublin Geological Society.
, Royal Irish Academy.
, Royal Society of.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
— Royal Medical Society of.
, Scottish Society of Arts.
Enniskillen, Public Library.
Encineers, Institute of Civil.
Anthropological Institute.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.
Geographical Society (Royal).
Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety of.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophicas
Society.
——, Mechanics’ Institute.
Newcastle wpon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.
| Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——, Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Royal Institution.
Society.
Salford Royal Museum and Library.
Statistical Society.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
Trade, Board of (Meteorological De-
partment).
United Service Institution.
War Office, Library of the.
Wales (South) Royal Institution of.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
EUROPE.
Alten, Lapland. Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.
Altona (aie. Royal Observatory.
Sern <2... Der Kaiserlichen Ake-
demie der Wissen-
chaften.
Bik arerava Royal Academy of
Sciences,
ciety.
aVeisiaies ne University Library.
.... Royal Academy of
Scisnces.
Bonn
Brussels ..
are Silesian Patriotic So- |
Charkow...... University Library.
Copenhagen ..Royal Society of
Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia. University Library.
Frankfort ....Natural History So-
ciety.
Geneva ~.1..% Natural History So-
ciety.
Gottingen ....University Library.
Heidelberg .... University Library.
Helsingfors....University Library.
Harlem. ...... Société Hollandaise
: des Sciences.
84 LIST OF SOCIETIES AND INSTITUTIONS.
Kasan, Russia . University Library. Parignven eicscton Geographical Society,
GON ie Sara c.5 0 University Library, | —— ........ Geological Society.
Lausanne ....The Academy. es tke Royal Academy of
Leyden ...... University Library. Sciences.
Litee 2355.5 University Library. | —— ........ School vf Mines.
Isisbon Seren Academia Real des | Pulkova ...... Imperial Observatory.
Sciences. IRIN binveeS Hanke Academia dei Lyncei.
Malan ncvetee ster The Institute. Soe A Pee Collegio Romano.
Modena ...... The Italian Society of | St. Petersburg. . University Library.
SIMs sho See a [Bee ei Imperial Observatory.
Moscow ...... Society of Naturalists. | Stockholm ....Royal Academy.
Seat ORR: University Library. SMUT tery terete Royal Academy of
Vie haere University Library. Sciences.
Naplesirr sie eats Royal Academy of | Utrecht ...... University Library.
Sciences. Wientianncs con The Imperial Library.
Nicolaieff ....University Library. ANIC ranean General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
NTE tate ever eyexs The College. Calcutta ......Hindoo College.
Bombay ...... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ........ Hoogly College.
TONS oe pect ee mae sare sgn Medical College.
Soares Grant Medical Col- | Madras ...... The Observatory.
| Gor viene Sites ities | ieee i cried oe University Library.
Calcutta ...... Asiatic Society.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope ....The Observatory.
Bt, Helene Jie deen: The Observatory.
AMERICA.
Albany ..../ The Institute. | Philadelphia ..American Philosophi-
Boston. iain American Academy of eal Society.
Arts and Sciences. MOrOnto™ erase The Observatory.
Cambridge ....Harvard University | Washington ..Smithsonian Institu-
Library. tion.
New York ....Lyceum of Natural
History.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide...... The Colonial Government.
Victoria ...... The Colonial Government.
fee |
& 2 3 att oe
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THE MOON:
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10 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
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LIFE AND DEATH OF JOHN OF BARNEVELD,
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——— ee
LIVES OF THE CHIEF JUSTICES OF ENGLAND.
From tue Norman Conquest TO Tur DEATH oF Lorp TENTERDEN,
Bry LORD CAMPBELL, LL.D.
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RESULTS OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS IN INDIA.
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ES eee
HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.
From THE AposroLic TrMES To THE REFORMATION, 1517.
By J. CRAIGIE ROBERTSON, M.A.,
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HISTORY OF THE MODERN STYLES OF
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PERILS OF THE POLAR SEAS.
STORIES OF ARCTIC ADVENTURE TOLD BY A MOTHER TO HER
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THE NATURALIST IN NICARAGUA.
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DR. WM. SMITH’S ANCIENT ATLAS.
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THE LAND OF MOAB.
TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE DEAD SEA
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MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 15
PROVERBS; OR, WORDS OF HUMAN WISDOM.
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SIGNS AND WONDERS IN THE LAND OF HAM.
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16 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
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———_—__—-
HORSE-SHOEING;
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THE PERSONAL LIFE OF GEORGE GROTE,
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>
THE GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES OF THE
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——o————__-
SOCIETY IN FRANCE BEFORE THE
REVOLUTION OF 1789.
AND ON THE CAUSES WHICH LED TO THAT EVENT,
By ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE,
Member of the French Academy.
TRANSLATED BY HENRY REEVE, D.C.L.
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LETTERS, LECTURES, AND REVIEWS.
IncLUDING THE PHRONTISTERION, orn OXFORD 1n THE 19TH CENTURY.
By H. L. MANSEL, D.D.,
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Epitrp ny HENRY W. CHANDLER, M.A.,
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MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS. 19
THE LONGEVITY OF MAN; ITS FACTS AND
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AND. THE FRONTIERS or PERSIA anp TURKEY.
By LIEUT.-GEN. SIR ARTHUR CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B.
Map and Illustrations. $8vo, 18s,
———_@————
THE BENGAL FAMINE.
HOW IT WILL BE MET, - AND HOW TO PREVENT FUTURE FAMINES
IN INDIA.
BY SIR BARTLE FRERE, G.C.S.1, K.C.B, D.C.L.,
Member of the Indian Council.
With Maps. Crown 8yo. 5s.
20 MR. MURRAY’S LIST OF NEW WORKS.
THE NATIONAL MEMORIAL TO
THE PRINCE CONSORT AT KENSINGTON.
ILLUSTRATED by 24 Engravings in Line, Mezzotint, Colours, and Wood, of the Monu-
ment, its Architecture, Decorations; Sculptured Groups, Statues, Mosaics, Metal-work,
&c., designed and executed by the most eminent British artists, With Descriptive Text.
By DOYNE C. BELL.
Folio. £12 12s., or Special Copies in full morocco, £18 18s.
4
A BRIEF MEMOIR OF
THE PRINCESS CHARLOTTE OF WALES.
WITH SELECTIONS FROM HER CORRESPONDENCE AND OTHER
UNPUBLISHED PAPERS,
BY THE LADY ROSE WEIGALL.
New Edition. An Original Portrait by Stewart. Post 8vo. 8s. 6d.
ROMANO LAVO-LIL;
WORD-BOOK OF THE ROMANY, OR ENGLISH GYPSY LANGUAGE ;
With many pieces in Gypsy illustrative of the way of speaking and thinking of the
Encuisnh Gypsies; also Specimens of their Porrry, and an Account of certain
GyrsYRIEs, or places inhabited by them, &c.
By GEORGE BORROW,
Author of ‘‘ The Gypsies of Spain,” “‘ The Bible in Spain,” &c,
Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
—___——
PERSONAL RECOLLECTIONS, FROM EARLY
LIFE TO OLD AGE.
By MARY SOMERVILLE.
WITH SELECTIONS FROM HER CORRESPONDENCE.
EDITED BY HER DAUGHTER.
Fourth Thousand. Portrait. Crown 8vo. 12s.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
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